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WWagner, Dániel (zólyomi) (Breznóbánya, now Brezno, Slovakia 1800 - Budapest, 10 January 1890) – Pharmacist. He obtained a dispensing chemist diploma from the University of Pest, and he was the first to obtain a Ph.D. in chemistry on potassium from the University of Vienna, which he developed further with many of his experiments. Returning to Hungary, he was at first a pharmacist in Pozsony (now Bratislava, Slovakia) and, from 1834 in Pest. In the laboratory of his pharmacy, he developed the first chemical factory, leading later to the firm Hungaria Chemical Works (Hungaria Vegyiművek). He further improved a method for detecting arsenic, and experimented with the production of artificial mineral water. During the 1848 War of Independence, he was a counselor of health, and lecturer on health issues. As a leading pharmacist of the 1848 government, he tried to raise pharmaceutical training to the level of medical training. In Hungary, he introduced raising chemical decomposition to the level of the courts. He was a founding member of the Natural Scientific Society (Természettudományi Társulat). His works include Pharmaceutisch-medicinische Botanik…(1828); Selectus Medicamentum (1839), and The Economically Well-known Products of Hungary (Magyarországnak közgazdaságilag nevezetes termékeiről) (1844). – B: 0883, 1031, T: 7456.

Wagner, János (John) (Komárom, 18 July 1811 - Budapest, 2 January 1889) – Physician, internal pathologist. In 1835 he obtained his Medical Degree from the University of Vienna, after which he joined the Medical Faculty at the University of Budapest. From 1847, he was Professor of Diatetics, from 1848, Professor of General Pathology and Pharmacology. From 1861 to 1863, he was Professor of Internal Medicine and Surgery, and between 1841 and 1846 he was also engaged in Medical Training and was Secretary of the Medical Association, later its President from 1846 to 1862. He was one of the founders of the clinical approach in Hungary and one of the leaders of the Medical School of Pest (later to become Budapest). His works include: Dissertatio inauguralis medica de gastromalacia (1835), On infant shortage (A kisded aszályról) (1841). – B: 1730, T: 7456.

Wagner, Károly S.J. (Charles) (Zboró, now Zborov, Slovakia, 11 April 1732 - Kisszeben, 7 January 1790) – Jesuit teacher, historian and translator of literary works. In 1747, he entered the Jesuit Order in Trencsén (now Trenčín, Slovakia). Thereafter, he worked as a teacher and orator in a variety of towns. From 1773 he was Director of the National Archives in Pozsony (now Bratislava, Slovakia) and, from 1777 he worked as Curator of the University Library of Buda, where he later became Professor of Sigillography (the study of seals) and Heraldry until his retirement in 1784. He was a correspondent for the Ungarisches Magazin of Pozsony, and translated from the works of Corneille. He published important source material on the Szepesség area and County Sáros in Upper or Northern Hungary (Felvidék, then part of Historic Hungary, now Slovakia). He was also engaged in genealogical research. Several of his manuscripts are held at the National Széchényi Library. His works include Analecta Scepusii…I-IV (1774, 1778), and Diplomatarium comitatus Sarosiensis…(1780). – B: 0883, 1031, T: 7456.

Wagner, Nándor (Ferdinand) (Nagyvárad, now Oradea, Romania, 7 October 1922 - Mouka, Japan, 15 November 1997) – Sculptor and artist. He was the son of a dentist.

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Wagner studied at the Art Academy, Budapest, before and after World War II. He had three art periods: when he lived in Hungary (1945-1956), in Sweden (1956-1971), and in Japan (1972-1997) respectively. He became well-known for his novel cast stainless steel sculptures made in Sweden and Japan. He and his Japanese wife Chiyo Wagner established the TAO Research Institute of World Culture and Development, which continues to support the education of talented young artists and the promotion of Mashiko pottery. They also initiated the establishment of an Academia Humana Foundation in Hungary, which has been in operation since 1999. After the war, he created statues in Hungary: the Corpus Hungaricum; József Attila the poet; Sorrow of Mother, and the Fountain with Three Boys, among others. One of his works was honored by the British Museum. He gave courses in Art to talented students who were refused to enter universities before the 1956 Hungarian Revolution. Due to his involvement in the Revolution, and after its suppression by the Soviet army, he had to leave Hungary with his family and they emigrated to Sweden. Soon after that, he established his studio in Lund. He invented a new method to overcome the shrinkage problem of stainless steel. Eight such monuments were erected around the country, among them War Memorial for Polish Soldiers, Tranås, Fountain with four Children, and Clown. He was also active and inventive in painting and drawing. He developed a novel painting technique, which he named paper fresco. He also taught at the Art Academy of Lund. In 1969 the Wagners moved to Japan and they built a studio in Mashiko, where the Mother with Child, a terracotta piece, was created. He won a contest in creating large size art in Narita, with his work entitled: Patron Saint of Travelers (Dosojin). He also received a commission to design and construct the surrounding park. Besides sculpting, he started to paint fine aquarelles and create more ceramics, including his terracotta series Silk Road. In Mashiko, the Garden of Philosophy was also created. Its five figures: Abraham. Akhnaton (Amenhotep IV), Jesus, Buddha and Lao Tse, around the center point symbolize the founders of the major religions of the world. Three complete sets were cast, one for Japan, one for the USA, and one for Hungary. It was presented to Hungary in 1997, and was unveiled on the Gellért Hill on 18 October 2001. – B: 1031, T: 7103. →József, Attila.

Wagner, Sándor (Alexander) (Pest, 16 April 1838 - Munich, 19 January 1919) – Painter. Early in his career, he was a student of Henrik Weber. He later moved to Vienna; from 1856 to 1864, he studied under Karl von Piloty at the Academy of Art, Munich. His early works, such as Titusz Dugonics (1859, now in the Hungarian National Gallery), and Queen Isabella’s Farewell to Transylvania (Izabella királyné búcsúja Erdélytől) (1862, lithographed by himself) were created in the spirit of Romantic historical painting with dramatic depiction of self-sacrifice, and hiding in emigration. In 1866 he became a professor at the Art Academy of Munich, and his art became increasingly outward to harmonize with the spirit of the Munich Academy, even though he gladly treated Hungarian themes, especially folk life, e.g. Hussar Bravado (Huszárbravúr) and Herdsmen’s Competition at Debrecen (Debreceni Csikósverseny). His large-size panoramic painting entitled Entry of Emperor Constantine the Great (Nagy Konstatin császár bevonulása), is exhibited in Munich. He frequently visited Hungary and Italy. Another of his conservative wall-paintings is the one he prepared for the Municipal Concert Hall (Vigadó) of Pest, entitled Matthias Defeats Holubar (Mátyás legyőzi Holubárt), a reflection of the influence exerted on him by his former teacher, Karl von Piloty. Also well-known is

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his painting of Queen Elizabeth, the wife of Emperor-King Francis Joseph I. He was not an innovator, but his teaching experience was made good use of. One of his students was Pál Szinyei Merse. Wagner really entered the pages of art history with one work: Self-sacrifice of Titusz Dugonics (Dugonics Titusz önfeláldozása). Through this single work, he succeeded in expressing the heroic struggle of the Hungarian youth against the advancing Ottoman Turks. – B: 1031, 0883, T: 7456.→Dugonics, Titusz; Isabella, Queen; Mátyás I, King; Erzsébet (Elizabeth Amalia Eugenia), Queen; Szinyei Merse, Pál.

Wagon Fort of Marót – The Turkish troops captured the wagon-fort of Marót (now Pilismarót) on 15 September 1526, after a three day siege. According to contemporary records, about 25,000 people lost their lives or were taken into slavery. – B: 1230, T:7665.

Wailing Song – Planctus. A genre of poesy from the Middle Ages, a mourner song with religious content. It turns to, and praises God but the acceptance of his will is especially emphasized. This makes it different from any other wailing songs from antiquity to the Middle Ages. The wailing songs of the Christian Middle Ages are rooted in the mourning songs of the death of Jesus. The wailing songs especially flourished in the 13th century. The ‘Mary’s Ancient Hungarian Lamentation’ (Ómagyar Mária-siralom) is also from this period. Another form of lamentations enumerates the set-backs and the change of fortune of a larger community, such as the Hungarian people. It was influenced by the wailing songs attributed to the prophet Jeremiah and was especially popular in early medieval Hungary. – B: 1136, T: 3240→ Maria’s Lamentation, Old Hungarian.

Wailing Song about the Devastation Caused by the Mongol Invaders in Hungary – Planctus destructionis Regni Ungariae per Tartaros. This is the best example of medieval Hungary’s Latin poetry. An unknown religious author wrote it in 1241 or 1242 most probably in the Dalmatian Court of King Béla IV (1235-1270). It tries to show the wrongdoings that led to the country’s destruction through the dramatic events of devastation caused by the Mongol-Tartar invasion. This is the first time in Hungarian poetry that someone openly accuses the Hungarian aristocracy of their negligence. It conveys an honest agony and despair about the glorious past in view of the devastation and this only loosens up in the spirited final prayer for the end of misfortunes. – B: 1150, T: 3240.

Waldapfel, József (Joseph) Budapest, 28 October 1904 - Budapest, 15 February 1968) – He studied at the Faculty of Arts of the University of Budapest, focusing on Early Hungarian Literature. From 1949 until his death, he was Director of the Hungarian Institute of Literary History. He was active in promoting classical works. He played a major role in the publication of the Hungarian Classics (Magyar Klasszikusok) series and in launching research into Sándor (Alexander) Petőfi's and Attila József's works. He also published and wrote introductions for writings of Katona, Vörösmarty, Madách and Attila József'. At the start of his career he focused on the literature of the Renaissance, and specifically on lyrical and dramatic works. In the 1930s, he turned to comparative methods and studied the relationships between Hungarian, Polish, Serbian and Croatian literature. His Marxist views are expressed in large literary studies, such as Socialist Culture and

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Literary Heritage (Szocialista kultúra és irodalmi örökség) (1961). – B: 0883, 1257, T: 7667.

Wallachia (Havasalföld) – The land of Vlachs, in modern time Romania. Its original territory was between the southern Carpathian Mountain Range of Transylvania (Erdély) and the southern part of River Danube; a historical area in part of the present-day Romania. Earlier it was the Land of the Cumenians (Kunok). The area, together with the Barcaság region was granted to the German Order of Knights by King András II of Hungary in 1222. The Royal Deed specifically refers to the area of the ‘Blaci’, that in the 14th century became an autonomous principality under Basaraba, the ruler of Blaci. The eastern portion of the area was called Muntenia, while the western end was Oltenia. In 1369, the entire area fell into vassalage under King Lajos I (Louis the Great) of Hungary (1342-1382). After the 14th century Princes of Wallachia were either on the side of Hungarians, or sided with the Turks and, finally came under complete Turkish rule until 1857. In 1858, under the auspices of the Great Powers of Europe Wallachia and Moldavia were united into a single principality that in 1862 elected Cuza I as Reigning Prince of then Rumania, later Roumania, finally Romania. At the Berlin Congress of 1878, on the suggestion of the Hungarian Count Gyula (Julius) Andrássy, the Foreign-Minister of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, Wallachia received the name Roumania. After the Congress of Berlin, 1878, held by the Great European States, Rumania gained the status of a kingdom and ruled by kings of the Hohenzoller Dynasty.– B: 1230, 1153, T: 7103.→Vlachs; Vlach’s Bible.

Wallachia Hungarians in (Havasalföld) – King András II (Andrew, Endre) (1205-1235) organized not only the Hungarians in Moldavia, but also the Hungarians in Wallachia and Szörénység. The cities of Wallachia were founded at this time mostly by Hungarians, Pechenegs (Besenyős), Úzs and Csángós, who survived the rule of Cumanian’s rule, and also by those Cumanians, who became assimilated Hungarians. They were Christians, and under the organization of King András II, they formed a strong national and political unity in Wallachia, which made an impact on the Cumanians, south of Wallachia. They realized, that their survival would be ensured only if they became a part of the Hungarian nation. The Mongol-Tartar destruction in 1241-1242, caused a great loss in human life in Havasalföld, and from the 13th century on the remaining population was gradually influenced by the pesence of infiltrating pastoral people, the Vlachs (today Romanians) from the south. The Hungarian kings, such as Károly I (Charles Robert, Károly Róbert) (1307-1342) and Lajos I (Louis the Great) (1342-1382), supported the population by protecting their rights, but Governor János (John) Hunyadi (1446-1453) was much preoccupied fighting the Turkish menace to pay significant attention and help to their domestic problems. King Mátyás I (Matthias Corvinus) (1458-1490) also had more pressing interests elsewhere. Finally, in 1526, after the lost Battle of Mohács, the influence of the Hungarian kings over Havasalföld ceased completely. As a natural consequence, the Vlach Voivodes stripped entirely the rights of the Hungarian population, which only accelerated the pace of their Roumanization. – B: 1020, T: 7103.

Wallachian, Psalter of the Franciscan Order – A valuable Hungarian language relic, discovered by Baron Balázs Orbán in his parish church at Csikkarcfalva (now Cinta, Romania). According to a notation in the text referring to the year 1364, the Psalter was

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already in use in the middle of the 14th century. However, it is highly probable that the work dates from the middle of the 13th century. Baron Orbán reported its existence in the Székelyföld Leírása (Description of the Szeklerland), published in 1686. Written on parchment and later paginated, each stanza begins with a melodic line written on a staff of four lines in Gregorian notation, followed by the rest of the stanzas. The verses are in Gothic miniscule script of two different sizes. The first initials are often illuminated. A Hungarian hand appears to have written it. Its Hungarian origin is supported by the inclusion of four Hungarian saints: St István, St László, St Erzsébet and St Imre in its incomplete calendar. The Psalter was inspected and approved on 16 April 1667 by the Archdeacon of Csíkgyergyó and Kászonszék. The covers are damaged, thus its place of origin can only be conjectured by the notation:,”Hic obyt Alexander voyvoda transalpin(us) - Anno domini millesimo CCC-mo quarto” (Here Died Alexander, Voivode of Wallachia – in the Year of our Lord 1364). The seat of the Voivode at the time was at Hosszúmezõ (now Cimplung, Romania), where there still stands beside the Catholic Church a monastery and a chapel, all predating the year mentioned in the codex. The Franciscans’ arrival in Wallachia is mentioned in a papal breve to the Voivode Alexander, dating from this period. The Psalter is in the National Széchényi Library in Budapest. – B: 1020, T: 7614.

Wallaszky, Pál (Paul) (Bagyán 29 January 1742 - Jolsva 29 September 1824) – Literary historian. After attending the Lutheran secondary schools of Selmecbánya (now Schemnitz, Slovakia), Rimaszombat (now Rimavská Sobota, Slovakia) and Pozsony (now Bratislava, Slovakia), he studied at German Universities (Leipzig, Halle, Wittenberg). By this time he was already collecting data for his work on the history of Hungarian literature. After his return to Hungary he served as Lutheran pastor from 1769 in Tótkomlós, from 1780 in Cinkota, then from 1783 he was pastor, later dean in Jolsva. Already in Leipzig he published a Latin thesis on István Werbőczy and on the Statutes of Education in Hungary during the reign of King Mátyás I (Matthias Corvinus). His magnum opus is the Conspectus Respublicae Litteratiae in Hungaria, published in Pozsony and Leipzig in 1785. The book consists of two parts: the first part discusses Hungarian cultural standards up to the Battle of Mohács (1526), the second part covers the period to 1776. The introduction contains the first professionally written Hungarian literary history. His works were written in Latin and Czech but in a strongly Hungarian patriotic vein. He was the first author to create a systematically organized history of Hungarian literature. – B: 1150, 0942, T: 7614.

Wallenberg, Raul Gustav (Kappsta, Sweden, 4 August 1912 - Moscow, 17 July 1947 ?) – Diplomat, architect, tradesman. He came from an ancient Swedish family. He studied architecture and was involved in international trade. During World War II some 700 thousand Jews lived in Hungary, many of them from other countries who found refuge there. They were somewhat restricted but not harmed until 19 March 1944, when Hitler invaded Hungary to have a secure hinterland to his army fighting on the Eastern Front. At this time the deportation of Jews from Hungary to camps in Germany started. In July 1944, the Swedish Government sent Raul

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Wallenberg to Hungary to rescue as many Jews as he could. In a heroic rescue mission he gave thousands of ‘Schutz-Passes’ (protection letters) to Jews, thus extending Swedish diplomatic protection over them. He rescued some 100 thousand Jews, mainly from Budapest. In January 1945, while traveling to Debrecen, he disappeared without a trace. He must have been suspected to be an American spy by the Soviets, taken to Moscow and executed. Some reports said that he was still alive after 1947. A memorial was erected, a street and a society were named after him in Budapest. – B: 0950, T: 7103.

War Lord (Hadúr) – An indigenous Hungarian military figure, a character already alluded to in early chronicles. The poet Sándor Aranyrákosi-Székely in his short epic, The Székelys in Transylvania (The Szeklers in Transylvania), published in 1823, first used the designation. The great poet Mihály Vörösmarty later took it up and imaginatively rounded it out in his epic poem, Zalán Futása (The Flight of Zalán), and through it the expression became widely known. The figure is represented everywhere as the Hungarians’ national war god. – B: 0942, T: 7614.

Wartha, Vince (Fiume, 17 July 1844 - Budapest, 20 July 1914) – Chemist. After completing the high school at Szeged, he studied at the Joseph Polytechnic of Buda, then in Zürich, Switzerland, where in 1864 he received a technical chemist diploma. On returning to Hungary, at first he was a demonstrator in the Budapest Polytechnic, but by 1865 he was already an assistant lecturer at Heidelberg, Germany, where in the Ruperto Carola University he received his Ph.D. During 1865-1867 he was again a demonstrator in Zürich, later an honorary lecturer (privatdozent). After Hungary’s compromise with the Habsburgs in 1867, he was appointed Professor at the Budapest Polytechnic, where he organized the industrial chemistry chair, whose foundation professor he became in 1870. Later, on several occasions he was appointed dean and twice vice chancellor. By invitation he became a member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences in 1873. He reorganized the chemical faculty of the Polytechnic in 1882. He was president of the Natural Science Society during 1899-1910, as well as that of the Hungarian Tourist Club in 1899-1902, following Baron Lóránd Eötvös in that position. He retired in 1912. He produced something of permanent value in several fields of his discipline. By analyzing the various types of coal in Hungary, he was the first to determine which types would be suitable for gas production. He also analyzed industrial waters and drinking water. His method for determining the degree of alkalinity of water is still used worldwide. Among several of his inventions one is particular note: the deciphering, in 1892, of the manufacturing secret, sought for centuries, of the glaze with metallic luster of the Gubbio majolica, Italy. With this manufacturing method for the enamel coating, which he named eozin-glaze he enabled the Zsolnay Porcelain Works of Pécs to achieve world recognition. In 1904, commissioned by the Hungarian state he reorganized the Herend Porcelain Plants. As a well-known expert in the ceramic industry, he took active part in Faenza (Italy, famous for its majolica) in the foundation of the ceramics museum the Museo Internazionale delle Ceramiche. He wrote nearly 700 papers and participated in the editing of several professional journals. In his memory the Hungarian Chemists’ Society instituted the Vince Wartha memorial medal in 1955. – B: 0883, 1123, T: 7456.

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Warsaw Treaty, The (or Warsaw Pact: Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance,) (1955–1991) – It was formed between eight Communist states in Eastern Europe, established at the Szoviet Union’s initiative and realized during 11-14 May 1955, in Warsaw, Poland. On the one hand, the The Warsaw Treaty was the Soviet Bloc’s military response to West Germany’s May 1955 integration with NATO Pact in 1954; on the other hand, on 15 May 1955, the foreign ministers of the USA, France, Great Britain and the Soviet Union signed the Austrian State Agreement and they declared Austria's neutrality, which became effective on 27 July 1955. After this date and according to the Yalta Agreement in 1945, the Soviet Union was supposed to withdraw its occupying forces from Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary and the German Democratic Republic (GDR, East Germany). The eight member-countries of the Warsaw Treaty (Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, GDR- East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania and the Soviet Union) pledged the mutual defense of any member who is attacked; relations among the treaty signatories were based on mutual non-interference in the internal affairs of the member countries, respect for national sovereignty, and political independence. The multi-national Communist armed forces’ sole joint action was the Warsaw Treaty involvement in the Czechoslovakian crisis in August 1968. All member countries, with the exception of Romania, participated in the invasion. The Warsaw Treaty’s organization was two-fold: the Political Consultative Committee handled civil matters, and the Unified Command of Pact Armed Forces controlled the assigned multi-national forces, with headquarters in Warsaw, Poland. Furthermore, the Supreme Commander of the Warsaw Treaty forces also was the First Deputy Minister of Defense of the Soviet Union. Therefore, although ostensibly an international collective security alliance, the Soviet Union dominated the Warsaw Pact armed forces, as the USA dominated NATO Pact. Among the documents published is the Warsaw Treaty 's nuclear war plan, Seven Days to the River Rhine – a short, sharp, shock capturing Western Europe, using no nuclear weapons, in self defense, after a NATO strike. In Prague on 1 July 1991, the Czechoslovak President, Václáv Havel (1989–1992), formally ended the Warsaw Treaty after 36 years of military alliance with the Soviet Union. Five months later, the USSR disestablished itself in December 1991. – B: 1031, 1231, T: 7103.

Washington, George, Ancestry of (Bridges Creek, VA, USA, 22 February 1732 - Mount Vernon, VA, USA, 14 December 1799) – First president of USA. In 1016, Edmund II (Ironside), King of England lost the battle against Canute, the Commander of the Danish Army, who thereafter became king not only of Denmark, but also of England and Norway. Edmund II died soon afterwards and his two sons, Edmund and Edward were forced to flee. According to the medieval chroniclers, Ordericus Vitalis and John Fordun, the two exiled princes settled in Hungary, where Edmund, the crown prince died. John of Fordun (died 1384), Scottish chronicler, stated in one of his historical works, that the younger Prince Edward had married Agatha, one of the relatives of the Hungarian King István I (St. Stephen) (997-1038). From their marriage three children were born: Edgar, Margaret (the subsequent Scottish Queen, St Margaret of Scotland, who married Malcolm III) and Christina, who became a nun. The family stepped on English soil again in 1057, after the Norman Conquest. David Hume, Scottish philosopher and historian, stated a similar account of what happened to Edmund II and his descendants. Agatha is being venerated by English Catholics as the Blessed. In contrast, Margaret, the Scottish King’s Malcolm III’s

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wife and Queen of Scotland was born English-Hungarian. Their daughter Edith Matilda became the wife of Henry I, by which marriage the Anglo-Saxon, Hungarian, Scottish and Norman royal houses became united. A descendant of Henry I and Edith Matilda, centuries later, was Margaret Butler, who on 3 August 1588 married Lawrence Washington, an ancestor of George Washington, the first president of United States. – B: 1020,T: 7456.

Wass, Count Albert (Szentegyedi és Czegei) (Válaszút, Transylvania, now Răscruci, Romania, January 1908 - Astor, Florida, USA, 17 February 1998) – Writer, poet, journalist, publisher. He completed his secondary school education in Kolozsvár (now Cluj-Napoca, Romania). Later, he graduated from the Agricultural College in Debrecen. He studied forestry and horticulture in Germany and France, and then returned to manage his estates in Transylvania (Erdély, in Romania since 1920). He wrote poetry, short stories and articles that were published in journals and in Transylvanian weekly papers. His first book was published in Kolozsvár in 1928, under the title Flower Burial (Virágtemetés). He was a founding member of the Transylvanian Fine Arts Guild (Erdélyi Szépmíves Céh). He moved to Western Europe at the end of 1944. For a while he lived in Hamburg, Germany, then in 1952, he emigrated to the United States. In Romania, he was condemned as war criminal, but in US court none of the accusations against him prevailed. Between 1957 and 1973, he was Professor of German, French and European Literary History at the University of Florida in Gainesville. In 1962, he founded the American Hungarian Fine Arts Guild (Amerikai Magyar Szépmíveas Céh) and organized its scientific activities and publishing programs, edited its Newsletter (Értesitő), as well as its review publication, the Transylvanian Quarterly. He played a leading role in the activities of the Transylvanian World Federation and edited the journal Hungarians of Transylvania (Erdélyi Magyarság). In 1970, he founded the Danubian Press Publishing Company, of which he was President. Several literary societies made him a member. He was President of the International Kiwanis Club. 37 volumes of his works were published up to 1989, mostly novels and novelettes. In his writings Wass he most effectively immortalized the atmosphere of the Transylvanian countryside. He also wrote poetry, short stories and plays in a lyric vein. Most of his writings are in Hungarian, but he published a few works in English as well. His novels were published in high print-runs and in many editions. His most notable work is the novel Wolf Pit (Farkasverem), first published in Kolozsvár in 1934, which had many subsequent reprints. The other outstanding masterpiece of Wass is the The Witch of Funtinel (Funtineli boszorkány), first published in 1952, then in German in 1953, then again in Hungarian in 1976. This great story about patriotism and longing for the homeland has extraordinarily beautiful descriptions of landscape, and a riveting story line. An other most popular novel of his is entitled Sword and Sieckle (Kard és kasza), in which he overviewed the Hungarian history and his own family history. His novel: Give me back my Mountains! (Adjátok vissza a hegyeimet!) is also growing in popularity. Before 1990, mostly Hungarian émigré papers published his articles, and some of his English writings appeared in foreign publications. It

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was only after his death that he became recognized in Hungary, and overnight became a most popular Transylvanian Hungarian author. – B: 1020, 1031, 1257, T: 7617.

Wass, Count Sámuel (Kolozsvár, now Cluj-Napoca, Romania, 13 January 1814 - Budapest, 20 March 1879) – Writer of travels, economist. He completed his education in the Austrian Imperial College and in the Lyceum of Kolozsvár, mastered several languages (Romanian, German, French and Latin). After his Lyceum studies he went on extended travels abroad, on which he reported in travel-notes. From 1833 he worked as a public servant. During the 1848-1849 War of Independence from Habsburg rule, he became personal diplomatic envoy of the revolutionary leader and patriot, Lajos (Louis) Kossuth in order to acquire weapons for the Hungarian insurgent army. Count Wass traveled to Istanbul, then to Paris and London and finally to the USA. He purchased at his own expense tens of thousand bayoneted rifles and sent them by ship to the port of the Kingdom of Hungary: Fiume (now Rijeka in Croatia), where it promptly became the booty of the Austrian Habsburg authorities. Learning about the collapse of the War of Independence while he was still in the USA, he found himself in exile. In San Francisco, with the assistance of several of his friends, he founded a gold-smelting and processing plant. His firm earned such good reputation, that he received an order for minting 5, 10, 20 and 50 dollar coins. However, at the end of the 1850s, with the abating of the gold fever, the plant closed down. In 1858, he returned to Hungary and published his overseas experiences in a two-volume work. From 1861 he was a member of the House of Estates of Parliament, took part in the founding of the Land-Bank and he especially pressed for more and more industrial enterprises. – B: 0883, 1604, T: 7456.→Kossuth, Lajos; Freedom Fight of 1848-1849.

Watchmaker's Trade in Hungary – The first data referring to the Hungarian watchmaker’s trade are from the 14-15th centuries. From this era only the names of horologists (watch and clock repairers) of northern Hungary (Upland, now Slovakia) and Transylvania (now in Romania) are still extant, the nature of their activities is unknown. It was about at that time that the first, small-sized tower (or town) clocks appeared, though they were a great rarity then and occurred only in royal and aristocratic courts, or in the property of rich burghers of towns and church dignitaries. Their concentration in trade guilds within the historic Kingdom of Hungary first took place around the turn of the 16/17th centuries: in 1571 in Pozsony (now Bratislava, Slovakia), in 1585 in Szepsi (now Moldavia) and Bodvou in Slovakia, in 1608 in Sárospatak and in 1639 in Kismarton (now Eisenstadt, in Austria). From the areas of the Kingdom of Hungary under Ottoman Turkish occupation for 150 years, the masters of watchmaking found it necessary and advisable to emigrate to safer areas (the remaining Christian parts of the kingdom). After the Ottoman Turks had been forced out of Hungary, during the feverish resettlement era to repopulate devastated areas of the kingdom, many settlers came from abroad, mainly from Germany, amongst them watchmakers as well, who played an important role in the Hungarian watchmakers trade in the subsequent much improved conditions, in the ensuing long period of peace (the later part of the 18th century). Watchmaker's guilds were formed first in Pest in 1701, then in Sopron in 1776, and in Temesvár (now Timişoara, Romania) in 1815. At Szentgotthárd a pocket-watch factory was established in 1896, which was in operation until 1925. In Budapest the making of pendulum clocks began in 1905, and a factory was

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established there for the manufacture of electric and town/tower clocks, which despite several name-changes and the 1948 nationalization has survived to the present. – B: 1020, T: 7456.

Water Reverence – There are two distinct types of water reverence: (1) the honoring of water as an element, in form of wells, rivers, lakes, honored without regard to the cult of its creatures living in it. These include ancient, sacred wells and the cult of sacred rivers like the Ganges, Jordan and Nile. Based on Christian practice is the ceremony of blessing of the water. The use of sanctified water, not expressly religious but also for superstitious purposes is also included. (2) The water, honoring the home of creatures living in water, which is like the practice of more developed mythological systems. Most typical honoring of water is in Greek mythology, where all the family of the water gods are shown. The water fairies, sirens and water demons with enchanting voices belong to this group. In the religious belief of ancient Hungarians the pure spirits who dwell in sacred gardens played an important part. These are preserved in traditions of pagan past. Well known is the ‘water fairy’ of Hungarian folk tales. – B: 1078, T: 7682. Wathay, Ferenc (Francis) (Vathay) (Nagyvág, 24 September 1568 - ? after 1606) – Fighting man of the marches, painter and song writer. His father, Lőrinc (Lawrence) Vathay, was Captain of the Fortress of Csesznek. Wathay went to school in Németújvár (now Güssing, Austria) and Sopron. From 1584, at age 16, he was already in the army. In 1602, at the age of 34, he was Vice-Captain of Székesfehérvár when, because of the mass-desertion of the Hajdú soldiers, he became wounded and fell into Turkish captivity. In Belgrade, he managed to escape from the Turks and, on his way home to Hungarian territory, he was recaptured, but he succeeded in escaping anew. However, in the region of Lippa, he fell into Turkish hands once more. He was locked up in the black tower of Constantinople. After this, his fate is not known. It was there that he wrote his self-illustrated songbook, as well as his autobiography (the latter written in February 1605). He was author of the work: History of the Loss of Székesfejérvár 1603 (Székesfejérvár veszésérül való história 1603) (1959). – B: 0883, T: 7456.→Hajdús.

Weber, Henrik (Henry) (Pest, 24 May 1818 - Pest, 14 May 1866) – Painter. He was a student of T. Kaerling in Pest; he continued his studies at the Academy of Art in Vienna under L. Kupelwieser and J.N. Ender. He lived from tutoring and lithographing for years. Toward the end of the 1930s, he made an appearance with scenes from life, e.g. The Dressing of the Bride (A menyasszony öltöztetése), Palm Sunday (Virágvasárnap). In 1840 he went to Munich. On returning to Hungary, he painted some historic works, such as the Death of János Hunyadi (Hunyadi János halála) (1844), and King Solomon in Prison (Salamon király a börtönben) (1852). Between 1845 and 1847 he stayed in Italy, where he painted a number of vedutas (land- or cityscapes) and women in national dress. He was an outstanding portrait painter of his age, e.g. Portrait of the Composer Mihály Mosonyi and his Wife (Mosonyi Mihály zeneszerző és felesége portréja) (ca. 1840), and The Weber Family (1846). A number of the paintings and drawings of this eminent master of Hungarian Biedermeier art are held at the Hungarian National Gallery. – B: 0883, 1031, T: 7456.

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Weber, János (John) (?, 1612 - ?, 1683) – Physician, pharmacist. In 1645, he opened a chemist shop at Eperjes (now Preşov, Slovakia), as a qualified chemist. Between 1661 and 1667 he was Chief Justice of the town. In 1663, he was given a title of Hungarian nobility. He took part in the conspiracy of Wesselényi, consequently he was imprisoned from 1670 to 1675. Afterward, from 1677 to 1682, he was again Chief Justice of Eperjes. He also acted as the Doctor for the Wesselényi family, but where he received his medical qualification is unknown. His works include: Janus bifrons, seu speculum physico politicum (1662), Lectio principum (1665). – B: 1730, T: 7456.

Weichinger, Károly (Charles) (Győr, 12 October 1893 - Budapest, 25 January 1982) – Architect. He received his Degree from the Budapest Polytechnic in 1920. From 1921 to 1944 he was Professor of Architecture at the National School of Industrial Art. In 1945 he became Deputy Professor in the town-planning department at the Budapest Polytechnic; from 1946 Professor of Public Building Planning, later Head of Department until his retirement in 1969. The central subject of his scientific work was the study of esthetic considerations in architectural art and engineering constructions. He obtained his Ph.D. in Engineering, in 1976. He was a member of several international architectural juries. His plans include Elizabeth Szilágyi Girls’ Secondary School, Budapest (Szilágyi Erzsébet Leánygimnázium, Budapest) (1937); Central Town Hall of Budapest (Budapesti Központi városháza), co-authored with Róbert K. Kertész (1940); The Pauline Monastery of Mount Gellért in Budapest, (A gellérthegyi pálos kolostor, Budapest), and Architectural and Esthetical Considerations of Transportation Buildings (Közlekedési építmények építészeti és esztétikai vizsgálata), with István Hámor (1963), and Economic Considerations in the Building of Public Educational Facilities (Általános iskolák építésének gazdaságossági vizsgálata), with István Hámor (1967). He received the Kossuth Prize in 1954. – B: 0883, 1031, T: 7456.

Weiner, Leo (Budapest, 16 April 1885 - Budapest, 14 September 1960) – Composer , music educator. He received his first music and piano lessons from his brother, but soon he taught himself. He entered the Musical High School in Budapest in 1901. He studied with János (John) Koessler and completed his musical studies at the Franz Liszt Academy of Music in Budapest (1902-1906). Afterwards he took a long study tour in Vienna, Berlin, Leipzig and Paris. He taught briefly at a Music School, and he was a coach of solo singers at the Budapest Comic Opera (Vígopera). He taught at the Academy of Music from 1908 to 1957 and he continued it there even after his retirement. In 1928, he founded a chamber orchestra under his leadership, which performed without a conductor. He composed some 30 major musical works, including his first orchestral work, Carnival (Farsang) in 1907; the Hungarian Fantasy, Serenade, Op 3, a String Trio, three String Quartets, two Violin Sonatas, five Divertimenti for orchestra, a symphonic poem, numerous Chamber and Piano Pieces and the Fox Dance (Róka Tánc). He had an interest in the Hungarian folk music. Leo Weiner was one of the leading Hungarian music educators of the first half of the twentieth century. His name is attached to the training of

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Weiner and Bartók string quartets. He is credited the reputation of Hungarian musicians for their accuracy, qualities and depth of interpretation in chamber music. Weiner was a skilled composer, one of the outstanding representatives of the so-called conservative form of new Hungarian music. He received numerous awards including the Coolidge Prize, Schwunda Prize, the Volkmann Prize, the Erkel Prize, the Haynald Prize, and twice the Kossuth Prize. A music school bears his name. – B: 1031, 1197, 0883, 1153, T: 7103.

Weiss, Baron József (Joseph) (Pest, 11 April 1857 - Budapest 25 December 1922) – Prominent Hungarian industrialist. He studied at the Academy of Commerce. In 1876 he managed a German export company. When he was twenty years old, he and his brother founded the first cannery in Hungary. A second factory was established for supplying the cannery with boxes, which in 1889 expanded to produce ammunition. In 1892, he opened the first ammunition factory in Csepel (a suburb of Budapest), which was later equipped with a copper smelter foundry, rolling mill and large-scale steel-works. The factory in Csepel, the largest of the Monarchy with 30,000 employees, was dedicated exclusively to the production of war supplies during World War I. After the war, he turned to the manufacture of agricultural machinery, enamel ware, bicycles, sowing machines, and similar items. Later he founded a baize factory, an airplane plant and a plant for the production of engines. He was one of the founders and Vice President of the National Industrialist Association. From 1915, he was a Member of the Upper House of the Parliament and in 1918, he was granted the title of Baron. – B: 0883, T: 7667.

Weissmüller, Peter János (Johnny; Tarzan) (Szabadfalu, Freidorf, Temesvár (now Timişoara, Romania) 2 June 1904 - Acapulco, Mexico, 20 January 1984) – Actor, sportsman. His mother was a Hungarian and his father a German, both were Hungarian citizens. In 1907, the family emigrated to the USA, and settled in Chicago. On the advise of a doctor Johnny took up swimming and he became an athlete. He was educated at the University of Chicago. At the Olympic Games in 1924 and in 1928, he won five Gold Medals for swimming. He broke the record in each race. From 1921 to 1929, he won every free style race he entered. He was the first who swam 100 m within 1 minute. He started acting in film in 1929, and even advertised swimsuits. The real break-through came with Tarzan, the Ape Man, in 1932. This prompted a long string of sequels such as: Tarzan an his Mate (1934), Tarzan Escapes (1936), Tarzan’s Secret Treasure (1941), and Tarzan’s New York Adventure (1942). For Metro Goldwin Mayer he acted some 14 Tarzan films all of which teamed as the former University of Chicago student with Maureen O'Sullivan. He made 6 more Tarzan films for RKO, and 16 Jungle Jim TV movies for Columbia Pictures (1948). After that he retired from movies and turned to private business in Fort Lauderdale, Florida. Finally, he lived in complete seclusion in Acapulco, Mexico. In the last stage of his life, he sat in a wheelchair, with injuries as a result of a car accident. – B: 1037, T: 7103.

Weiss, Xavér Ferenc (Farncis) (Nagyszombat, now Trnava, Slovakia, 16 March 1717 - Buda, 10 January 1785) – Jesuit mathematician and astronomer. Quite early in his life he entered the Jesuit Order. From 1753 he was a professor at the University of Nagyszombat, where together with Miksa (Maximilian) Hell he established an observatory. From 1756 on he regularly published his observations. For studying youth he published a book in 1759,

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entitled: Astronomiae Physica juxta Newtoni Principia Breviarium etc. to acquaint them with the fundamentals of Newtonian and astronomical mechanics. When in 1773, the Edict of the Ruler Emperor József II (Joseph) dissolved the Jesuit Order, he was allowed to stay in his position because of the high esteem he generally enjoyed. Between 1777 and 1785, he lived and worked in Buda, as the director of the observatory there. He corresponded widely with the astronomers of his era. He especially gained distinction for his numerous and very accurate observations concerning the various phenomena about the moons of the planet Jupiter. – B: 0883, 1020, T: 7456.→Hell, Miksa.

Wekerle, Sándor Sr. (Alexander) (Mór, 14 November 1848 - Budapest, 26 August 1921) – Prime Minister of Hungary, as well as treasurer, liberal politician, the best-known financial expert of the dualism period under Emperor-King Francis Joseph (Ferenc József). He received his law degree from the University of Budapest, and from 1870, he worked as an official of the Treasury. From 1886 on, as an Undersecretary of State, he was the effective Head of the Ministry of Finance, soon to become Treasurer. The system of taxation and economic and financial reconstruction of the Habsburg dualist state were to his credit. From 1892 to 1895, he was the first middle-class Prime Minister of Hungary and during his term of office he achieved a completely balanced budget and the change-over to the gold currency system. The further separation of Church and State, by means of liberal laws in church policy, constituted Wekerle’s most important field of activity. After the political crisis of 1905, the King appointed him, as a responsible politician of the 1867 Compromise, to head a coalition government, composed of the opposition parties (1906-1910); concurrently he also headed the Ministry of Finance. During his third term as prime minister, from 20 August 1917 to 28 October 1918, he was unable to prevent the dissolution of the Habsburg Monarchy, though he kept in addition both the portfolios of the Ministry of Finance and the Ministry of the Interior. After the dismemberment of Historic Hungary, during the proletarian dictatorship, he was arrested and held hostage, but during the Counter-Revolution he was only active in the economic field. He was member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. – B: 0883, T: 7456.→Ferenc József; Wekerle Sándor Jr.

Wekerle, Sándor Jr. (Alexander) (Budapest, 26 June 1878 - Budapest, 23 December 1963) – Politician, minister of finance. He studied law at the University of Budapest and in universities abroad. Finally, he obtained a doctorate of law from the University of Budapest. From 1901 to 1906, he was an official at the Ministry of Commerce; during 1906 he lectured in financial law and economics at the College of Commerce. From 1906 to 1910 he was Member of Parliament with a program for the Constitutional Party. In 1914, he joined the Army for military service. After the war until 1922 he lectured again in financial law at the College, becoming professor in 1926. From 1927, he was a Member of Parliament in the Upper House. From 5 September 1928 until 24 August 1931, he was Minister of Finance in the Bethlen Government. From November 1943 till November 1944, he was Vice-President of the Upper House of Parliament. He published widely in the legal field. – B: 0883, T: 7456.→Wekerle Sándor Sr. Wellmann, Oszkár (Oscar) (Szászrégen, now Reghin, Romania, 8 October 1876 - Budapest, 4 May 1943) – Physician and veterinary. He obtained his medical degree from

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the University of Budapest in 1900; his veterinary degree was received from the Veterinary College in 1897. Until 1901, he was demonstrator in the Biology Department there. From 1901 to 1905, he practiced as a veterinary surgeon. In 1907, he was the first to receive veterinary doctorate in Hungary. From 1910 until 1934 he was Professor of Animal Husbandry at the Veterinary College. He was dealing with biology, biochemistry, problems of metabolism and genetics of animal husbandry. He was the first in Hungary to carry out quantitative chemical analyses on animals. His research on rachitis had considerable significance. He recognized the importance of mineral salts and vitamins, thereby strongly contributing to the development of animal husbandry in Hungary. In 1926, he elaborated the system of registration for cattle and that became the basis of the international agreements concluded in Rome in 1936. Together with József (Josedh) Marek, he published the results of his scientific research on animal experimenting in a monograph that gained international acclaim. The Turkish and Persian governments invited him to co-ordinate their organization of the livestock breeding programs. His activity heralded a new era in the history of Hungarian livestock breeding. His literary activities were also significant. His collaboration laid the foundation of the Union of European Livestock Raisers, established only after World War II in 1947. He was Member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (corresponding 1936, ordinary 1941). His works include: General Animal Husbandry, vols. i, ii (Általános állattenyésztéstan, I-II) (1921-1928), The Pathology of Rachitis (A rachitis kóroktana), with J. Marek (1932), Raising Calf (A borjú felnevelése) (1928). – B: 0883, 1562, 1730, T: 7550, 7456.

Went, István (Stephen) (Arad, now in Romania, 20 March 1899 - Debrecen, 29 May 1963) – Physician. He received his medical degree from the University of Budapest in 1923. From 1926-1927 he was on state scholarship in France, studied the albumen and lipid metabolism, and from 1927 to 1929 with a Rockefeller scholarship he was in the USA, where he studied in the Biology Department of the Harvard School of Public Health. He became Honorary Lecturer in Patho-biology in 1930. From 1932, until his death, he was Professor of Biology and Head of Department at the University of Debrecen. He received a doctorate in medicine in 1952. He dealt with biology, pathology and immunology, in particular with the pathomechanism of anaphylaxic shock, synthetic hormone-antigenes and coronary reflexes; also with the theoretical research on histaminasoprotein and its therapic application, among others. He was Corresponding Member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (1948). His works include: General Pathology (Általános kórtan), with others (1939), Biology (1946), Immono-chemistry (Immunokémia), co-authored, 1959). He was awarded the Kossuth Prize in 1957. – B: 1730, T: 7654.

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Weöres, Sándor (Alexander) (Szombathely, 22 July 1913 - Budapest, 22 January 1989) – Poet, dramatist, literary translator. He came from a military officer and farmer family. He studied at the Lutheran high school in Pápa. He published his first poem at the age of 15. At the University of Pécs he briefly studied law, then philosophy and obtained a PhD in 1938. In his mid 30s, he received the Baumgarten Award and the Baumgarten Prize, and he was able to make extensive travel in North Europe and the Far East. Later, he visited Italy, China, USA and Britain. Between 1941 and 1950 he worked as a clerk in various libraries and became a co-editor of the literary publication Our Fate (Sorsunk). From 1951 he earned his living as a freelance writer. The manifestations of his extraordinary aptitude for literary form were already present in poems. His name became well known in the literary

column of West (Nyugat). In the Soviet military occupation of Hungary, and the change of regime after World War II, evidence of political commitment was absent from his poetry; he rejected the theory and practice of Socialist Realism, and rather researched Eastern philosophy, Polynesian myths and wrote children’s nursery rhymes. In 1946 he married the poetess Amy Károlyi. From 1949 to 1964, his poetry was suppressed by the Communist Government of Hungary. A selection from his writings are: It is Cold Today (Hideg van) (1943), Praising of the Creation (A teremtés dicsérte) (1938, 1986), Alphabet of Love (A szerelem ábécéje) (1956), The Tower of Silence (A hallgatás tornya) (1956), Drowing Saturn (Merülő Saturnus) (1968), Three Sparrow with Six Eyes (Három veréb hat szemmel) (1977), Song of the Wounded Earth (A sebzett föld éneke) (1989). Between 1949 and 1956 only his literary translations and child-poetry were allowed to be published, e.g. Tuft (Bóbita) (1952). Weöres translated works from Po Csü Li, Csu Juan, Rusztaveli, Shakespeare, Santarcangeli, etc. His translating works embraced practically all fields and periods of world literature. He especially excelled in translating the works of antique masters, which he enriched with his colorful imagination and ingenuity of language. He received the Kossuth Prize and the Austrian State Prize. He is the most outstanding representative of 20th century Hungarian lyric poetry. A theater in Szombathely, a high school and a website bear his name. – B: 1031, 1257, T: 7617, 7103.

Werbőczy, István (Stephen) (Werbőcz, Verbőczy) (Verbőc? ca. 1458 - Buda, 13 October 1542) – Politician, jurist. He was educated in Hungary and also abroad: Bologna, Padua and Vienna. He worked at the Royal Chancery. He was the deputy of the County of Ugocsa to the Diret of 1498, where with his eloquence and scholarship he impressed the members. He was one of the leading figures of the political party representing the lesser nobility. In 1517 Werbőczy was appointed the guardian of the infant King Lajos II (Louis), and was sent abroad to solicit aid of the Christian world against the Turks. On his return he found the strife of parties fiercer than ever and the country in anarchy. In 1525 at the Diet of Hatvan, he delivered a reconciliatory oration which so affected the delegates that they elected him Palatine. When, in the following Diet, he was deposed, he retired from public life until the election of King János I (John) (János Szapolyai), who made him chancellor. He devoted himself to the study of jurisprudence, and the result of his labors was the

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famous and influential Opus tripartitum juris consuetudinarii inclyti regni hungariae (the Tripartitum – Triple Book - Hármaskönyv), published in 1517, which was the law-book, a collection of laws and customs in the Kingdom of Hungary (Corpus juris Hungarici) until 1848. In 1514, he actively participated in the defeat of György (George) Dózsa’s Peasant Uprising. He was one of the initiators of the Law of 1514, which spelled out that The Serfs are Tied to the Ground (Glebe adstricti, or: A jobbágyok földhözkötöttek). In 1541, he was appointed the Chief Justice of Hungary; soon afterwards he was poisoned and died. – B: 0883, 1257, 1153, T: 7103.→King Lajos II; King János I; Dózsa, György. Wesselényi, Baron Miklós Jr. (Nicholas) (Zsibó. now Jibou in Romania, 30 December 1796 - Pest, 21 April 1850) – Politician, political writer. He joined the political life as one of the organizers of the Transylvanian (Erdély) famine campaign. In 1820 he became a close friend of Count István (Stephen) Széchenyi, with whom he went on a study trip to France and England in 1821-1822. For some time he was Count Széchenyi’s leading supporter; however, from 1830 on, he started to follow a separate course. From 1830 to 1833, he was the leading organizer of the Reformist Opposition in the Diet. He tried to curb the absolutistic Habsburg rule by means of a political lawsuit. He was a popular and effective figure in the reformist diets of Hungary. In 1831, he was made an honorary Member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. It was in 1833, that his first book, On Prejudices (Balitéletekről), was published. In it he pointed out the misjudgements of the Hungarian nobility (gentry) opposing any ideas of progress and he strongly criticized the political and social conditions. In 1834 the Viennese Court had enough of his activities: in Transylvania and in Hungary separately took court actions against him. The Transylvanian lawsuit never reached the sentencing stage, while in the Hungarian lawsuit of disloyalty he was defending himself for four years. In his age he was one of the outstanding rural economists of Transylvania. The romantic aspects of his person: he was a powerful orator, great hunter, fencer, swimmer, the rescuer of hundreds during the devastating flooding of Pest by the Danube in 1838 – he was “the boatman of the flood”; all these aspects of his character left a deep impression on the public mind. Soon after the flood, on 31 January 1839, in his lawsuit he was sentenced to three years imprisonment. On 10 May 1840, he received pardon, but he left his prison almost completely blind. Until 1848 he was the sub-prefect of County Kolozs in Transylvania, but because he was blind since 1844, lived in Zsibó. The most important product of this phase in his life was his work of 1844 entitled Manifesto to the Nation Regarding the Hungarian and Slavic Nationalities (Szózat a magyar és a szláv nemzetiség ügyében), in which he drew attention to the developing Panslavism of the times. In 1848, despite the loss of his eyesight, he played a significant role in the Diet of Kolozsvár to pronounce the union between Transylvania and Hungary. On his way from Zsibó to Pest he contracted pneumonia and died. His funeral became a national demonstration of sorrow. – B: 1230, 0883, 1153, 1257, T: 7456.→Széchenyi, Count István.

Wesselényi Conspiracy – In 1663, the Turks resumed the war in Hungary, aimed to occupy northern Hungary which was ruled by the Habsburgs, whereby to secure for the Turks a route to Vienna. They occupied Érsekújvár (now Nové Zámky, Slovakia). In 1664, the Imperial Army, led by Count Raimondo Montecuccoli, won a major victory over the Turks at Szentgotthárd (St Gotthard). However, the Austrian Government of Lipót I

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(Leopold) (1654-1705) signed a disgraceful peace treaty for Hungary at Vasvár on 10 August 1664. The Treaty left in the hand of the Turks all their new acquisitions, whereby the Habsburgs wanted to keep the Turks from attacking Vienna. The bad treaty caused such an outcry in Hungary that even the aristocrats turned against Emperor Leopold (Lipót) I. They regarded Leopold unfit to rule and did not even fulfill his royal oath regarding the defense of the country. Now they decided, on the basis of jus resistendi, enshrined in the Hungarian Golden Bull, (the Constitution) (1224), to look for a better ruler. The organizing group included: the Palatine, the Archbishop of Esztergom, Hungary’s Chief Justice, the Regent of Transylvania (now in Romania) and many others, and they began discussions with foreign powers. The conspiracy was discovered by the Viennese police force. The two leaders, Count Ferenc (Francis) Wesselényi, the Palatine, and the Archbishop of Esztergom had passed away in the meantime. Count Miklós (Nicholas) Zrinyi, the outstanding military commander became victim of a suspicious ‘hunting accident’, while the remaining leaders, Count Ferenc (Francis) Nádasdy, Chief Justice of Hungary, Count Ferenc Kristóf (Francis Christopher) Frangepán and Count Péter Zrinyi were arrested, Ferenc Rákóczi I was ransomed. The three members of the high nobility were sentenced to death by the Austrian Court of Justice. On 30 April 1671 they were beheaded in Vienna (Wiener Neustadt). On the same day Ferenc (Francis) Bónis was executed in Pozsony (now Bratislava, Slovakia). Several others who were arrested were imprisoned; finally, the estates of 300 participants were confiscated. Hungary was made a Province of Austria. Ilona, the daughter of Péter Zrinyi, escaped but his son was caught, and thrown into an Austrian cellar-prison, where this last male member of the Zrinyi family, deprived even of his name, died as ‘Gnade Péter’ after 20 years in prison. The case of freedom was kept alive through Péter Zrinyi’s escaped daughter, Ilona Zrinyi, also her son, Prince Ferenc (Francis) Rákóczi II, and Ilona Zrinyi’s husband Count Imre (Emery) Thököly, all of whom slipped out from the hands of his enemies. – B: 1231, 1288, T: 7103.→Vasvár Peace Treaty; Czegédi, István; Lipót I King and Emperor; Wesselényi, Count Ferenc; Zrinyi, Count Péter; Rákóczi I, Prince Ferenc; Frangepán, Count Ferenc Kristóf; Nádasdy, Count Ferenc; „Decade of Mourning”.

Wesselényi, Count Ferenc (Francis) (Count of Hadad and Murány) (1605 - Zólyomlipcse, now Ľupča, Slovakia, 23 March 1667) – Military commander, palatine. In his youth he converted to Catholicism. He was raised at the Jesuit school in Nagyszombat (now Trnava, Slovakia). His physical quality predestined him for a military career. As a young man, he participated in several battles against the Turks. He also helped Poland with troops against the Russianas and Tartars and he was granted Polish citizenship and an estate. He was made a count by Ferdinand II of Austria and was appointed Commander of the castle of Fülek (now Filakovo, Slovakia). In 1647, he was appointed General and he fought against the Swedes and later against Prince György (George) György Rákóczi I (1630-1648) of Transylvania (Erdély, now Romania). In 1644, he occupied the castle of Murány (now Muráň, Slovakia). On 15 March 1655, he was elected Palatine by the Diet in Pozsony (now Bratislava, Slovakia). In 1661, he had to check the revolting Imperial troops reluctant to leave Hungary. In 1662, he took part in the debates on protestant matters in favour of the protestants. In 1663, he fought against the Turks. In 1665, he joined the conspirators holding their meetings in Trencsén (now Trenčin, Slovakia) and Zólyom (now Zvolen, Slovakia) but he died before the conspiracy was discovered. His widow was interned in

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Vienna and his estates were confiscated. – B: 0883, 1031, T: 7103.→Wesselényi Conspiracy.

Western Hungary – The westernmost part of Historic Hungary, called Sentinel Region (Őrvidék) now known as Burgenland, Austria. After the break-up of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy in 1918, the Austrian Government submitted its claim to the western strip on 17 November 1918. Article 27 of the Versailles–Trianon Treaty of 4 June 1920, annexed the territory to Austria. According to the 1910 census 291,800 people lived on the 4,046 km 2

area. Among them 217,072 were German-speaking (74%), 43,633 Croatian (15%) and 26,225 (9%) Hungarian. The disputed area was to be handed over to Austria on 28 August 1921. Earlier, an armed uprising in Western Hungary began onfolding, helped by the Ragged Guard (Rongyosgárda). The uprising was successful, it established the Lajta Banate (Lajta Bánság) as an independent entity. The area had also been discussed for Czech initiative as the site of a Czech Corridor to Yugoslavia. Finally, consultations started in Venice under Italian auspices. The Agreement of Venice led to a referendum – the only one allowed and held after the dismemberment of Hungary. The referendum was held on 14 December 1921. The settlements involved in the plebiscite were: Ágfalva, Balf, Sopronbánfalva, Fertőboz, Fertőrákos, Harka, Kópháza, Nagycenk and the town Sopron. Though the smaller villages tended to bend towards Austria, finally the Hungarian majority of Sopron proved decisive. Of all those 26,900 with voting right 24,063 voted (87.7% participation rate) 15,334 fő (65.16%) voted for Hungary, 8,227 persons (34.84%) for Austria (mostly those with German mother tongue), and with 502 invalid votes. Of all the 35,009 inhabitants of Sopron 18,994 had voting right; here with 89.2% participation rate 72.7% voted for Hungary. Seven villages outside Sopron with 7,900 voting right and 83.9% participation rate 54,6% voted for Austria. Majority vote for Hungary occurred only at Nagycenk, Fertőboz és Kópháza; while Ágfalva, Balf, Sopronbánfalva and Harka remained with Austria. In memory of the Sopron plebiscite the Hungarian parliament in its enactment of the plebiscite, in act XXIX of year 1922 rewarded thee town of Sopron with the title Civitas fidelissima, i.e. Most Faithful Town, where soon afterwards the so-called Fidelity Gate was erected on the southern side of the 61 m high Fire Tower. Following the annexation, protests and small fightings started to erupt in another ten villages. As a result plebiscite was extended and held also in these villages, which led to the return to Hungary, between 10 January and 9 March 1923, the following settlements: Narda (formerly Kisnarda and Nagynarda), Felsőcsatár (formerly Alsócsatár and Felsőcsatár), Vaskeresztes (at the time Németkeresztes and Magyarkeresztes), Horvátlövő, Pornóapáti, Szentpéterfa, and also Ólmod. Szentpéterfa for playing the leading role in the plebiscite issue later received the title of "Communitas Fidelissima", i.e. Most Faithful Village. In addition to the above yet another village returned to Hungary along the western edge of the new borders created by the Treaty of Trianon: the village Szomoróc of County Vas, whose inhabitants in armed fightings, and helped by the border guards stationed there forced out the occupying forces on 1 August 1920. Although the village came under Serb-Croat-Slovene occupation, after lengthy negotiations the village Szomoróc again joined Hungary on 8 February 1922. Now with the neighboring village of Kercaszomor it is sometimes regarded as one settlement.

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Today, Hungarians are well represented in Alsóőr and Felsőőr (Unterwart and Overwart), and also Felsőpulya and Őrsziget. There are significant numbers of Hungarians in Kismarton and Boldogasszony. In 1991, the Hungarian population of Burgenland was 6,800. The gradual decrease of the population effects all populations of Burgenland, because they slowly move into more favorable areas of Austria. – B: 1031, 1078, 1230, 1134, 2061, T: 7103, 7456.→Rugged Guard; Lajta Banate; Civitas Fidelissima; Trianon Peace Treaty.

Weszelszky, Gyula (Julius) (Aknaszlatina, now Szlolotivno, Ukraine, 10 May 1872 - Budapest, 20 June 1940) – Physician. In 1895, he became a pharmacist in the Medical School of University of Budapest, obtaining his Doctorate of Chemistry in 1898. From 1896, he was demonstrator under Professor Béla Lengyel in the Chemistry Department No. 2 there. From 1898 to 1937, he was Professor of Pharmaceutical Probation-course. He became also an Honorary Lecturer in Inorganic Chemistry in 1912. From 1918, he was Head of the Department of Radiology. He was engaged in the study of radioactivity, the healing-effect of radiation and medicinal mineral waters. He worked out a method for the analysis of emanation-measurement of mineral waters. His works include: Chemical investigation of the products of the Héviz-Lake of Keszthely (A keszthelyi Hévíz-tó termékeinek chemiai vizsgálata) (1911), On the Radioactivity and Origin of the Mineral Waters of Budapest (A budapesti hévvizek radioaktivitásáról és eredetéről) (1912), The radioactivity (A radioaktivitás) (1917); On the Juvenile Waters (A juvenilis vizekről) (1927). – B: 1730, T: 7456.

Weszprémi Codex – A manuscript compiled for the use of the Clarissa Nuns in the beginning of the 16th century. It is a small codex on 75 octavo paper folios with a truncated end: a valuable Hungarian language relic. It is the work of two anonymous scribes. The codex contains a homily on the sufferings of Christ, and a work by St Bonaventura on the perfections of life. István (Stephen) Horváth, who first made its existence public dedicated it to the memory of István (Stephen) Weszprémi, physician, and one time health officer of the City of Debrecen, after whom the codex is named. It is in the collection of the Library of the University of Budapest. – B: 1078, 1257, T: 7617.→Weszprémi, István.

Weszprémi, István (Stephen) (Csanády, Tsanádi) (Veszprém, 13 August 1723 - 13 March 1799) – Physician, medical historian. In the Reformed College of Debrecen he was a student of István (Stephen) Hatvani. From 1752 on, he was on scholarship in Zurich, in 1753 at Utrecht, in 1754-1755, he did medical studies in London. In 1756, he obtained a medical degree from Utrecht. From 1757, he was Senior Physician of Debrecen for 42 years. Empress Maria Theresa awarded him with a gold medal. Weszprémi was one of the greatest Hungarian polyhistors of the 18th century. He refuted the immortality of the soul. In 1755, to fight the bubonic plague he suggested protective inoculation. His works on pathological anatomy were pioneering. In extensive correspondence he collated the biographies and bibliographies of medical men. The resulting 4-volume work treats the course of life, professional activities of the Hungarian and Transylvanian physicians, but in his notes there was plenty of space for cultural history as well. The Hungarian Medical Historical Society established an István Weszprémi memorial medal to be yearly awarded to a researcher of medical history. His works include: The Grand Question debated or an

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Essay to prove that the Soul of Man is not neither can it be immortal (Dublin, 1755), Succincta medicorum Hungariae et Transylvaniae biographiae, I-IV (1774-1787). – B: 0883, 1730, T: 7456.→Veszprémi Codex.

‘Whip of God’ (Flagellum Dei, ’Isten Ostora’) – In Western European legends this moniker was the dreaded name, later the title and symbol of Attila, the Hun. These legends suggested that also Attila addressed himself as such. According to surviving medieval Hungarian legends, during the western military campaigns, tribal leader Lehel called his troops ‘whips of God’. – B: 1078, 1020, T: 7658.→Attila; Lehel, Horn of.

White Army – Name of every army, which fought the Communist Red Army. During 1919 in Russia, the armies commandeered by generals Demikin, Wrangel and Kolcsak were known as the White Armies. In Hungary, the army of Admiral Miklós Horthy was likewise known by the same name. – B: 1078, T: 3233.→Horthy, Miklós.

White Color – The Ural-Altaic nations identified everything that was excellent and of quality by the color white. The Sun rose from the East; therefore the color of the East was white. This adjective frequently designated Eastern nations. According the Procopius, the eastern Huns were called White Huns, because they did not mix with foreign races. In regard to towns, the adjective ‘white’ meant the capital city; therefore the capital of Pannonia was Székesfehérvár (fehér=white), the country in Transylvania under the authority of the gyula was called Gyulafehérvár. The capital of the Avars – at the confluence of the Danube and Sava (Száva) rivers – was called Nándor, or Nándorfehérvár, which later became the capital of the Bulgarians under the name ‘Bolgár-Fehérvár’, the present day Belgrade, Yugoslavia. In the same manner the name of the Croatian capital – imitating the Avar practice is ‘Tenger-Fehérvár’, later Zara. In Hungarian traditions the color of white in every case means purification, innocence and virginity. In Christianity, white denotes divine light, perfection, purity and innocence. On the other hand, among equestrian peoples white color signified religious differences. – B: 0942, 1188, 1136, T: 7682.

White Horse – The high regard for the white color by early Hungarians gave the white horse a special significance. Its presentation as a gift was considered to be a special honor. During the sacrifice to the gods, so often mentioned by the chronicler Anonymus, a white horse was offered. In the daily life white signified the ruler or someone in high regard. In all the legends concerning the land in the Carpathian Settlement we find mention of the Hungarians purchasing the land for a white horse. Although a legend is not a historic fact, it shows the memory of an ancient legal practice behind it. It was the symbolic act, later the white flag, the calling upon the submission or surrender of land. – B: 0942, 1020, T: 7682.

White Horse Legend – This legend preserves ancient Hungarian unwritten laws from the Settlement era. Medieval Hungarian historians used part of this oral tradition in their works about the different phases of the Settlement of Hungary. They bought the lands bordered by the Bodrog, the Sajó, and the Danube and Tisza rivers from the Bulgar chief Zalán (Szalán), possibly the last Khagan of the Avars, for 12 white horses. Árpád bought the area of Bihar for a white horse from Mén-Marót. The Ancient Chronicle and its sequels contain

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this legend in a more complete form. It says the Hungarians exchanged one white horse, a golden saddle and a bridle to the Bulgar chieftain in exchange for land, pasture and water. The legends surrounding land acquisitions reflect an ancient unwritten custom, a symbolic ceremony equivalent to a contract. – B: 1134, 1020, T: 3240.→ Árpád; Szalán, Prince; Mén-Marót; White Horse Sacrifice.

White Horse Sacrifice – According to ancient belief, the ruler is the descendant of the Sun, hence the connection between the Sun and the white horse was established. Originally, the cult of the white horse was practiced among the people of the desert spreading to the Iranian and Indian people. Their early writings mention, that the white horse is the beast of the Sun. Since the Sun rose from the east, the color of east is also white. The sacrifice of the white, never harnessed nor ridden horse was carried out facing the East. – B: 1151, T: 7682.→ White Horse Legend.

Whitehorse, Son of – One of the most unique Hungarian totemistic tales whose hero is empowered with superhuman characteristics. Such features unmistakably attach these tales to the Sun-cult. At the same time he is a nation founder who defeats his adversaries in the ‘Kőmorzsoló’ (Stone-grinder), the ‘Fanyűvő’ (Tree- uprooter) and the ‘Vasgyűrű’ (Iron-ring). These are symbolic figures of the national social order and become his servants. He also defeats the Lord of the Underworld, pursues him, and enters the underworld. On ‘duck’s leg rotating castles he triumphs over the six, the twelve and the twenty three headed dragons to free the three princesses. In his travels he finds the nest of a giant bird and saves the young birds in a hailstorm. The grateful griffin takes him up to heaven but during their flight the food supply runs out and our hero cuts into one of his thighs and gives it to the bird. On arrival the bird swallows him then regurgitates him, making his twice as strong and handsome as before. He then marries the youngest princess. The variations on the legend are recognized in the tales of the Planet Saver, John Strong, and Dragon Slayer and in certain aspects of the Golden Haired Twins. While similar themes are evident in other parts of Europe, their stories are not as richly illustrated and forceful as this one. It is the most popular version of the Hungarian fairy tales, and there are more than fifty slightly different versions of it. – B: 1501, T: 3240.

White Huns – Hephtalites in part, the successors of the Kushans. The Kiderite Kingdom, created between ca. AD 400 and 450 in Gandhara and Kashmir, connected the two confederations. These peoples were also the descendants of the Yuezhi, and for a few decades created an independent Principality headed by Prince Kidara. They rid themselves of the weakening Sassanian over-lordship; but their rule did not last long. The Hephtalites consisted – as their Greek name suggests – of seven tribes. In large part they were the western branch of the Hsiung-nu (Huns), and following numerous break-ups, moved southwest. First they occupied the Oxus watershed, then Bactria, where the Kushans and the Kidarites joined them. According to stone and coin inscriptions, the Hephtalites considered themselves by blood and legal right the successors of the Kushans – as they in fact were. The seven tribes’ other members were the predecessors of the Jassi (Yazigs), the Sakarauls (a.k.a. Saka uraka, i.e. Royal Scythians), the Petchenegs (or Patzinaks; in Hungarian: pecsenyeg or besenyő) and the Sabirs. The first notable Hephtalite ruler, Khingila I successfully defeated the Persians, also mentioned by Greek historian,

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Procopius (ca. 500-565 AD). However, in 484 AD, they suffered a defeat from the Persian king Kobad (488-497 and 499-531). As a result they moved toward east to conquer India. An able tegin (leader), Toramana (485-520 AD) led the seven tribes, which very quickly occupied the same territories that formerly belonged to the Kushans. Toramana’s son, Mihirakula (520-544 AD) enlarged the empire. However, due to his destruction of the Buddhist temples and priesthoods, created much antipathy among the Hindus. They united against him and a local ruler defeated them in Bengal. Mihirakula however survived, fled to Kashmir, where he ruled until his death. His younger brother, Pravarasena I, then Pravarasena II, Lakhana and Khingila II ruled for another 100 years in Kashmir and in the eastern part of Punjab. About 50% of the Hephtalites settled in India and in the mountainous Hunza Valley. Some of the Djats of Punjab, the Rajputs of Rajanistan and the people of Gujarat are their descendants, as evidenced by their traditions and culture. However, the Hephtalite leaders and warriors fled westward in ca. 560 AD, when they suffered defeat from the Turkish Kaganate. Previously the Turks defeated the uar-huns or var-huns, i.e. the Avars and the kindred Zhuan-Zhuans. These two tribes also joined the Hephtalites. It seems that the more numerous Avars took over leadership of the tribal confederation, as Byzantine sources already refer to them as Avars. In 565 AD the Avars requested from Emperor Justinian II permission to settle. After years of fighting the Avars defeated the Gepids, then occupied from the west and the east Pannonia Inferior and Pannonia Superior, i.e. the present-day Great Hungarian Plains and Transylvania in the Carpathian Basin. This is how the Avar Empire came into being and the Avars became the immediate predecessors of the Hungarians. Therefore, the Hungarians have on the one-side Saka (Scythian)-Hephtalite-Avar predecessors. – B: 7694, T: 7617.→Avars; Kushans; Scythians, Petchenegs; Sabirs; Jazygs; Yuezhi. White Mourning – Originally, the customary color worn in time of mourning was white, not black. The Hungarian wife of King Louis X of France, Princess Klemencia (sister of Károly Róbert, King of Hungary) after the premature death of her husband, becoming a widow at the young age of 22, retired to a cloister and wore white clothing until the end of her life. As the French historian wrote, the members of the Hungarian royal family wore mourning of white. In Hungary the custom of mourning in white survived to the 20th century in the Ormánság and Sárköz. The natural white and rough home woven linen was considered suitable for such purpose because it was simple, not decorative. The attire varies according to local custom, from a full dress, a complete outfit, to only a scarf, or ribbon. – B: 1134, T: 7682.

White Terror – The consequence of the counter-revolutionary movement. When the dictatorship of the proletariat usurped power in Hungary in 1919 for 133 days, it used terror bluntly and shamelessly, calling their own rule the Red Terror (vörös terror). When the majority of the population regained power, some elements, which were embittered by the atrocities committed by the red terror, used similar actions for revenge, which was called for the sake of distinction White Terror (fehér terror). It ended when the majority firmly established its power and the threat of the red terror’s return was eliminated. As soon as the majority’s power was stabilized, the short-lived white terror stopped. On 24 and 25 of September in 1919 US Army colonel Nathan Horowitz – on the instruction of the Military Control Commission of the Entente Forces – inspected the headquarters of Admiral Miklós

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Horthy, Commander in Chief of the Hungarian National Forces, at Siófok and other nearby towns in the vicinity of Lake Balaton, to investigate the rumors about the excesses of the White Terror. In his report Colonel Horowitz called the rumors unfounded. – B: 1078, 1230, T: 3233.

Wiener Neustadt’s Hungarian Mementos – Avar-founded settlement, located south of Vienna and often mentioned in Hungarian historical records. King Mátyás I (Matthias Corvinus)(1443-1490) started from Wiener Neustadt against Vienna on 13 January 1487, which he then occupied by an agreement on 17 August of the same year. It is very likely that was the occasion he gave the citizens of the city the Corvin goblet. From that time the city cherishes the portrait of Mátyás, as well as the complete harness of a saddle horse, another gift of the king. In the fort, built by the Babenberg family in 1192, several Hungarians were imprisoned, among them Count Péter Zrínyi, Count Ferenc Kristóf (Francis Christopher) Frangepán and Prince Ferenc (Francis) Rákóczi II. In its munitions-chamber both Zrinyi and Frangepán were beheaded on 30 April 1671. An inscription can be found in the old arsenal as a reminder of the site and on the wall of the parish church, at the base of the tower, a Latin-inscribed headstone serves as a reminder of the two who were executed. Prince Ferenc Rákóczi II, captured in Sáros in 1791, was imprisoned in the same jail, from where his grandfather, Péter Zrínyi was taken to the scaffold. However, he escaped on 7 November the same year with the help of Gottfried Lehman, an imperial captain. In the Babenberg fort the Theresianum Military Officers’ Academy was founded in 1752: the first such institution in the world. The first Hungarian officers were trained in this Academy also. During the Viennese uprising in 1919, the Academy’s Hungarian students marched onto Vienna to provide safeguard to Károly IV (Charles), King of Hungary and his family in the Castle of Schönbrunn, in place of the escaped guards. – B: 0942, 1138, 1020, T: 7668.

Wiesel, Elie (Máramarossziget now Sighetu Marmatiei, Transylvania, Romania, 30 September 1928 -) – Writer, human rights activist. He attended school at his birth place and Debrecen. In 1944 he and his family were deported by the Nazis to Auschwitz. His mother and younger sister perished, his two older sisters survived. Elie and his father were later transported to Buchenwald, where his father died shortly before the camp was liberated in April 1945. After the war Wiesel studied in Paris and later became a journalist. The French writer, Francois Mauriac, persuaded him to write about his experiences in the death camps. The result was his internationally acclaimed memoir, La Nuit (The Night), which has since been translated into more than thirty languages. In 1978, US President Jimmy Carter appointed him Chairman of the President’s Commission on the Holocaust. In 1980, he became the Founding Chairman of the United States Holocaust Memorial Council. He is also the Founding President of the Paris based Universal Academy of Cultures. He is a devoted supporter of Israel, and he has also defended the cause of the Soviet Jews, the Nicaragua’s Miskito Indians, the Argentina’s Desaparecidos, the Cambodian refugees, the Kurds, the victims of famine in Africa, victims of apartheid in South Africa, and victims of war in former Yugoslavia. Since 1976, he has been the Andrew W. Mellon Professor in the Humanities at Boston University. He is a member of the Faculty in the Department of Religion as well as the Department of Philosophy. Previously, he served as Distinguished Professor of Judaic Studies at the City University of

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New York (1972-1976), and the first Henry Luce Visiting Scholar in Humanities and Social Thought at Yale University (1982-1983). He is the author of more than forty books of fiction and non-fiction, including: A Beggar in Jerusalem, The Testament, The Fifth Son, and two volumes of his memoirs. For his literary and human rights activities, he has received more than one hundred Honorary Doctorates and awards including the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the U.S. Congressional Gold Medal and the rank of Grand-Croix in the French Legion of Honor. In 1986 he won the Nobel Prize for Peace. A few months later, Marion and Elie Wiesel established The Elie Wiesel Foundation for Humanity. – B: 1037, 1077, T: 1077, 7103.

Wife (feleség) – In very ancient times, and in modern times as well, the term literary meant the “half of the family-estate” – through marriage the female partner is legal owner of half of their common earnings. In other words, she legally owns half of everything, sharing the commonly earned estate with her husband. – B: 0942, T: 3233.

Wigner, Eugene Paul (Wigner Jenő Pál) (Budapest, 17 November 1902 - Princeton, NJ. USA 1 January 1995) – Physicist and mathematician. He was born into a middle class

Jewish family. During his childhood illness, he developed an interest in mathematical problems. From 1915 to 1919, together with John von Neumann, Wigner studied at the Lutheran High School of Fasor (Fasori Evangélikus Gimnázium), Budapest, instructed by the noted mathematics teacher László (Ladislas) Rátz. Later, the family converted to Lutheranism. In 1921, Wigner studied chemical engineering in Berlin. He also attended the colloquia of such luminaries as Max Planck, Werner Heisenberg, Albert Einstein and others. Wigner also met the physicist Leo Szilárd, who became his closest friend. A third experience in Berlin was formative: Wigner worked at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, and there he met Michael Polányi, who became Wigner's teacher. In the late 1920s, Wigner explored the field of quantum

mechanics at a fundamental level. During a period at the University of Göttingen, Wigner studied independently. He laid the foundation for the theory of symmetries in quantum mechanics and, in 1927 he introduced what is now known as the Wigner D-matrix. Wigner and Hermann Weyl introduced the group-theory into quantum mechanics. In the late 1930s, he extended his research into atomic nuclei. He developed an important general theory of nuclear reactions. By 1929 his papers were drawing notice in the world of physics. In 1930, Princeton University recruited Wigner, which was timely, since Hitler soon rose to power in Germany. From 1936, Wigner worked at the University of Wisconsin. There he met his first wife, Amelia Frank, who died unexpectedly in 1937; in 1941, Wigner married for the second time. On 8 January 1937, Wigner became a naturalized citizen of the United States. In 1938, Princeton University invited Wigner again. In 1939 and 1940 he played a major role in prompting the U.S. Government to establish the Manhattan Project, which developed the first atomic bomb in 1945. After

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working briefly in Chicago and at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tennessee, he returned to Princeton University. Wigner received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1963 “for his contributions to the theory of the atomic nucleus and the elementary particles, particularly through the discovery and application of fundamental symmetry principles”. Wigner laid the foundation for the theory of symmetries in quantum mechanics and his research into the structure of the atomic nucleus and also for his several mathematical theorems. In 1960, Wigner published an article on the philosophy of mathematics and of physics: The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in Natural Science. His other works include Physical Theory of Neutron Chain Reactors, with A.M. Weinbereg (1958); Gruppentheorie und ihre Anwendungen auf die Quantenmechanik der Atomspektren (Group Theory and its Applications to the Quantum Mechanics of Atomic Spectra), Symmetries and Reflections: Scientific Essays (1970), The Recollections of Eugene P. Wigner (1992), and Philosophical Reflections and Syntheses (1997). Near the end of his life, Wigner's became more philosophical; he became interested in the Vedenta philosophy of Hinduism. Apart from the Nobel Prize, Wigner received a number of awards and prizes, including the U.S. Medal for Merit (1946), the Enrico Fermi Prize (1958), the Max Planck Medal of the German Physical Society, the George Washington Award of the American-Hungarian Studies Foundation (1964), the Semmelweis Medal of the American-Hungarian Medical Association (1965), and the National Medal of Science (1969). He has received honorary degrees from many Universities, and was a member of a number of learned societies worldwide. He was a member of the General Advisory Committee to the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. Wigner is regarded as ”the Silent Genius”, and some even considered him the intellectual equal of Albert Einstein. – B: 1196, 1031, T: 7103.→Szilárd, Leó; Neumann, von John; Polányi, Michael; Teller, Ede.

Will-o'-the Wisp (Marsh Fire, bolygótűz) – An expression which is part of the richest and best-known legendary figure, the ‘lidérc’ (Hungarian for „goblin”). By popular belief the goblin lives in the swampy marshland of the Nagy Alföld (Great Plain), where the small roaming marsh-flames are seen as the reappearance of a dead lover or a dead spouse. In Transylvania similar personifications appear as fiery small-shawls. These appearances generally indicate some devilish connection and its human figure personifies the very devil. In Transdanubia some rituals preventing these appearances were practiced. People thought to stop its wanderings with a belt buckle or by the linking of the fingers. – B: 0942, T: 3240.

Willow Twigs; Blessing on Palm Sunday – The Sunday preceding Easter Sunday is named Dominica Palmarum or Palm Sunday by the Roman Catholic Church to mark the arrival of Jesus in Jerusalem. On this day the Church blesses the procession bearing palm leaves. It was a known event by the 7th century ‘Missal of Bobbio’. In countries without access to palm branches, the congregation used budding early twigs, such as willows, as in Hungary. Many beliefs are attached to the blessed willow twigs. They were not to be taken into the house but suspended under the eaves or hung over the barn beam to keep the home dwellers safe from fire or lightning. – B: 1134, T: 3240.

Wilson’s Forteen Points – The U.S. joined the Allies of World War I, in fighting the Central Powers, on 6 April 1917. By early 1918, it was clear that the war was nearing its

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end. President Woodrow Wilson prepared a Peace Plan after World War I, and he delivered it in a speech to a joint session of Congress on 8 January 1918. The peace plan based on the research of the Inquiry, a team of about 150 advisors, into the topics likely to arise in the anticipated peace conference. The Fourteen Points outlined the basic principles of the after-war Peace Treaties. Point 10 refers to Hungary, and it spelled out: The peoples of Austria-Hungary, whose place among the nations we wish to see safeguarded and assured, should be accorded the freest opportunity to autonomous development. Wilson's speech on 8 January 1918, outlined the basic principles upon which the peace treaties ought to based: free trade, open agreements, democracy and self-determination. People in Europe generally welcomed Wilson's interevention, but his Allied colleagues: Georges Clemenceau, David Lloyd George and Vittorio Emanuale Orlando were skeptical of the applicability of the Wilsonian peace-plan. The Fourteen Points became the basis for the terms of the Central Powers’ surrender at the end of World War I. However, soon after the armistice on 11 November 1918, the opposition to the Forteen Points among the British, French and Italian leaders became clear. Ceausescu demanded war reparation and strong states created from the detached parts of Germany, Austria and Hungary, against Germany from the East. The Versailles Treaty with Germany imposed harsh punishment on Germany both financially and territorially, which led to the rise of Hitler and the Nazism in the 1930s, and ultimately led to World War II. Although the Fourteen Points promised that peoples of Austria-Hungary should be accorded the freest opportunity to autonomous development, this was not valid for the Hungarians who, although they formed 54% of the population of the Kingdom of Hungary, were left with only 32% of their pre-war territory by the Treaty of Trianon leaving 3.5 million ethnic Hungarians in successor states, who treated Hungary as free booty, subjected to exploitation, intimidation and persecution, which continue even to the present. When President Wilson realized that his peacre-plan was bypassed, he became offended and returned home.The Fourteen Points intended to create a just peace in Europe, in reality it became a huge trap: a 1000 year old kingdom was dismembered and Hungary is still suffering from it. – B: 1031, T: 7103.→ World War I, Hungary in; Trianon Peace Treaty; Vienna Award I; Vienna Award II; World War II, Hungary in; Paris Peace Treaty.

Winkler Codex – A Franciscan manuscript, presumably written for the Clarissa nuns in 1506. The Codex, with a truncated beginning and end, is a valuable Hungarian language relic. Its scribe is unknown. It contains a perpetual calendar, hymns, New Testament verses, prayers and meditations on 184 folios. It was named after Mihály Winkler, Canon of Pécs, who donated it to the University of Budapest Library, where it is today. – B: 1078, 1257, T: 7617.

Winkler, Lajos (Lewis) (Arad, now in Romania, 21 May 1863 - Budapest, 14 April 1939) - Pharmacist, research chemist. He obtained his Pharmaceutical degree from the University of Pest in 1885, and his Ph.D. in Pharmaceutics. He started work at the Department of Chemistry of the Medical School, by 1890 he was demonstrator, in 1893, Honorary Lecturer in 1902, Associate Professor in 1909, Professor of Analytic and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Head of No.1 Chair of Chemistry. He was engaged mainly in studying analytic chemistry, gas-analyses, gravimetry and examination of water and medicines. His “Winkler’s jodometric determination” became world-famous. For analytic measurements

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he constructed precision instruments of high accuracy; studied the absorption coefficient of gases in solvents; he was the first to determine the connection between the solubility of gases and their internal friction. He was one of the initiators of modern training of pharmacists in Hungary. Winkler edited the Chemical Journal (Kémiai Folyóirat), from 1895 to 1896, and was Correspondent for the Hungarian Pharmaceutical Gazette (Magyar Gyógyszerészeti Közlöny), for three decades. In honor of his achievements a memorial medal was established. He was a member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (corresponding 1896, ordinary, 1922). His works include: Determination of Oxygen Dissolved in Water (A vízben feloldott oxigén meghatározása) (1888), Trink- und Brauchwasser (1905, 1911, 1921), Untersuchungsverfahren für das chemischen Laboratorium, I-II (1936). – B: 1730, T: 7456. Winter, Ernő (Ernest) (Győr, 15 March 1897- Budapest, 1971) – Engineer. He obained a chemical engineer diploma in 1925. He developed tungsten lamps and electron tubes. He worked first at the United Incandescent Factory, and later at Tungsram Incandescent Factory, Újpest (suburb of Budapest). In its research laboratory, established in 1923, for improving light sources, mainly electric bulbs, where Ernő Winter worked, along with others, including Zoltán Bay. They developed tungsten or wolfram technology for the production of more reliable and longer-lasting coiled-filament lamps. In the beginning of 1930s he worked at the Audion Laboratory, concentrating in electron-tube research and development. Winter, together with Károly (Charles) Czukor, was successful in this field. He was a member of the Hungarian Academy Sciences (corrspondent in 1951, and regular in 1956). He was recipient of the Kossuth Prize (1950, 1953), and other stated decorations. – B: 1031, 1740, T: 7103. → Converter Tube with Deflection Control; Bay, Zoltán.

Winterl, József Jakab (Joseph, Jacob) (Steyr, Austria, 15 April 1739 - Pest, 23 November 1809) – Physician. He obtained his medical degree from the University of Vienna in 1764, and he also received a Ph.D. in Art in 1766. He was practicing physician in Vienna from 1764 to 1767; and senior physician of the mining towns of the Northern Hungary (now in Slovakia), from 1767 to 1770. He became Professor of the Chairs of Chemistry and Botany at the University of Nagyszombat (now Trnava, Slovakia), where he remained until his retirement. He was adherent of the dualistic chemical methods, and first to deal with electro-chemistry; he was well-known analyst of mineral water and he was noted for visual instruction in botany. In 1784, he established the University Botanical Garden at Pest and he was the founder the fruit-growing on the Great Hungarian Plain (Nagyalföld). He was a famous researcher of floras: follower of the botanical system of Linnaeus. His works include: De metallis dubiis (1770), Systematis chemici (1773), Index horti botanici Tyrnaviensis (1775), Über das Brownische System (1798), De aqua soteria thermarum Budensium (1804). – B: 1730, T: 7456.

Winternitz, Arnold (Klein-Tomanin, Bohemia, now Czech Republic, 2 August 1872 - Budapest, 25 November 1938) – Physician, surgeon. He obtained his medical degree from the University of Budapest in 1896, after which he worked in the Department of Pathological Anatomy until 1897; thereafter he was correspondent for the Surgical Clinic there from 1897 to 1901. He was senior physician of the Stefánia Hospital of Budapest from 1901 to 1911, that of the Telep Street Hospital during the years 1911-1919, and Senior Physician of St. István (Stephen) Hospital from 1919. He became Honorary

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Lecturer in 1906. In 1915, he was made Titular Associate Professor at the University of Budapest. He was dealing mainly with surgical pathology, with tuberculosis and with thoracic and cerebral surgery. His works include: The Surgical Complaints of the Cervix (A nyak sebészi bántalmai) (1901), Surgical Treatment of Pulmonary Tuberculosis (A tüdőgümőkór sebészi kezelése) (1924). – B: 1730, T: 7456. ‘Wise Man of the Homeland’ (A Haza Bölcse) →Deák, Ferenc.

Witch – She has a dual role in the Hungarian folk beliefs. (1) She is a fairy creature. In the Hungarian collection of tales they are old women with superhuman powers. She is much like an old sorceress. Generally, she is the mother of the heroine’s archenemy, who concocts all the incredible tasks and with her superhuman power endangers the hero’s life. In spite of her lowly qualities she is a destructive force. (2) She is a living human person with healing and malefic qualities. Until recently, people still believed in her existence. The most well known witches were mentioned as "de maleficis, veneficis" in the law books of King István I (St. Stephen) (997-1038). In the later period of witch-hunts the concept of witches, imported from Western Europe, became apparent in the Hungarian witchcraft trials. The notion of witches of the Middle Ages, conspiring with the devil, became an integral part of Western European beliefs. Due to the witch-hunt their cult became unified all over Europe and survived. – B: 1134, T: 3240.

Witch-hunt – A search for suspected persons who allegedly practiced witchcraft and some black art, or persons accused of heresy or dealing with the devil. Witch hunt was often triggered by moral panic, mass hysteria and resulted in lynching, or torture in order to force them to confess their guilt, and usually executed by burning at the stake. There are historical instances also legally sanctioned and involving official witchcraft trials. The classical period of witchhunts in Europe falls into the Early Modern period or about 1480 to 1700, spanning the upheavals of the Reformation and the Thirty Year’s War, resulting in an estimated 40,000 to 100,000 executions. In Hungary there was sporadic witch-hunt from the early 16th century to the middle of the 18th, but there were very few known executions. The term "witch-hunt" is often used by analogy to refer to panic-induced searches for perceived wrong-doers other than witches. – B: 1231, 1031, T: 7103.

Witch Trials – The movement originated in Western Europe during the Middle Ages in order to extirpate witchcraft. In ancient Roman times the persecution of Christians started because it was seen as a subversive force. Christianity viewed the traditions left behind from earlier times as superstition. According to the files on the witchcraft trials, they were exterminated. The Church was the leading initiator and inquisitor of the witchcraft trials throughout Europe. Hungary also conducted numerous witchcraft trials. King Kálmán (Coloman) (Könyves Kálmán) (1095-1116) had already published the Book of Law I at the Meeting at Tarcal, around 1100, abolishing the witchcraft trials. Still, until the end of the 17th century a major charge against them was the use of destructive magic, and the punishments were light (flogging, exiling). On 28 July 1728, on an island close to the city of Szeged (today it is known as Boszorkánysziget, Witch’s Island) five men and six women were burned at the stake and one man was beheaded. Further twenty-eight persons received prison terms for witchcraft. Queen Maria Theresa (1740-1780) decreed that irrefutable

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evidence was needed before anyone could be convicted of witchcraft. – B: 1230, 1134, T: 7668.

Wittmann, Ferenc (Francis) (Hódmezővásárhely, 16 January - Budapest, 3 March 1932) – Physicist. He completed his studies at the University of Budapest and at the Polytechnic of Budapest. He was an assistant to the professors of Experimental Physics at the Polytechnic in 1878, teacher of technical physics from 1892 and was invited to membership of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences in 1908. His investigations into the time process of alternating current are considered pioneering. He is the inventor of the oscilloscope (a cathode ray oscillograph) that bears his name. He was also deeply involved with problems of radio technology. – B: 0883, T: 7675.

Wlachs→Vlachs

Wlassics, Baron Gyula (Julius) (zalánkeményi) (Zalaegerszeg, 17 March 1852 - Budapest, 30 March 1937) – Lawyer, politician and cultural politician. After his Legal studies in Hungary he went on a study trip abroad and, thereafter, he briefly worked in the judiciary and also for the Minister of Justice; from 1882 he was deputy prosecutor; from 1886 a deputy attorney general. During 1890 and 1895, and again from 1903 to 1906, he was Professor of Criminal Law at the University of Budapest. From 1892 he was a Member of Parliament for the Liberal Party; in connection with the Bills for Church Policy, he took a stand on a marriage registry. From 15 January 1895 to 3 November 1903, Baron Wlassics was Minister of Education and Religion in the Bánffy and Széll Governments. During his ministerial work, he initiated a number of civil reforms, such as admittance of women to the faculties of arts, pharmaceutics and medicine; submitting of compulsory copies of printing works; foundation of the School of Arts, etc. From 1906 until 1935 he was President of the Administrative Court. In 1916 he was granted a baronetcy. He was a member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (corresponding 1886, ordinary 1892, honorary 1919, vice-president from 1898-1901). In 1918 he became President of the Table of Magnates, and from 1927 to 1935 that of the Upper House of Parliament. In 1920 he received the Grand Prix of the Academy. From 1923, he was a member of the Board of Arbitration in The Hague. His works include Cultural-political Questions (Kultúrpolitikai kérdések) (1909); Foreign Policy of Count Gyula Andrássy (Gróf Andrássy Gyula külpolitikája) (1913), and Neutrality in the World War (Semlegesség a világháborúban) (1917). – B: 0883, 1031, T: 7456.

Wodetzky, József (Joseph) (Versec, 15 March 1872 - Budapest, 17 March 1956) – Astronomer. He studied at the Universities of Budapest and Paris and became an honorary lecturer (privatdozent) of the Department of Cosmology at the University of Budapest in 1914. From 1923, he was Professor at the University of Debrecen and a privat dozent of the University of Budapest. Between 1932 and 1942, he was Head of the Department and Institute of Astronomy of the University of Budapest. His specific areas of interest were astro-mechanics, astronomy, and relativity. Together with Antal (Anthony) Tass he founded the Stella Astronomical Society and was editor of the periodicals Stella and Astronomical Papers. He was very active in popularizing astronomy and founded the Astronomical Observatory of Debrecen. – B: 0883, 1020, T: 7674.

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Wohl, Janka (Jane) (Pest, 1846 - Budapest, 23 May 1901) – Poetess, writer, translator of literary works. Together with her sister, Stephanie Wohl, she edited the journals Fashion (Divat) from 1870 to 1872, and Womens’ Work Sphere (Nők Munkaköre) from 1872 to 1873, which merged with Hungarian Bazaar (Magyar Bazár). For female readers, they published fashionable short stories by women writers from abroad. She translated widely from English, but also from French and German. In the 1870s and 1880s the two sisters kept a literary salon, where, among the guests, were such notabilities as Ferenc (Franz) Liszt, János (John) Arany, Ágoston (Austin) Trefort, és Mór (Maurice) Ballagi. She translated from Dickens, Sainte-Beuve, etc. works, some of which appeared under the name Camilla Zichy. She edited The Modern Woman’s Breviary (A modern asszony breviáriuma) (1895). Her works include My Poems (Költeményeim) (1861), and My First Album (Az én első albumom) (1892). – B: 0883, 1257, T: 7456.→Liszt, Ferenc; Arany, János, Trefort, Ágoston, Ballagi, Mór.

Wojatsek, Károly (Charles) (Udvard, now Dvory nad Žitavou, Slovakia, 29 September 1916 - Vancouver, 7 January 2008) – Linguist, historian. He completed his Hungarian, Slovakian and Czech language studies, as well as literary and historical studies at the Universities of Brünn, Pozsony and Debrecen. After obtaining his teacher certificate at Debrecen in 1940, he was a high school teacher in Hungary between 1940 and 1944, and in Czechoslovakia between 1944 and 1948. In 1948, he escaped to the West and became a student at the University of Fribourg, Switzerland where he obtained another teacher’s diploma. On emigrating to Canada he continued his studies in Montreal and Toronto where he gained a teacher’s diploma and a PhD in 1956. Between 1957 and 1960 he taught in high schools in the province of Ontario. Between 1960 and 1965, he was Professor of Hungarian and Czech Languages and Literature at the University of Colorado. He was Professor of History at Bishop’s University, Lennoxville, Québec from 1966 to his retirement in 1986. In the meantime from 1967-1968, he taught German History at the Université de Sherbrooke in Québec. He was a member of the Hungarian Mother Tongue Conference’s patronage, published essays on history, education and linguistics. His books on Hungarian topics were published in English. His books include: Hungarian Textbook and Grammar, published in 5 editions, From Trianon to the First Vienna Arbitral Award, and The Hungarian Minority in the First Czechoslovak Republic, 1918-1938 (1980). – B: 1672, 0893, T: 7669, 4342

Wolf, Emil (Budapest, 1886 – Belgium, 15 July 1947) – Chemist. After receiving his diploma in chemical engineering from the Budapest Polytechnic he worked in several German factories, and for a short while he worked at Gedeon Richter’s Factory, Budapest. In 1910, with chemical engineer György (George) Kereszty, founded the Alka Chemical Works, which eventually became the Chinoin Pharmaceutical and Chemical Products Works, Budapest. The founding of the independent Hungarian pharmaceutical industry is the work of Wolf, the pioneer in this field, along with G. Richter. Both in the domestic field and abroad the Chinoin name became well known in veterinary science, in the botanical fields and in human therapeutics. Drugs such as atropine, synthetically produced papaverin, ultraseptil and vitamin preparations, as well as several hundred pharmaceutical specialties made his name famous. – B: 0883, T: 7456.

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Wondrous Stag Legend (Csodaszarvas legenda) – The central figure of the Hun/Hungarian origin legend is a white stag, which lured the hunters, brothers Hunor and Magor, the ancestors of Huns and Magyars, and led the way to good hunting grounds. Its figure was found previously in Scythian art. The oldest illustration of the golden-stag traced back to the 7th century BC, was discovered in the kurgan grave finds of Kelermes, in a small creek of the Kuban area of South Russia. Its figure was also incorporated into Christian legends, e.g. the Hubertus legend, where it is no longer the hind calf, but a stag adorned with candles on its antlers and is identified with Christ. The Stag Legend is the oldest Hun-Hungarian origin-legend from the Őskrónika (Ancestral Legend), which was taken up by the Pozsony Chronicle, and Simon Kézai adopted it into the Gesta Hungarorum between 1282 and 1285. Subsequently, Márk Kálti, into the Képes Krónika (Illuminated Chronicle) in 1385, János Thúróczy into the Chronica Hungarorum in 1487, and also Mahmud Terdzsüman into the Tarih-i Üngürüsz in 1555, all adopted the Legend. A stag played the role as dominant animal in Anonymus’ chapter describing the establishment of the fortress at Bars. According to Thúróczy’s Chronicle a stag also led Kings Géza and László to the site where they were expected to build a church out of gratitude for the victory at Cinkota. Still another stag led King László I (St Ladislas) to the place where Várad (now Oradea, Romania) was to be built and it led Tribal Leader Gyula to the location where Gyulafehérvár (now Alba Iulia, Romania) was to be founded. The Stag legends also appear among the Greek, Latin and German legends. – B: 1150, 0942, 1020, T: 7659.

Wood Carving – In the strict sense only curved, wedged and round sculptures or wooden objects make up this category in Hungarian folk art. Broadly speaking they involve the application of several techniques such as chiseling, etching, piercing, hammering, branding, in-laying and turning. Woodcarving was always a male occupation in Hungary and was practiced by the peasants, the herdsmen, and the cottage industry and master craftsman. Its largest pieces were connected to architecture; these were gateposts, doors, well sweeps, main girder beams, porch columns, parapets, gables and window trellises. Professionals such as carpenters, local cabinetmakers and Szekler gate makers made them all. Always, local carvers made the wooden headstones in the territories of the Reformed Church and the wooden crosses in Catholic territories. It was popular to decorate tools and all kinds of household items. Among them are the oxbows, the head of the cart shafts, forage ladders, and the herdsman’s sticks. There are a lot of carved wooden tools used by women such as laundry beaters, distaff nails and spindle rings. They were usually made as gifts of love. Woodcarving is found all over the Hungarian language territory but its most important center is Kalotaszeg (now Ţara Călatei, Transylvania, Romania). The so-called herdsmen style is derived from peasant woodcarvings. It flourished in the 19th century and left a legacy of prolific, richly varied and unmistakably Hungarian relics. Master craftsmen made the small crosses, the Madonna and other saintly statues (Madonna of Kiskun) placed in the sacred corner of the households, also the big crosses erected along the roadside. The mask-making custom is localized more to the areas of the counties of Baranya, Heves and Hajdú also to the Csallóköz (now Žitný ostrov, Slovakia) region where the so-called busó and the borica mask is made. – B: 1134, T: 3240.

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Wooden Churches – Carpenters used the materials at hand to construct the edifices of worship. Wood is used predominantly in forested areas where stone materials are rare. Wooden churches are found usually on the Russian plains and in the Carpathian highlands. The builders employed the general wood technique architecture. The Greek Orthodox Churches display Byzantine style and the churches from Kalotaszeg (now Ţara Călatei, Transylvania, Romania) show Gothic style. The followers of Martin Luther preferred wooden structures to stone similar to the church of Kézsmárk (now Kežmarok, Slovakia). – B: 1144, T: 7663.

Wooden Dulcimer – Similar to the xylophone, it is an idiophonic musical instrument consisting wooden rods of varying dimensions. It differs from other xylophone types in that the system of its scale is the same as that of the common corded dulcimer, enabling a dulcimer player to easily play on a wooden dulcimer. The rods are carved out of cylindrically turned wood or carved from wood of broomstick thickness. Of the evenly decreasing lengths of pieces, the longest is 400 mm; the shortest 250 mm. The tone of the rod is altered by sawing off the end of a rod, thus shortening it; if a sound is to be still deeper, a ‘belly’ or an indentation is cut around the middle at the lower part of the rod. Its sound is, as generally of the xylophones, a kind of a knocking, sharp, dry wooden sound. Dulcimer players play this instrument mostly as a curiosity, using it to play one or another virtuoso variation. One can play two tones or broken chords the same as on the common dulcimer. The wooden dulcimer is unique to Hungary. – B: 1134, T: 7684.

Wooden Plank Ceiling – In contrast to the open roof structure where the wooden planks are secured to the main beams, these ceilings are constructed of wooden planks in many different variations reflecting the Renaissance and Baroque architecture. Amongst the Hungarian village churches there are a group of churches with painted wooden plank ceilings, which were constructed until the 19th century. – B: 1020, T: 7663.

Wooden rail-track of Brád – Some primitive rail tracks were used in the mines of Transylvania (Erdély, now Romania) already in the early 1500's; they can be considered as the forerunner of today's railways. The mine cars were mounted on rolling wooden axles fitted out at their ends with stabilizing wheel-rims and pushed by men or, when several cars linked, pulled by horses on wooden rails. One of these simple wooden tracks, dating from the early days, was still in use in the 19th century in the Apostol Mine No.XII of Brád of County Hunyad. One segment of this wooden rail track, complete with the switches and car, ended up in Berlin, Germany, where it has survived World Wars I and II. It is exhibited under Catalogue No. 152, as a carfully kept memento of the history of transportation in the ’Museum of Transport and Technology’ (Museum für Verkehr und Technik) 9. Trebbiner Strasse, Berlin. The original text, posted in front of the wooden tracks follows in English: ’Wooden rail tracks from the 16th century. The tracks and car were obtained from a Hungarian gold mine (Apostle Mine, Brád - Transylvania) in 1889. – The tracks and ties (sleepers) were made of round timber. The ends of the tracks were flattened. The tracks' gauge is about 48 cm.- The single piece of movable lever which unites in itself the tongue and heart-piece serves to set the switch. The car, which belonged to the tracks, has wheels made of single pieces of wood. – B: 1078, 1020, T: 7674.

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Wooden Tower – Tall wooden beam structure erected by carpenters which often served as a belfry and a watchtower. Although stone and brick towers were common in Hungary since the early Middle Ages, most of the towers were wooden structures until the end of the 18th century. The majority of the surviving wooden towers in Hungary were built in the 17-18th centuries with a few surviving from the 16th. Master carpenters living in towns and villages used construction techniques of the late Gothic or Renaissance style originating from the 14-15th centuries. These towers stood apart from the churches but occasionally they were an integral part of wood-framed churches. Hungarians loved the steep, very tall spires, which were erected in the axis of the main body of the tower. While the cross section of the main tower bodies was square, the spires were polygonal, steep pyramids or cones. A central mast supported the tall, slim structures. It was also customary at some places, to flank the main spire with four turrets. When the wooden spire was built on the top of stone or brick tower its supporting wooden base was constructed within the masonry structure. The gallery, spire and the turrets were built on the crown of the brick or stone structure. The stone or brick walls provided extra support to the wooden structure, while the shingle roof of the spire provided protection for the tower. The style and construction techniques were very similar throughout Hungary. Erection of wooden towers ceased during the 18th century. – B: 1134, T: 7663.

Wood Sculpture – Most of the representations in Gothic wood sculpture consist of altarpieces, statuettes of Madonna or of a favorite saint. Examples of Hungarian wooden sculptures can be found in Szepesség area, around the High Tátra Mountains of the Upland (now Slovakia). One of the outstanding examples of the 14th century is the Madonna statue at Szlatvin, created between 1340-1350. Its modeling is similar to the French ivory carvings: straight stature, slim, slender proportions, and characteristic handling of drapery. Similarly created statues can be observed at the Luzinc altar and in the Maria Magdalena Church at Wroclaw, Poland. – B: 0899, T: 7675.

Words, List of – The forerunner of the dictionary: a collection of words commonly used in a particular era. It is essentially a compilation of conceptually grouped words. From the 17th century it was an aid used in the learning of languages. Over time, wordlists multiplied and the multilingual lists became more wide spread. The best-known Hungarian wordlists were: the The Königsberg Fragment and its Ribbons (Königsbergi Töredék és Szalagjai) with 159 Latin and 100 Hungarian words from the second part of the 14th century; the Wordlist of Beszterce (Besztercei Szójegyzék) with 1316 Hungarian words from about 1380-1410; the Wordlist of Schlägli (Schlägli Szójegyzék)) with 2140 Hungarian words from 1400-1410; and the Wordlist of Sopron (Soproni Szójegyzék) with 217 Hungarian words from 1430-1440). Other known wordlists included: the Marmelius’ Lexicon (Marmelius-féle Lexicon) with Latin-German-Hungarian wordlist from 1533, and Gábor Pesti’s Catalogue of Six Languages (Nomenclature sex linguarum): a compilation of six languages from 1538. – B: 1150, T: 7669.

‘Workers’ Guard’ (Munkásőrség) – After the Soviet Army defeated the 1956 Hungarian Revolution and Freedom Fight, the Hungarian Communist Party under the new name of Magyar Szocialista Mumnkás Párt (MSZMP, Hungarian Szocialist Workers’ Party) was reinstalled by the Soviet Union. To protect their power and prevent another revolution, the

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MSZMP set up what, in fact, amounted to their private army. On 19 February 1957, the Presidential Council, by order-in-council of 1957:13, established the Workers’ Guard, which was organized territorially on a military basis into regiments, battalions and companies encompassing the entire country. Pursuing its ‘top secret’ resolution of 3075/1957, (02. 18), the Kádár Government placed the Workers’ Guards under the direct control of the MSZMP. In essence the Workers’ Guard was a party army comprised of Communist party members over 18 years of age. They received military training in the handling of firearms, but were outside the control of the Ministry of Defense. They were a more refined and organized version of the ‘pufajkások’ (an irregular group formed by the communists after the defeat of the revolution to terrorize the population and beat up lesser participants in the revolution). They were used in large-scale security checks especially in the border zones and as guards at party celebrations or mass rallies. In the secret resolution of 3163/1989 (06. 15) on 15 June 1989, the Hungarian Government abolished party control over the Workers’ Guard and in October 1989 Parliament dissolved the whole organization. – B: 1230, 0538, 1153, 1231, T: 7665. →Kádár, János.

World Federation of Hungarians (Magyarok Világszövetsége – MVSZ) – Established on the initiative of Count Pál (Paul) Teleki and Baron Zsigmond (Sigismund) Perényi on the occasion of the Second World Congress of Hungarians held in Budapest on 18 August 1938. Its aim is to join all Hungarians torn away by the Dictated Peace Treaty of Trianon of 1920, and by emigration to the West. The World Federation fosters the feeling of belonging together, and strengthening connections. It supports all activities aimed at preserving and

developing the Hungarian language and culture of those living outside Hungary; furthermore, it follows with interest the results achieved by Hungarians living abroad, as well as their communal Hungarian life. The planned congress for the year 1943 did not take place because of World War II. In the post-war period, in Communist Hungary under Soviet military occupation, the activities of the World Federation were renewed, but it proved unsatisfactory because it was politically directed, diverging from the basic principles laid down at its inauguration. It did not serve the cause of Hungarians living in various lands and, as a result, only an insignificant percentage of Hungarians maintained connection with the Federation. After the end of the Soviet occupation, in 1992 a new governing body took the lead under the presidency of Sándor (Alexander) Csoóri, and Parliament voted for a financial support of 260 million forints per annum. However, the relations between the World Federation working in Budapest and the Hungarians living in minority status in the surrounding countries in the Carpathian Basin, and Hungarians sporadically scattered in foreign countries did not return to normal. In 2000, Miklós István (Nicholas Stephen) Patrubány from Transylvania, was elected its President. In the same year, the Parliament withdrew all financial support from the World Federation. As the largest Hungarian civil organization, it turned its activities to vital Hungarian problems. It initiated an action to abolish the Beneš Decrees, and it took this matter to the European Union and, in connection with this, it published a White Book (Fehér Könyv). It keeps alive the matter of the massacre in Délvidék (Serbia) after World War II, and the masses of Hungarians deported from Carpatho-Ukraine (Subcarpathia). It supports the Szekler Hungarian and Transylvanian National Council, and fights for Szekler autonomy in Transylvania under Romanian rule. The 6th World Congress organized in 2004 in

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Budapest, under the title Hungarians and the East (Magyarság és Kelet), set out to conduct research on the eastern roots and relatives of Hungarians, with an important lecture by the Italian linguist Professor Mario Alinei on the Hungarian-Etruscan connections; his book was translated and published by the World Federation under the title: Ancient Link (Ősi Kapocs). Regarding the dual citizenship issue, a national referendum was initiated by the World Federation on 5 December 2004. As a result of the counter-propaganda of the Government parties, the referendum closed without success, urging the nation for self-examination. The 7th World Congress was held under the slogan Turn-around (Fordulat) and it passed resolutions on numerous decisions about the protection of Hungarians. 230 lectures were given and, on this occasion, the Congress had a number of books published, such as Selected Studies in Hungarian History (Magyarságtudományi Tanulmányok), edited by László (Ladislas) Botos; Hungarian World Encyclopedia (Angol nyelvű magyarságlexikon), edited by Dr. József (Joseph) Pungur; and Autonomy and the New World Order (Autonómia és az új világrend) by Dr. Sándor (Alexander) Balogh. Some years ago, the World Federation introduced its identification certificate called Home-letter (Honlevél), and its illustrated monthly magazine under the same name. In 2010, it launched the monthly series entitled Hungarian Studies (Magyarságtudományi Füzetek), which is directed toward the younger generation. In 2010, the World Federation initiated the revision of the unjust Trianon (1920) and the Paris (1947) Peace Dictates, which dismembered Hungary, throwing 3.5 million ethnic Hungarians under the rule of hostile nations. – B: 1020, 7103, T: 7456.→Teleki, Count Pál; Csoóri, Sándor; Patrubány, Miklós; Beneš, Eduard; Alieni, Mario;Trianon Peace Treaty; Paris Peace Treaty.

World Heritage of Culture and Nature – The agreement consisting of 38 articles dealing with its protection was passed by the general meeting of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in Paris on 16 November 1972. According to the agreement, by “heritage of nature” are meant those physical, biological, geological and physiographical formations and growths, endangered animal and plant species and their areas of habitat and breeding ground, nature-scenes, areas of nature, which are outstanding from an aesthetic or scientific point of view. To be considered “cultural heritage” are those monuments, architectural, large-scale sculptural and artistic creations (paintings), archaeological elements, structures, inscriptions, building-ensembles, buildings, groups of buildings, sites, human creations, combined creations by humans together with nature, as well as areas containing archaeological sites, which by means of their style, characteristics, and degree of harmonizing with their environment, are of outstanding value historically, artistically, aesthetically, ethnologically, anthropologically and from any other scientific points of view. In accordance with Article 5, the participating states undertake to develop the appropriate general policy, to institute the organizations needed for the performance of tasks, to carry out the necessary legal, scientific, technical, administrative and financial measures, and the promotion of the establishment and development of national or regional training centers encouraging scientific research. In accordance with Article 6 by such heritage is meant the heritage of the whole world (on Earth); its preservation is the task, in terms of cooperation, of the entire international community. In Hungary in 1998, there were four areas included in the UNESCO records: (1) Aggtelek National Park, (2) Budapest and Banks of the Danube Protected Ensemble, (3) Hollókő Environmental Protection Area, (4) Pannonhalma

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Benedictine Arch-Abbey. In addition museum villages; monuments protection; nature conservation. – B: 1020, T: 7456.

World Tree – An imaginary gigantic tree, which connects the three worlds: the netherworld, the middle world and the upper world. In the Hungarian folk tales it is known as the ‘tree reaching heavens’ and ‘the tree without top’. The sun and moon are between its branches. Only one select person can look at it. It is a characteristic motive of Hungarian folk tale, but also in Hungarian religious faith. According to this belief only the táltos (shaman) knows its whereabouts. The imaginary sun and moon connection with the world tree is the characteristic of the Asiatic nations, a part of the shamanistic world view. – B: 1134, T: 7682.

World War I, Hungary in Preliminaries From the time of the Napoleonic Wars, there was no major war in Europe that involved many nations. International conflicts were solved in peaceful ways and by conferences. However, with time progressing, tension among the nations of Europe was growing. During the 19th century all major European nations became wealthy and powerful, due to the industrial revolution, new inventions and accumulating capital; searching for new markets was also on the agenda of the rich nations, as well as rivalry.With all these the nationalistic movements grew, seeking independence from the tutelage of ancient kingdoms. A Pan-Slav movement was born and strengthened among Slavic nations, seeking unification of all Slav nations with Russia at the helm. After Austria annexed Bosnia and Montenegro in 1908, resentment toward the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy grew and developing into hostility after the Balkan Wars (1912-1913). When the heir of the Habsburg Monarchy Franz Ferdinand’s plan for "trialism" became known: adding a third, a Slavic entity to the Dual Monarchy, his assassination had been decided by the Black Hand and the Narodna Odbrana, Serbian secret societies, timed to coincide with the military exercises of the Austro-Hungarian Army in Bosnia in summer, 1914. The Serbian Government knew the plan, and. Prime Minister Pasic, even warned the Viennese Court in a hypothetical way, but it was not taken seriously. However, the plan was real, well organized and serious. There were seven would-be assailants planted at the roadside, in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914, where the open motorcade of the Archduke was to pass by. These were: Mehmedbasic, a 27-year old carpenter; Vaso Cubrilovic, a 17-year old student armed with a revolver; Nedelko Cabrinovic, a 20-year old idler; Cvetko Popovic, an 18-year old student; standing close to 24-year old Danilo Ilic, the main organizer of the plot; he had no weapon. The final two of the seven conspirators were further down the road: Trifko Grabez, a 19-year old Bosnian going to school in Belgrade, and also the 19-years old student Gavrilo Princip, the actual assailant, who with two revolver shots murdered the heir to the throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie Chotek. The assassination shocked the world, especially the people of the Monarchy. The Emperor Ferenc József’s (Francis Joseph) closest advisors considered what to do about Serbia's role in the plot. The first Austrian reaction to the killing was divided. The chief of staff, General Franz Baron Conrad von Hoetzendorf, wanted a military response to Serbia, because the Monarchy was surrounded by enemies who needed to be defeated one-by-one,

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before they could combine. Serbia instigated uprising by the Serbs within the territory of the Monarchy. If the Serbs succeeded then the other nationalities in Austria like the Poles, Croats, and Ukrainians would also break off. The only real opposition to a policy of war came from the Hungarian Prime Minister, Count István (Stephen) Tisza. Tisza took the risks of war more seriously than Conrad. He realized that in case of a Habsburg victory the Monarchy certainly would annex Serbia. In this case either the Slavic population of Hungary would increase, leaving the Magyars as a minority in their own country, or trialism would replace the dualist system, again decreasing Magyar influence. In the meantime Vienna approached Berlin for Germany’s support in case of war. After the Berlin Government responded with the so-called "blank check," the war party saw no further reason to seek peace. When the Austrian Council of Ministers met again on July 7, the majority favored war. To satisfy Tisza, the council agreed to present a final letter of demands to Serbia, instead of declaring war at once.  Serbia's refusal to comply would then become the excuse for war. Within a week, Tisza himself consented to this plan: his only reservation was insistence that no Serbian territory be annexed after the war. The final 10-point ultimatum was finalized on 19 July, and sent on 23 July, and demanded a response within 48 hours. The Serbs in turn failed to do their utmost to defuse the crisis. When Serbia first received the ultimatum, Prime Minister Pasic indicated that he could accept its terms, with a few reservations and requests for clarification. In the meantime, it became clear that Russia would unconditionally support Serbia. After that, Pasic gave up seeking peace. In a long reply Serbia rejected the key points of the ultimatum, having known that it certainly would lead to war. The Serbian army began to mobilize even before the reply was complete. Because the Serbian reply did not accept every point, Austria broke off relations on July 25. The tough positions taken by both Austria and Serbia brought the situation too close to the brink to step back, and in a few days matters were out of control. Again, the specific arguments raised by either side mattered less than their mutual willingness to take risks. This policy of brinkmanship made war more likely than negotiation. Austria declared war on Serbia on 28 July 1914. A short war was generally expected. However, imperial, territorial and economic rivalries rapidly led to the World War I, or the “Great War”, between the Central Powers (Austria-Hungary, Germany, Bulgaria, and Turkey) and the Allies (U.S., Britain, France, Russia, Belgium, Serbia, Greece, Romania, Montenegro, Portugal, Italy, and Japan). Events of War, Hungary was involved The Serbian campaign expected to end with an early and easy victory. However, the Serbian Army stood firmly, using their rugged terrain skillfully, and successfully rebuffed the larger Austro-Hungarian Army. It was helped by Russia's invasion on the Eastern Front. In 1915 the Austro-Hungarian Army resumed its offensive in the south front, and brought Bulgaria into the engagement as an ally. After the Serbian forces were attacked from both the north and east, it led to the occupation of the whole of Serbia. However, the remnants of the Serbian Army retreated to Greece, and remained operational in a newly established base. The front stabilized around the Greek border, through the intervention of a Franco-British-Italian force which had landed in Salonica. In 1918, the Allies, under the French General Franchet d’Esperey leading a combined French, Serbian, Greek and British army, attacked the Monarchy from Greece. His initial victories convinced the Bulgarian Government to sue for peace. He then attacked north and defeated the German and

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Austrian forces that tried to halt his offensive. By October 1918, his army had recaptured all of Serbia and was to invade Hungary. It is noteworthy to mention the heroics of the Hungarian Army units with their obvious bravery. The offensive halted only because the Hungarian leadership offered to surrender in November 1918. Human losses: total dead 996,000, including military losses 260,000 with the Serbian forces, 80,000 with the Austro-Hungarian forces 13,000 with Montenegro forces and POW deaths in captivity of 93,000. Civilian dead were as follows due to famine and disease 400,000, killed in military operations 120,000 and 30,000 dead in Austrian prisons or executed. On the Eastern Front the Great War began on 17 August 1914, when Russian First Army invaded Eastern Prussia, and the Russian Second Army attacked the German Eighth Army. The German counter-offensive led to the Battle of Tannenberg, ended by 30 August with German victory. The Russians were also defeated in the Battle of Masurian Lakes. In the south of Poland, Austrian-Hungarian Chief-of-Staff Conrad von Hoetzendorf launched his own attack northward toward Warsaw. The Russians however, on 30 August opened their offensive. The Austro-Hungarian Army had to retreat, and the province of Galicia was abandoned. The year ended with Russia trying assaults into the Carpathian passes. Von Hoetzendorf appealed to the Germans to support an offensive, which he hoped would force the Russians away from the Carpathian Mountains. The Germans agreed on a thrust deep into Russian lines out of East Prussia. The resulting "winter war" proceeded well into Russia, but petered out when the Austro-Hungarian forces in the south failed to dislodge the Russians. Instead they suffered another embarrassing defeat, and even lost control of the Dukla Pass of the Carpathian Mountains, a prime route towards the Hungarian Plains. By May of 1915, the Germans took over command of the Eastern Front and used many of their units to support the increasingly fragmented Austrian formations. Their next offensive came on 1 May, with a powerful attack on the Russian lines at Gorlice. This offensive penetrated nearly 200 km in two weeks, and triggered the collapse of the entire Russian Southern Front. German and Austrian formations pushed northwards toward Warsaw, capturing it in August. In September the German Army attacked toward Riga. Now the entire Russian front line broke up. Only at the end of September could the Russians form a new line. Shortly after this, Russian Czar Nicholas assumed personal command of the army, which was an unfortunate decision. The Central Powers’ gain, to date, included Poland, Lithuania and Latvia. The next major offensive was undertaken by Russian General Alexi Brusilov. By June of 1916, Brusilov's army, were poised along the Galician border facing the Austrian Army. On 4 June the Russians attacked and penetrated deep into Austrian positions, By the time the offensive was two months old, the entire Austro-Hungarian Empire was in danger of collapsing. Romania then entered the war on the side of the allies, and greedily invaded Transylvania instead of preparing an adequate defense. This mistake gave the Germans the opening they needed, and the ensuing counter-offensive achieved the total collapse of Romania to the Central Powers. Germany and Austria gained control of vast coal and wheat fields, although they also added a 200 km front to their lines. Brusilov continued his summer offensive in September, and came to a halt after the seizure of Bukovina and Galicia. Bad news was mounting in Europe: Russia slowly edged toward an open revolt and the Dual Monarchy edged toward dissolution.

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By 1917, the Russian Army suffered repeated catastrophes, by March, some army units began ignoring their orders. This situation was made worse by growing strength in Communist groups, which staged a revolt in Petrograd. After the Czar abdicated, a provisional government was formed with Alexander Kerensky at its head. He ordered General Brusilov to organize another offensive in Galicia. But this offensive ran into the strong wall of German resistance, who first held off, then counter-attacked the Russians. This was the last effort for the Imperial Russian Army, which virtually disintegrated as open civil war swept across Russia. After a heavy armed conflict in the Russian civil war, finally, the "Red" Communists forced the “White" Russians from power. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was finally concluded with the new Bolshevik Government on 3 March 1918, stripping Russia of all provinces west of the Ukraine. That treaty was annulled by the Armistice of 11 November 1918, and the new government in Moscow eventually re-established its presence in all the previously held lands. Human losses of Russia: 2,006,000 military dead (700,000 killed in action, 970,000 died of wounds, 155,000 died of disease and 181,000 POW deaths); 3.9 million Russian POWs were in German and Austrian hands; civilian deaths: 1,500,000. Human losses of the Monarchy in World War I: 1,507,000 total loss of life, 1,100,000 military deaths, 3,620,000 military wounded, 1,700,000 POW in Russia, 467,000 civilian death. The Romanian Campaign. The Kingdom of Romania was ruled by kings of the House of Hohenzollersn from 1866. The King of Romania Carol I, had signed a secret treaty with the Triple Alliance in 1883, which stipulated that Romania would be obliged to go to war only in the event Austro-Hungarian Empire was attacked. After World War I started, Romania remained neutral, later joined the Triple Entente on 17 August 1916, and demanded recognition of its rights over the territory of Transylvania (Erdély), which with a growing Romanian population had been a part of Historic Hungary. However, the Allies had secretly agreed not to honour the territorial expansion of Romania when the war ended. Romania dceclared war on the Central Powers on 27 August 1916. The Romanian Army consisted of over half a million poorly trained men and officers and inadequate equipment. The Bulgarian and the Ottoman Army also helped the Central Powers. On the night of 27 August, three Romanian armies launched attacks through the Carpathian Mountains into Transylvania. The only opposing force was the Austro-Hungarian First Army, which was pushed back. In a short time some towns were captured and the outskirts of Sibiu (Szeben (now Sibiu) were reached. The first counter-attack came from Bulgaria, where General August von Mackensen was in command of a multi-national army of Bulgarian divisions, a German brigade and the Ottoman VI Army Corps whose units began arriving on the Dobrudja front. On 15 September, the Romanian War Council decided to suspend the Transylvanian offensive and destroy the Mackensen army group instead. Even Russian reinforcements arrived to halt Mackensen's army but they did not succeed. When General Falkenhay became the overall commander of the Central Powers’ forces, he successfully ousted the invading Romanian army from Transylvania by the end of 1916. The war brought a complete disaster to Romania. The Germans, Hungarians, Austrians, Bulgarians and Ottomans had conquered Wallachia and Dobruja, while Transylvania was liberated; more than half of the Romanian Army was captured. In 1917, a French expeditionary corps under the command of General Henri Berthelot, re-trained and re-supplied the Romanian Army, together with a disintegrating Russian Army. After the

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Soviet Union signed the Brest Litovsk Treaty on 3 March 1918, the surrounded Romania had no choice but to sue for peace in the Treaty of Bucharest, on 7 may 1918. However, after the successful Allied offensive on the Thessaloniki Front, which removed Bulgaria from the war, Romania re-entered the War on 10 November 1918, and on 1 December re-entered Transylvania, and after occupying it, marched toward Hungary and having defeated the Hungarian Red Army, occupied Budapest. The Romanian army left Hungary after Miklós (Nicholas) Horthy, the Commander of the Hungarian National Army enterted Budapest with his troop on 16 November 1919. Human losses: Total dead 748,000, including military losses 220,000 for the Romanian forces, and 150,000 for the Austro-Hungarian forces, POW deaths in captivity 48,000. Civilian dead due to famine and disease 200,000, killed in military operations 120,000 and died in Austrian prisons 10,000. The Italian Campaign. Italy was a member of the Triple Alliance together with Germany and Austro-Hungary. However, around the turn of the millennium, Italy approached France and England. This was because on the one hand, Austria was Italy’s traditional enemy in the 19th century, and Italy could not expect Austrian support for her territorial expansion. On the other hand , Italy pondered which of the allaiances would yield more advantage. Trieste, Istria, Zara and Dalmaia all were Austrian possessions. In fact, a secret agreement signed with France in 1902, practically took out Italy from the Triple Alliance. Immediately after the outbreak of the conflict, on 3 August 1914, the Italian Government declared that Italy would not commit its troops to the Triple Alliance. The London Pact, signed on 26 April 1915, without the approval of the Parliament, spelled out, that in case of victory Italy was to be given Trentino and South Tyrol, Trieste, Gorizia Grandisca and Istria without Fiume (now Rijeka, Croatia), parts of western Carniola with Idrija and Ilirska Bistrica, and north-western Dalmatia with Zadar and most of the islands, but without Split. Other agreements concerned the sovereignty of the port of Valona, the province of Amntalya in Turkey and part of the German colonies in Africa. In April 1915 Italy joined the Entente and on 3 May 1915 officially rejected the Triple Alliance. On 23 May 1915, Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary, followed by Germany fifteen months later.Italy thenceforth entered the war under the impetus of a relative minority of its population and politicians. The front on the Austrian border was 650 km long, difficult terrain stretching from the Swiss border to the Adriatic Sea. Italians had numerical superiority but was squandered because of the lack of strategic and tactical leadership. The Italian commander-in-chief was Luigi Cadorna, a proponent of the frontal assault, which caused the meaningless death of thousand of his soldiers. His plan was to attack on the Isonzo Front, with the goal of breaking through the Karst Plateau into the Carniolan Basin, taking Ljubljana and threatening Vienna. The campaign soon turned into a trench-warfare. The main difference was the fact that, instead of in the mud, the trenches had to be dug in the Alpine rocks and glaciers, often up to 3,000 m altitude. From 1916 to 1918 the Italian Army launched 11 Isonzo Battles, with enormous sacrifice in death and wounded, without any major success. In the summer of 1917 the Austrian-Hungarian Army received essential reinforcement from the Eastern front due to the peace treaty with Russia, and German troops were tranferred to the Isonzo Front. On 24 October 1917, the troops of the Central Powers broke through the Italian lines in the upper Isonzo, converging on Caporetto. From there the Austro-Hungarian forces advanced some 150 kilometres. The defeat of Caporetto caused the disintegration of the whole Italian front of Isonzo. The

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situation was re-established on the Piave River at the price of 700,000 dead, wounded and prisoners. On 8 November 1917 Commander Cadorna was replaced by Armando Diaz. Under his leadership the Italian army on 24 October 1918 launched a major attack against the Austrian forces along the entire front, initiating the battle of Vittorio Veneto, a village where one of the main actions was fought. In early November 1918, the Italians entered Trent and Trieste, and on 4 November 1918, the Austro-Hungarians signed an armistice at Villa Giusti, near Padua. Finally, on 2 June 1919, the Treaty of St. Germain established peace with Austria. However, it did not give Italy what she expected in accordance with the provisions of the Treaty of London. Italian human losses: 600,000 dead, 950,000 wounded and 250,000 were crippled for life. Aftermath: the Peace treaties The Treaty of Trianon with Hungary: signed at the Grand Trianon Palace in Versailles on 4 June 1919. Hungary signed a cease-fire at Padua on 4 November 1918, though its army was stationed outside Hungary. Furthermore, Hungary was forced to demilitarize its army, after which Czech, Serbian and Romanian troops invaded the defeseless country. The French Colonel Vix nied demanded new borders inside the country. Finally, a Red Hugarian Army was organized to withstand the invaders. By the time of the Peace Treaty, most part of the country was occupied by the invaders, whereby creating a fait accompli. The peace treaty (rather dictate) established the new borders of Hungary and regulated its international situation. Hungary lost over 72% of her historical territory, which left 64% of the inhabitants, including 3.5 out of 10.7 million ethnic Hungarians, living outside Hungary. The territory of Hungary was reduced from 325,111 km2 to 93,073 km2 and its population from 20.9 million to 7.6 million. Hungary lost five of its ten most populous cities as well. Transylvania (Erdély) (larger than the truncated Hungary) was ceded to Romania, northern part of Hungary (Upland, Felvidék) and Sub-Carpathia (Kárpátalja) to the newly created state of Czechoslovakia; Croatia and southern Hungary (Southland, Délvidék, Vajdaság) to the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia), and Burgenland (Western Borderland,Őrvidék) to Austria. Hungarians were deeply disapointed because the promised plebiscites of the Wilsonian self-determination on debated territories, were not held, and most Hungarian settlements, consisting of more than 3 million Magyars, were situated in a 20–50 km wide strip outside and along the new borders in now-foreign territory. More concentrated groups could be found in Czechoslovakia (Northern Hungary and Sub-Carpathia or Kárpátalja), Serbia (Southland, Voivodina or Vajdaság), and Romania (Partium, and Szeklerland in Transylvania or Erdély). The Treaty demolished the 1000 year old Kingdom of Hungary, and punished its people, submitted 3.5 million ethnic Hungarians to peoples with different culture, language and customs, who regarded them as bouty, for exploitation oppression, and persecution. In addition, Hungary had to pay indeminty to its neighbors. However, Hungary recovered some parts of lost territories with treaties in 1938 - 1940 under the auspices of Germany and Italy. It was later reduced to boundaries approximating those of 1920 by the Peace Treaty of Paris, signed after World War II I on 10 February 1947. The Treaty with Germany was signed at Versailles on 28 June 1919. Of the many provisions in the treaty, one of the controversial required Germany to accept sole responsibility for causing the war, later known as the “War Guilt” clause. Germany had to make substantial territorial concessions: Alsace and Lorraine was ceded to France, Northen Schleswig Holstein to Denmark; Western Prussia, part of East Prussia and Memelland

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ceded to Poland; Saarland was put under the League of Nations, Eupen and Malmedy ceded to Belgium, despite plebiscite to the contrary; Danzig became Free Stadt of Danzig; the Brest-Litovsk Treaty was annuled, and German colonies were divided between Belgium, Britain, France and Japan. Moreover war reparations were demanded from Germany: 226 billion Reichsmarks, which was reduced in 1921 to 132 billion Reichsmarks (then $31.4 billion). The German army was limited to a maximum of 100,000 men, and a ban placed upon the use of heavy artillery, gas, tanks and aircraft.  The German navy was similarly restricted to shipping under 10,000 tons, with a ban on submarines. The Treaty with the Republic of Austria was signed at Saint-Germain-en-Laye on 10 September 1919. The treaty declared that the Austro-Hungarian Empire Empire was to be dissolved. The Republic of Austria was reduced to German-speaking Alpine part of the former Austrian Empire, and the crownlands were incorporated into the newly created states of Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Yugoslavia (the “successor states”) and by cession: Trentino, South Tyrol, Reisete, Istria and several Dalmatian islands to Italy and Bukovina to Romania. So, it lost land to Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Poland, Romania, and Italy. Burgenland, then partner with Austria in the Dual Monarchy, was awarded to Austria. The treaty included 'war reparations' of large sums of money, directed towards the allies, to pay for the costs of the war. After the war, the Paris Peace Conferences imposed a series of peace treaties on the Central Powers thus creating serious internal conditions with grave consquences. On 11 November 1918, the Central Powers signed an armistice with the Allied Powers expecting a just peace to be established, based upon the 14 Peace Points of the American Pesident Woodrow Wilson. This did not happen. Instead the French Pime Minister, George Clemenceau’s dictated peace treaties in form of a harsh punishment was forced upon the Central Powers. With it the Allied Powers sowed the seeds of World War II. – B: 1031, 2060, T: 7103.→Hungary, History of; Trianon Peace Treaty; Vienna Award I; Wienna Award II; World War II, Hungary in; Some of the persons and events have their own article.

World War II, Hungary in Preliminaries The Peace Treaties of 1919-1920 closed World War I. However, these treaties, instead of being based on the promised Wilsonian 14 points, which would have created a just and lasting peace in Europe, they were actually based on the French Prime Minister (’the Tiger’) Clemenceau’s plan, which from parts of the defeated Germany and Austro-Hungarian Monarchy created new, or enriched old pro-France states, in order to encircle Germany from south and east, thereby hoping to prevent Germany to start another war in the future. These peace treaties were not negotiated but in fact dictated; they were also unjust because defeated nations were sliced into pieces and ceded to alien and hostile states; they were counter-productive, because instead of securing a lasting peace in Europe, they fell victim to France’s foreign policy, and after twenty years, they led to World War II. As to Hungary: the Trianon Treaty proved the most severe among the treaties. The Hungarian delegation was not allowed to the negotiating table but was confined to a hotel; the treaty text was presented to the delegation only for comment; take it or leave it, in the latter case with serious consequences. The Historic Hungary lost 2/3rd of its territory and 1/3rd of its ethnic Hungarian population, that is 3.5 millions. The territory of Hungary was

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reduced from 325,111 km2 to 93,073 km2 and its population from 20.9 million to 7.6 million. Hungary lost five of its ten most populous cities, most of its mines, forests and industries as well. Before ethnic Hungarians constituted 52% of the country population in Historic Hungary. Alien people from neighboring countries infiltrated, settled and multiplied on Hungarian territory during its thousand years history, and from the middle of 19th century they wanted to create their own state within the state of Historic Hungary or to join their newly-created country. It is one thing to cede them the region where their majority lived, but it is quite another thing to drive 3.5 million ethnic Hungarians into minority status, without a plebiscite and against their will. Purely Hungarian-populated areas were ceded from Hungary, including a strip along the southern Slovakian border, including the Csallóköz island (now Žitný ostrov) of the Danube; Hungarian populated counties in Sub-Carpathia ceded to the newly created Czechoslovakia, while the eastern belt of the Great Hungarian Plain (Partium) and Szeklerland in Transylvania ceded to Romania; the Southland, including Vojvodina (Vajdaság) was added to Yugoslavia. The 3.5 million Hungarians were subjugated to alien and hostile nations, with different culture, language, religion and costume. They were oppressed, exploited or driven out. The treaty dealt with Hungarians as if they were aboriginals of a 19th century colony in Africa. The Trianon Treaty demolished a thousand years old Christian European Kingdom and collectively punished – which was unacceptable then, and now. The outcome of the Treaty of Trianon is to this day remembered in Hungary as the Trianon trauma. This was the attitude of most Hungarians, between the two world wars, the Dictated Treaty of Trianon causing deep humiliation. Consequently, the successive Hungarian Governments, starting with Count István (Stephen) Bethlen Government, pursued two main goals: first, to organize life of normality in conditions of great severity inside truncated Hungary, and second, to review and reverse the Dictated Trianon Treaty. The first goal was achieved splendidly in the field of economy, education, health and culture, despite the world economic and financial crisis of the late 1920s, and early 1930s. As to the second goal: for 15 years, Hungarian governments pressed the Entente Powers for a territorial revision to be decided along ethnic lines, but to no avail. Only the Italian leader Benito Mussolini understood Hungary’s concern and tried to help, despite the fact that Italian and Hungarian armies faced each other in bitter battles during World War I. When Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany, Prime Minister Gyula (Julius) Gömbös, expecting more results, turned to him in connection with Hungarian foreign policy and soon Hungary joined the Axis powers as a result. In the fall of 1938, at the Munich Agreement, where Adolf Hitler demanded and received the German Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia, Hungary wanted the return of the Hungarian populated southern part of Slovakia, and the southern part of Sub-Carpathia; these were finally returned to Hungary when Italy and Germany sponsored the First Vienna Award on 2 November 1938, returning an area of 11.927 km² with a population of 1,060,000, 84.1 % Hungarian; leaving 70,000 Hungarians in Slovakia. When the Czechoslovak Republic was dissolved on 14 March 1939, Slovakia declared itself an independent state. On 15 March, Carpatho Ukraine (Sub-Carpathia or Kárpátalja or Ruthenia) declared its independence, which was rejected by Hungary, and between 15 and 18 March, Hungarian armed forces re-possessed the rest of Sub-Carpathia. The region was given special autonomous status.

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In June 1940, a Soviet ultimatum demanded Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina from Romania which had been incorporated into Romania after World War I and the Romanian Government had to give in. This encouraged the Hungarian Government to resolve the question of Transylvania (Erdély), which became part of Romania by the Trianon Treaty (1920). The Axis Povers suggested to the parties that they solve their problems by direct negotiations, which started on 16 August 1940 in Turnu Severin, but it led to nowhere. Romania asked the Axis powers for arbitration. The ministers of foreign affairs of the Axis, Joachim von Ribbentrop of Germany and Count Galeazzo Ciano of Italy, announced the award on 30 August 1940 at the Belvedere Palace in Vienna. As a result of the Second Vienna Award, the northern half of Transylvania with 43,492 km² area and a population of 2,578,100 was transferred to Hungary. The rest of Transylvania, known as Southern Transylvania, with 2,274,600 Romanians and 363,200 Hungarians remained in Romania. The new border was guaranteed by both Germany and Italy, and it was internationally accepted. On 20 November 1940, under pressure from Germany, Hungarian prime Minister Count Pál (Paul) Teleki signed the Tripartite Pact. In December 1940, Teleki also signed a "Treaty of Eternal Friendship" with the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, under the Regent Prince Paul. In March 1941, Prince Paul signed the Tripartite Pact on behalf of Yugoslavia. Two days later, a Yugoslavian coup d’état removed Prince Paul, replaced him with pro-British King Peter, and Yugoslavia withdrew from the Tripartite Pact. Hitler to prevent the postponement of the planned German invasion of Soviet Union, decided to crush Yugoslavia at once. Hitler asked the Hungarian government to support his invasion of Yugoslavia, promising the return of some territory (part of the Southland) to Hungary in exchange for military cooperation. On 3 April 1941, unable to prevent Hungary's neutrality Count Teleki committed suicide. Days after Teleki's death, the German Army invaded Yugoslavia and quickly crushed Yugoslavian armed resistance. Croatia declared its independence and Yugoslavia fell apart. The Regent, Miklos Horthy ordered the Hungarian Third Army to retake the ethnic Hungarian- populated territories of the Southland: the interfluve-area between the Danube and its tributary River Tisza and the Hungarian-populated enclaves of Baranya (Baranja) and Muraköz (Muranje) to protect ethnic Hungarians against possible atrocities by Serb partizans. War against Soviet Union After Germany had quickly overrun Yugoslavia and Greece, it started the war of formidable proportions against the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941. Slovakia, had already entered the war against Poland in 1939 (at the time of the partition of Poland), now immediately joined in the war against the Soviet Union, together with Romania and other countries. Hungary was the last participant in the war, starting on 27 June, as a result of an alleged Soviet aerial bombardment of Kassa (now Košice, Slovakia). In the Parliament, Prime Minister László (Ladislas) Bárdossy presented a state of war between Hungary and the Soviet Union. Hungary had to be cautious entering the war against the Soviet Union, despite the first-hand experience with communism rule during the 4 months in 1919 of the Hungarian Soviet Council Republic. First, the Hungarian Army served as a policing-force behind the lines in the territories already occupied by the German forces. However, Hungary was soon commissioned to front-line service, holding a 200 km front in the Voronezh (Voronyezs) area along the River Don. The Hungarian 2nd Army was unsuited for front-line battle because of a lack of modern heavy weaponry. After the German

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military disaster at Stalingrad in early 1943 and the withdrawal from the Caucasus Mountains, the Soviet Army launched its winter-offensive against the 2nd Hungarian Army’s bridgehead at Uryv on 12 January 1943. Demonstrating great courage and heroism, the 2nd Hungarian Army was forced to withdraw from the banks of the Don, when the Soviet troops outflanked them and in this great ‘battle of the Don’ suffered devastating losses between 12 and 30 January 1943 with 100,000 dead, 60,000 taken prisoners in Russia and only 40,000 returning to Hungary. The material losses were also very heavy. The sacrifices of the 2nd Army thus prompted a political decision to save Hungary from the consequences of her participation in a losing war: henceforth, Hungary sought contact with the Allied Powers to negotiate the terms of a separate peace. However, there were no secret moves with the Soviet Union. Aware of Prime Minister Kállay's policy of deception and fearing that Hungary might conclude a separate peace with the Allies, on 19 March 1944 Hitler ordered Nazi troops to occupy Hungary. Regent Horthy was confined to the Royal Castle, in essence placed under house arrest. Döme (Dominic) Sztójay, a National Socialist, became the new Prime Minister. During the Kállay Government Jews in Hungary still could live in relative freedom, restricted but not subjected to physical harm. But after the German occupation the deportation of Jews commenced to the concentration camps in German-occupied territories. In August 1944, Regent Horthy replaced Sztójay with the anti-Fascist General Géza Lakatos, a daring move under German military occupation. Under the Lakatos regime, acting Interior Minister Béla Horváth ordered Hungarian gendarmes to prevent any Hungarian citizens from being deported. At one point in time, Horthy, the former Admiral of the Habsburg Monarchy, ordered a Hungarian panzer unit from Esztergom to Budapest for the protection of the Jewish Ghetto there. On 23 September 1944, Soviet forces crossed the Hungarian border. On 15 October, Regent Horthy made the famous announcement over the radio that Hungary had signed an armistice with the Soviet Union but the remaining Hungarian army units continued fighting against the invading Sovjet forces. The Germans kidnapped Horthy’s son Miklós (Nicholas) Horthy Jr, whereupon Horthy was forced to abrogate the armistice, deposed the Lakatos Government, and named the leader of the Arrow Cross Party Ferenc (Francis) Szálasi, who formed a new “Government of national Unity (Nemzeti Összefogás Kormánya). Finally in the untenable situation Regent Horthy, as head of state, resigned; he was taken to Germany as a prisoner of the occupying German forces. He survived the war and spent his last years in Estoril, Portugal. During the Arrow Cross reign persuction of Jews and Gypsies resumed, so the secret rescuing of Jews continued with the activity of the Swedish diplomat Raul Wallenberg from the Swiss Embassy, as well as by the churches (including Cardinal Mindszenty) and individuals, families. In the war-ravaged Europe Hungary was the last refuge for Jews, Polish refugees, and Allied POWs. Towards the end of World War II Hungary became a battlefield. The second biggest tank-battle of the war was fought in the east of the Great Plain, east of Debrecen, from 16 September to 24 October. The German-Hungarian tank-formation scored an important victory here, holding up the Soviet advance into Hungary for a considerable period. They encircled and destroyed three Soviet tank corps of a Mobile Group. By 24 December 1943 Soviet and Romanian army units encirled Budapest and thus the Siege of Budapest started with bitter street fightings which ended on 13 February 1945, with a destroyed city and enormous losess to both sides as well as civilian life. However, on 6 March 1945, the

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Germans launched their Lake Balaton Offensive, attempting to hold on to Germany’s remaining source of oil (in Transdanubia). Their operation failed. By 19 March 1945, Soviet forces had recaptured what they lost during the 13-day offensive. The Soviet conquest of Hungary officially ended on 4 April, in practice on 12 April 1945.

After the war The Soviet occupation of Hungary, as they named it officially, was eufemized as “liberation“. Nonetheless, Soviet forces remained “provisionally” in Hungary until 16 June 1991. First, the occupation forces relied on free robbery of civilians, and mass raping of women in all ages. Hungarian civilians in both gender, were randomly rounded up and taken for a ‘malenki robot” (small work), and they were transported in cattle wagons to the Soviet Union for slave labor, never to see them again. From Sub-Carpathia 50,000 civilians were taken, from northern Transylvania 200.000, from Slovakia 50.000 taken to Czechland (Silesia) for forced work, 70,000 involved in exchange of citizens and 100,000 was expelled to Hungary. In southern Hungary the Tito partisans tortured and massacred 50,000 ethnic Hungarians, including whole families and whole villages. In January 1945, ethnic Germans from Hungary, 100,000 to 170,000 were arrested and transported to the Soviet Union as forced laborers. In some villages, the entire adult population were taken to labor camps in the Donets Basin. Many died there as a result of hardship and ill-treatment. At a later stage some 200,000 ethnic Germans were forcibly removed from Hungary and deported to the two Germanies. On 28 December 1944, a Provisional National Assembly and a Provisional Government were formed in Debrecen under acting Prime Minister Béla Miklós. On 20 January 1945, representatives of the Provisional Government signed an armistice in Moscow. In the meantime the prominent leaders of the 1919 Communist Government, who escaped and lived in the Soviet Union, were transported back to Hungary and became leaders of the Communist Party. This group included: Mátyás (Matthew) Rákosi, György (George) Lukács, Zoltán Vass. They all received important positions and prepared the Communist takeover of Hungary in 1948. In the meantime the rebuilding of Hungary had begun, and simultaneously the so-called “People’s Tribunals” (Népbíróságok) forced out of office and punished the leading intelligentsia of the nation. The transformation of Hungary into a Communist state had thus commenced. Hungary in the presence of foreign occupation force was forced to sign the Peace Treaty of Paris on 10 February 1947. The Treaty declared that "The decisions of the Vienna Award I and II are declared null and void" and Hungarian boundaries were returned to the former frontiers as they existed on 1 January 1938, except a minor loss of territory on the Czechoslovakian border near Bratislava. Two thirds of the ethnic German minority was deported to Germany in 1946-48, and there was a forced "exchange of population" between Hungary and Czechoslovakia. Hungary again lost all the territories that it gained between 1938 and 1941, before she entered the war. The Soviet Union annexed Sub-Carpathia (Kárpátalja), which never was part of the Soviet Union and the earlier Russia, and it is now part of the Ukraine, by virtue of inheritance, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. In addition Hungary had to pay $300 million in reparation, and finance a large Soviet occupation force. On 1 February 1946, the Kingdom of Hungary was abolished, and replaced by the Second Republic Hungary, in reality becoming a Soviet satellite. The People Republic of Hungary was declared in 1949, and despite the Revolution and Freedom Fight of 1956, it lasted until the

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Bloodless Revolution of 1989, when on 23 October, the Third Republic of Hungary was declared with a multy-party system. – B: 1031, 1230, 1275, 1383, T: 7668.→Hungary, History of; World War I; Vienna Award I; Vienna Award II; Paris Peace Treaty; Some of the persons and events have their own word article, as indicated.

Worthless Money (Hungarian: fabatka) – "Batka" was a completely devalued coin of Silesian origin in the 16th century. Fa meaning „wood”, and batka was a ridiculous, worthless counterfeit coin, made out of wood. Today it is used in vernacular Hungarian to express the worthlessness of something: "I wouldn't even give a fabatka for it"; or ‘It isn’t worth a fabatka’. – B: 1078, T: 3233.

Würtz, Ádám (Tamási, 2 June 1927 - Budapest, 13 May 1994) – Graphic artist. His family had connections with New York: his ancestors worked in the Metropolitan Opera there as costumier. Würtz completed the School of Arts of Budapest in 1953. His teachers included Sándor (Alexander) Bortnyik and Bertalan (Bartholomew) Pór. Later, he continued his studies in Austria, Germany, Italy, Switzerland, England, Poland, the Soviet Union, Romania, Greece and China. He was best known as an illustrator of graphics for books; he achieved the greatest success with his illustration of the works of Shakespeare and the poet Attila József. His one-man shows have been seen in Budapest since 1964, but he had shows also in Frankfurt, Prague, Helsingborg, Bologna and New York. In the USA, his first exhibition was held in the mid-1980s; later, he did some of his paintings in the United States, when he worked there for a while. His paintings are characterized by the application of mixed techniques. Byzantine icons and Hungarian folk art mainly influenced his style. His illustrations appeared next to the text as complements. Many public collections hold his works, including the Hermitage, St Petersburg, the Metropolitan Gallery, Budapest, Hungarian National Gallery, Budapest, and the Klingspor Museum, Frankfurt. He won a number of prizes in Hungary and abroad, among them the Munkácsy Prize (1957, 1966, 1970), the Golden Pen, Belgrade (1968) and IBBY Prize, Tokyo. The International Würtz Foundation was formed in 1996; its president is Ádam Würtz Jr., also a graphic artist. A school in Tamási bears his name. – B: 1031, 1654, T: 7456.→Bortnyik, Sándor; Pór, Bertalan; József, Attila.