~ ~

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. ' : . ISSN 1994-9057 . . (Print), ISSN 2070-0083 (Online)

vs1. 7 (41. SlMs 31, Seatember. 2013

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African Research Review I

An Internationdl Multidisciplinary Journal, Ethiopia '' Vai.'7 (4), Serial No. 31 , September, 201 3

ISSN 1994-9057 (Print) ISSN 2070-0083 (Online)

Aims and Scope Ms. Jenifer Ward -Assistant Professor - Department of Lo African Research Review [AFRPEV) is o multi-disciplinary Bahir DarUniversity,Ethiopio jleigh~ord3@~ohoo.com Journal of the International Aszociotion of African Researchers and Reviewerr (IAARR) with its base in Ethiopia. its aim i s to Dr Clara 0. Obiagwu -Acting Provost, Nwafor Orizu Colle(

scholarly research outputs in and on Africo. Its focus i s of Education, Nsvgbe. P.M.B. 1734, Onitsha, Anambrn Star on the broad areas of Africa Development and irwes in Nigeriaclorao@afrrevjo.org various Academic Disciplines. AFRREV will olro publish research monographs, feature articles, brief notes, comments Dr. 0. E. Olvburoye - Department of Statistics, University r on articles and book review.The journal is published ibodan,~i~eria.oe.olubusoye@moil.ui.edu.n~ about four timer a year (January, April, July R October) and otherirruer as the case may be. Engr. DI Wubishet Jekale - Director, Construction Seap

Capacity Building Programme (CSCBP), Department p Editor in Chief Construction Management, Addis Ababo University, Ethiopii

+Dr. 8. J. Ojo jcmc@ethionet.et Senior Programmes R Projects Ofticer - African Academy of Languages (ACALAN) Rev. Fr. W. N. Ofojebe (Ph.D) -Deportment of Educatio

- African Union Commission Foundotionr/ Administration, Anombra State University, U BP 10 Koulouba-Bamako, Mali Nigeria; Education Secretary, Catholic Diocese of Awk babaojo2002@yohoo.com, Anambra state, Nigerio.frwence@yahoo.com

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I Dr Kafelegn Kebede - Dept of Animal, Range Land & wi id l i f~ ] Sctence, Faculty of Dryland Agriculture, Mekelie universid, Mekelle,Ethiopia

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Dr Joy Obunadike - Department of Primary Education ~tudier" Nwafor Orizu College af Education, Nsugbe

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Environmental Protection, Faculty of Dryland Agriculture, Mekelle Univerrity, Mekelle, Ethiopia

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Prof J. 0. Ogbuagu - FICCON, FCAI, FISMN, Provost, ~ e d e r a l College of Education (Technical) Umunze, Anambra ~fr ican ~esearch Review by lntemational Association of African i State, . Researchers and Reviewem is iicensed underacreative Commons

&ttributian-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Un~orted License.

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Contents

1. The Role of Sinall and Medium Scale Enterprises in Poverty Reduction in Nigeria: 2001 -2011 Oba, U. O., & O~~uoha, B. C. (1-2.5) 11ttp:i!dx.doi.or~10.33 14iaCrrev.7il. l

2. Food Insecurity in Nigeria Otaha, I. J. 11ttp://dx.doi.or410.43 14Iafi1-cv.7i4.2

3. Labour Unionism and Its Effects on Organizational ~rodut t iv i t~ : A Case Study of Jos International Breweries (JIB) PLC, Nigeria Collins, E. N. 0. 11ttp:~/dx.doi.or~/10.43 14!'afkrev.714.3

4. Organizational Culture and Corporate Innovation Olori, W 0. & John Mark http:/!dx.doi.orq/10.43 14/afiev.7i4.4

5. Investment and Project Economics: Contemporary Lessons for Nigeria's Transformation Agundu, P. U. C. http:!ldx.doi.or~/lO.43 14iafrrev.7i4.5

6. Fihncial Openness and Economic Growth in Nigeria: A Vector Error Correction Approach 0-vovwi, 0. D. & Eshenake S. J. l~it~:~/dx.doi.orq/10.43 14!'afrrev.714.6

7. Usage of Major Heuristics in Property Investment Valuation in Nigeria

Zrohanz, C. O., Ogunba, 0. A. & 020-vede, S. A. htt~~:i!dx.doi.orqi10.43 14iafrrcv.7i4.7

~ -- - - ~~~~~-pp . . 1

Copyright0 IAARR 2013: i1.1~~\1..i7fi'r.e1.io.rie1 1 Indesed AfE.ica11 Jo~rr~rals Orrlirre: u~w~~.ajol. ir?fo

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8. Staple Food and Livestock Production among t l~e Yoruba of the Colonial Nigeria: The Ekiti I Experience 1 Oloidi, J. (120-137) i http:/jds,doi.orcjl 0.43 14iafsrev.7i4.8

9, Wolnell Empowerment as a Determinant of Investments in Children in Selected Rural Communities in Nigeria Folaranmi, 0. 0. (138-161) htt~:,!idx.doi.or~/l0.43 14/afrrev. 7i4.9

10. Road Transport Entrepreneurs and Road Transportation Revolution in Igboland, 1920- 1999: A Case Study of the Nnewi Igbo of

4 Nigeria Ajaegbo, D. I. (1 62- 1 73) 11ttu:Ndx.doi.orgi10.43 14;afn-cv.7i4.10

11. Awareness and Use of Social Media in Advertising: The Case of Facebook among Residents of Port Harcourt, Nigeria Nyekwere, E. O., Kur: J. T. & Nyekwere, 0 . (1 74- 194) l~ttp:iidx.doi.orri10.4314iati-rev.7i4 11

12. Universities and Corporate Social Responsibility Perfonnance: An Implosion of the Reality Asemah, E. S., Okpanachi, R. A. & Oluniuji, E. 0. (1 95-224) httu:/!dx.doi.or.g!10.43 14!afrrev.7i4.12

13. Teachers' Perception on the Factors ~ffect ing Job Satisfaction in Ekwusigo Local Government of Anambra State, Nigeria Obineli, A. S. (225-23 7) httr,:l!dx.doi.orrzi10.43 14/afrrcv.7i3.13

Copj~rightQ IAARR 2013: 1.~,r11~.iifir.ei'i<,.iret liidexed Afkicnri Jourrials Oi~lir ie: wu.~r..ajol.ii~fo

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Vol. 7 (4) Serial No. 31. Sepren~her. 2013

14. Educational Development and Production of Accountants in Nigeria: Challenges and Way forward Akhidinze, A. E. & El-iabie, S. (238-251) htt~:!/cix.doi.ord10.43 14iafrrev.7i4.14

15. Systematic Approach to the Improving Standard of Nigeria Educational System Amannah, P. I. & Ahiahwo, M. J. http:/idx.doi.orgi 10.4314/afn-ev.7i4.15

16. Challenges of Universal Basic Education ~ r 6 ~ r a r n m e : The Role of Counsellors Okonh~vo, M. C. & Obineli, A. S. (265-2 73) http:ilds.dni.or~/l0.43 14iafi-rev.7i4.16

17. Christian Church: A Catalyst for Economic Development in Nigeria Anozie, E. E. (2 74-287) http:iidx.doi.or~.l10.43 - 14iaGrev.7i4.17

18.Climate Change Impacts on the Built Environment in Nigeria Ezeabasili, A. C. C. & Okonkwo, A. U. (288-303) htt~:ildx.doi.org/10.43 14lafrrcv.7i4.18

iii

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V07. 7 (41, Swsfa[ No. 3 I , &rel?;lzer, 2013: 138-i61 1,%jsr\1 1994-9057 (Prillt) ISSN 2070--0083 (Online)

Wamen Empowerment as a Determinant of Investments in Children in Selected Rural

Communities in Nigeria

Folaranmi, Olufunmilayo Olarenwaju - Department of Social Work, University of Ibadan, Ibadan E-mail: ojfolaranmi@yahoo.com Phone:+2348023693241;+2347045505109

Abstract

The stzi<v established the irlflzler7ce of M J O ~ I ~ I ~ e1~7powernient on ii~vestrnents in cl7ildren ill selected I-~iral coninlunities ir7 Nigeria. A totc~l o f hvo 11z~nclr.ed alld fif@ rural wornerl from Ile-lfe and its erlvir-011s corlstituted the sanlple for the stlldv. Their ages 1-aanged fi0177 ISyear-s to 39yea1-s with a rneai~ age of 26.7year-s and sta17dar-d deviation of' 7.08. The two inst1-uri7e1rts used were aut!101--co~~str-z~cted interview grricfe questio17rluir-es u2ith 0.69 arlcl 0.74 relinbilih~ coejficiellt respectivelv. Tlie data obtained we]-e alla1,vred zlsillg jieqrier7cy coz~lits, yerce11tages, c h i - s q c e ar7d rllz~ltiple regressio~l statistics. The results obtained ,fi-on1 the strrgv irldicated tl~ut, a coi71bii~atior1 of' the six irzdependerlt vnriables sigrlij?cantly predicted the depe17de17t variable. The reszrlt also i~ldicnted that, signlf7ca11t relatio11sl1iy existed befiveell eacl1 ?f the variables and cl7ilc/,-en sckooli17g, ilealth nrld survival. Based or7 the results of tl1ese$r~dir7gs, it was recolrlri~ended that tl~ose i17 the helpiilg pr-ofessions sl'1ould take

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J,'ol. 7 (1) Se/.itrl No. 31. Septe~lrbe~; 2013 Pp. 138-161

cogrli=arice of tliose ~~c~r ia l~ les flint linve been .fozn7d to iriflzlerice irl~vstirlg ill cl~ildr,ell scl7oolirtg. I~enltl~ nr7d slrr-vivnl. The t.es~11t N I S O r~ecori~rlleriiled irife~.\~erltiori st~.rrtegy to lie& firr~iilies, coulples arid the irrdii,idzli~ls for. ri~odifi~i~ig nttitlrdes c~rid beilcrviours 011 g-eti~l'er. iss~res.

Key words: Decision-inaking autonomy, Access to ecollornic resources, Freedoin from fear and coercion, Scl~ooling, hcalth and survival.

Introduction

Background to the study

Women's status has received considerable attention as a significant factor affecting demographic behaviour and outcoines in sub-Saharan Africa and in Nigeria particularly. The well-developed body of theoretical work and the substantial einpirical research on the relationsl~ip between wo~nen's status and demnographic behaviour, largely using women's education as a proxy for status, have been supple~nellted with the increasing availability of data that directly address different aspects of women's status. Research supports the view that low status of women- characterized by limited mobility; weak decision making autononly; and restricted access to resources, especially those that equip women to earn an income- significantly influellces women's reproductive intentions and behaviours throughout the region ( Balk 2003 and Schuler and Hashemi 2003; and Moore 2001; Malhorta, Vanneinan, and Kishor 2003; Jejeebhoy 2002; and Visara 200 1; Morgan and Niraula 200 1 ; Sathar 1993; Smith et al. 1995: and Sathar and Kazi 1996). However, most of the empirical rcsearch in this area has concentrated 011 the influences of women's status on fertility. Much less research on womeil's status has beell focused on using direct mcasures to assess the links between women and their bchaviours once their children are bo1-11. In othei- words, the iilfluence of women's status on deinograpl~ic transitio~ls has collcentrated on the quantity of children and has neglected, or takcn for grantcd, investments in the quality of children. While fanlily decisions regarding thc quantity and quality of children are often

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closely linked, a closer look at the latter offers additional insight into family- building strategies.

Nigeria is widely recognized as a highly patriarchal country that attaches little social value to wo~nen and girls and that exhibits llizll levels of gender inequality in social and econoinic arenas as well as within households. While this description encompasses most countries in Africa, it is coupled in Nigeria with high fertility levels that have been stubbonlly resistant to change until only recently (Sather and Casterline 2004); low levels of schooling, particularly anlong girls and women in rural areas (Goven~ment of Nigeria 1997); World Bank 1998); and alarmingly high levels of infant and inatelnal mortality (World Bank 1998). For example, the infant mortality rate in Nigeria is 95, conlpared to 83 in Ghana, 75 in Sierra Leone and 7 1 in Gambia (World Bank 1998); this is notable particularly give11 Nigeria's better global econoinic position relative to other countries in the region. Thus it is surprising that little research has addressed the relatiollships between women's status in Nigeria and the survival and situations of children.

This paper attempts to investigate the iilfluences of women's status on investments in children, focusiilg specifically on infant survival and children's schooling. Given the low investlnents in children ( as depicted by the unusually higll levels of infant mortality and low levels of school attendance) and the low status of wolnen in Nigeria, -

identifying the factors that improve the survival and situatioil of wolneil and children is critical, particularly those factors that are related to wornen's position in the society. It is observed that Nigerian women who are e~npowered are likely to be motivated and able to make greater investnlents in their children, just as they are likely to want slnaller fanlilies and to use contraception. It is further observed that, womei~'s status has iilultiple facets, operates at multiple levels, varies by context, not all aspects of women's status will share an equal or identical role in processes that ellable wolneil to invest in their children. Different aspects of womcn"s status may be important for r

diffcreut types of investments, and identifying these relationships

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offers valuable infoilnation on women's empower~nent as well as on each investment outcome.

The cl~allcnge to this article is to detenlliile which aspects of womeu's status- and at what levels- are iinpoitant in explaining positive investinents in children in the context of rural Nigeria. While the situatioil of rural woinen in So~itll-West Nigeria may not be generalizable across other areas of Nigeria, the context is useful for gaining insight into women's status in patriarchal settings and women's ability to invest in their children.

Theoretical framework

Multiple dimensions of women's status

The theoretical framework for this study is based on extensive theoretical and empirical research that outlines the pathways through which women's autonomy influences demographic behaviour at micro and illacro levels ( Mason 2000,2001,Smith 2000; Smith et al. 2001).

First, theoreti'cal and empirical literature supports the view that womea's status is multidiinensioilal in nature. A women's status coinprises inultiple characteristics of the woman and her relationships with others, it is iinpossible to capture the influence of and understand woinen's status through a single measure. Dimensions including, but not limited to, freedoin of movement, access to financial and izon - financial resources, decision making autonomy, gender attitudes, freedom from fear and coercion, and equality in her relationship with her partner are arguably important but distinct aspects of a woman's position in relation to men, other family members, and other woinen (Fredrici, Mason, and Sogner 2000; Mason 2002). Empirical studies of women's status in Sub- Saharan Africa supports this inultidimeilsioilality and demonstrate that various aspects of women's status have different detei~ninants and little correlation with each other (Balk 2003, 2002; Jejecbhoy 2002; Kazi and Sathar 1996; Mason 2003). Moreover, concurrently exainining multiple diinensions of +

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women's status illforlns us about the pathways through which W O I ~ C I I ' S status operates on demographic outconles (Mason 2003).

Sccond, thc cultural and l~istorical context is i~nportant (Frcdcrici, Mason, and Sogncr 2002). At the core of the framework is the notioil that the gender inequality at the individual level and within the l~o~isel~old is related to but distinct from "gender systems of stratification" at the macro levcl (Mason 2000) and that comnprehensive and accurate ~nodels of outcomcs believed to be affected by geildcr inequality must incorporate women's status at multiple levels. I11 other words, behaviou at the individual levels occur witl~in gender norms at the l~ousel~old and conunu~lity levels, and the multiple layers of women's status, and how they overlap, have important i~nplications for the actions of women. For cxa~llple, individual mobility in a coininunity where few wolnell call leave the house unescorted has different iinplications than an individual woman's movement in a comlnunity where many women can move freely.

Finally, the relationship between various aspects of women's status and demographic outcomes will differ with thc deinographic outcome under consideration. Mason (2002) supports this on a general level by using findings froin several studies to show that women's status (often measured by women's education a~ldior einployinent) appears to have a direct or conditio~liilg influence on the llloi-tality traslsition but an indirect and more speculative effect on fertility change.

Women's status on investment and children

Although few researchers have addressed the relationship between women's status and investments in children specifically, the idea that women's einpower~nent has positive consequences on children in terms of i~llproving their health and survival and/or schooling is not new. Many studies- dating back at least to Caldwell's (2004) seminar study on education and mortality- use women's education and cinploylnent as proxies for women's status, particularly as related to infant and child inortalitv. It is observed that search on women's

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education and, to a lesser extent; elnploylnent provides the basis for many of the cui-reilt studies that inakc use of more precise ineasures of women's status.

Women's education

A large number of studies look at thc iilflueilce of women's educatioll on iilfailt mortality or childi-en's schooli~lg in Nigeria and other African countries and show coilsisteilt results: higher levels of women's education are associated with a higher probability of infant and child survival and with higher levels of school attendance alnoilg

I children ( Ware 2000: Hobcraft 2002; Basu 2001; Caldwell 2001; Jejeebhoy 2002; Strauss and Thomas 2001; Agha 2000 for a review of infant mortality; and Sathar et al. 1988; Stroinquist 1989; and Hill and King 1993 for children schooling.

The interpretations of these relationships and the specified pathways through which the researchers argue that education improves a mother's ability to invest in her children's health and schooling are far from consistent, however. Most reseal-chess follow Caldwell's (2004) and Ware's (2000) arguineilts that maternal education benefits children's survival probabilities through reducing fatalism, increasing a mother's ability to manipulate the world ( i.e., improving her ability to seek and secure treatment), and changing the balance of power in family relationships. Inlprovelnents in women's status are thus considered to be coilnccted to, and represented by, women's education. However, inally of the empirical tests aiined at understanding the pathways through which maternal education affects child health and survival have highlighted the iinportailce of better use of health facilities (Bicego and Boei~na 2001; Caldwell and Caldwell 2000); better proccssiug of health illfoilnation attributed to basic educatioil skills learned in school (Caldwell 2004; Glewwe 2003); and changes in mother's bchaviour associated with better health practices, suc11 as seeking treatment and providing better child- care (Clelaad 1990; Caldwell and Caldwell 2000). While these studies suggest bctter perforinailce by cducated inotl~crs, the einpirical evidcnce is far

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froin co~lclusive (Desai and Alva 2004), and the results do not ilecessarily speak to a relationship between women's status per se and child survival.

011 the other hand, the link between maternal education and children's schooliilg in Sub-Saharan Africa, which has received considerably less systeinatic research attention, is explained as operating through ail illcreased real or perceived value of wonlen and girls that disrupts substantial inale prcference: a greater value attached to education (i.e., more positive attitudes toward schooliag); exposures to modem ideas, particularly in the case of daughters' schooling (Sathar et al. 2001). The einphasis is placed inore on the increase in the abilities and poteiltial ecoiloinic freedom attributed to educated woineil and changes in perceptioils of the value of educated girls in general as opposed to specific behaviours or events that are associated with it (such as in the case of children's health). Again, while researchers argue that inaternal education increases children's schooling, particularly that of girls, because of an improved status of women and girls, the majority of research in the area fails to incorporate measures of women's status'in the models (Stash and Morgan 2003 provide and exception). Coilfoundiilg women's status with women's educatioil in this way makes it difficult to detei~nine the relationship of either with investments in children in the fonn of schooling.

Questioils about what women's education indicates in these models are not limited to those regarding women's status. Additional questions have been raised about whether inother's schooling has an indepeildeilt influence on iilvestineilts in children or whether it serves merely as a proxy for a household or conxnunity's socioeconoinic status (United Nations 1993). I11 analyses of both infailt mortality and children's schooling ill South-Wcst Nigeria, the household's ecoiloinic positioil and father's education are also often significailt predictors of iilvestineilts in children, although, particularly in the case of children's schooling, inaternal education generally has a stroilgel- effect (Sathar 1993; Sathar and Llyod 2000; Durrailt 2001; Agha 2000). Most studies suppoit an independelit (although often reduced)

t

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effect of inater~~al educatioi~ on infant and child health and survival after collti-ollii~g for a l~ousehold's socioeco~iornic status ( Strauss aiid Thoinas 2001 for a rcvicw; but Das Gupta 1997 for an exccption), .

althougl~ otl1ers question on the casual ilaturc of the relatio~lship and even suggest that the rclatioilship may be spurious (Desai and Alva 2004). A close link between womea's education and wornell's status is also questioned by Jeffery and Basu (2000) in a review of the relationship between the two and fertility in Africa south of the Sahara; the researchers point out that the education context may be co~iservative and may reinforce gender attitudes. Again, the infollnational and behavioural factors inost closely associated with maternal education in these studies could occur iildepeildently of women's status. Thus, despite widespread ageemeilt that maternal education improves investments in children, the primary limitation of women's education as a proxy for women's status is its inability to explain pathways of influence.

Women's employment

Women's eillployinent is inore equivocal than women's educatio~l when used as an indicator of women's status in studies of iilvestlneilts in children. This is because women's elnployinent and iilvestilie~lts in children are endogenous- both are outcoines of and contributors to household ecolloinic and social status and decision inakiilg processes- and thus are more theoretically complex than maternal education. Given this, the eil~pirieal evidence suggests an ainbiguous and nuanced relationship, particularly in the realin of child survival. I11 most studies there is either no association or a negative association between woinen's work and infant and child survival after coiltrolling for the socioecono~nic status of the household (United Nations 19SS), even in areas where it is prcdo~niilailtly poor woiilen who work (Bas and Basu 2000; Kishor and Parasuranlan 2003). The negative association is also upheld with macro-level data (Kishor 1993).

The nlost coirunou argunlcnt for why women who work cxperieilce higher infant and child ~iiorrality (controlling for socioecollomic

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status) is tlie reduced tiine that mothers call spend with their infants, possibly confounded by the difficulty of all-anging for child care (Basu an Basu 2000; Leslie and Buvinid 2000). Ratlici- than cl~allenging the i~otion that woinen's status iinproves the ability of woineii to invest in tlieir cliildrcn, Basu and Basu (2000) argue that this finding shows that working woinen have additional challenges that detract from or couilteract the potential positive effects of tlieir work. In tlicir words, "In the case of actual employment, there appears to be a crucial trade-off between such autoiiollly and other factors detrin~eiital to child survival" (Basu and Basu 2000:87). Nevertheless, tlie conflictiilg nature of women's einploy~nent as it relates to child suivival undeilnines its value as an indicator of woincn's status. This holds true even when looking at different types of work (i.e., fonnal- vs. infonnal- sector work and paid vs. unpaid employment) a strategy tliat addresses the eildogeileity by incorporating women's einploynlent opportunities as opposed to decisioiis about whether or not to work. Specifically, Kishor and Parasurainan (2003) fail to support their hypothesis that womeil working outside the home for pay (the most likely to experience increased status tl~rough inco~ne and exposure to the public sphere) have lower levels of child inortality than woinen working in other capacities.

Further investigation of sex-specific inortality rates in children provides additional support that the negative associatioil between women's einploymeilt outside the home and child survival inay be unrelated to the inlprovement in women's status that inay 01- inay not occur with it. Specifically, while studies deinonstrate that women's einployinent is associated with a decrease in excess female mortality or male-biased sex differentials in ixortality (Dyson and Moore 2000; Basu and Basu 2000; Kiklior 1993; Kishor and Parasura~nan 2003), the more equal sex ratios in inortality ainong children of wolnen working outside the home are largely attributed to higher moi-tality ainoilg sons rather than lower inoi-tality ainong daughters (Kishor and -

Parasura~nan 2003). Thus, rather than supportiilg tlie staeinent that, higher-status workilig wo1ncn (i.e., those who work for pay outside

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the home) have lower infant and child mortality rates because they invest more care in their daughters, the empirical results suggests that thc scx differential is reduced because woinen working outside the home are less able to favour their sons (Kishor and Parasurainan 2003).

Although the above examples speak directly to infant child morality, it is probable that women's einployinent also fails to provide a robust indicator of women's status in tenns of its effects of work (through exposure to opportunities, nlodem values, and income) are potentially counteracted by a deinand for child work in and outside the home that may accompany a mother's work. In societies such as Nigeria where women's work is disproportionately seen in rural areas and among the poor, t l~c fact that a mother is working may reflect a relatively high deinand for labour in the area (i.e., during sowing and harvesting seasons) and poverty in the fainily rather than a positive independent influence on children.

Most studies on woinen einpowerment has been focused on concepts. It is therefore, not to the knowledge of the researcher that studies linking woinen einpowerment and children investments have ever been conducted. It is against this background that, this study becomes relevant in filling such gaps in our knowledge in the issue of woinen empowennent and children iilvestinents in selected rural coimunities in Osun state, Nigeria.

Purpose of study

This study explored the degree to which woinen empowerment influence children investments in public life. Varying diinensions of woinan empowennent were examined, including decision-making autonomy, participation in various household tasks, women's education, access to econoinic resources, freedoin froin fear and coercion, women position in relation to inen and other fainily members, mobility, and domestic violence.

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1Voiirei1 Ei~~pol~.ei.ir~eii, rrs ci dcIei.ii1itm111 offlivestrirniiis ill Cl~ildi~eii iir Nigerin

To achicve these objectives, the followii~g research questions were answered:

1. To what cxtent would worncn cinpowerlncnt factors influence children invcstments?

2. What is the relative contributioil of each of thc factors to the prediction of children investments?

3. What is the significant relatioilship between wolnen empowernlent factors and children investments?

Methodology

Research design

This study is an ex-post facto research design. It is an after-fact shdy which does not involve the inanipulatio~l of any variable. The paramount thing was to ascertain the relationship of the independent variable (women education, access to econoinic resources, decision- making autonomy, participation in various l~ousehold tasks, freedom from fear and coercion, and position in relation to inen and other family members) on the dependent variable (children investments) without manipulating either of them.

Participants

Ten villages within Ile-Ife and its environs wit11 women were surveyed. Within the selected villages, households were randolnly selected. Using household rosters, all wornen in the household who inet the sample criteria were identified; from these, one was randomly selected to colnplete the full interview. The sample consists of 250 currently married between the ages of 15 and 39 years who live in rural Ile-Ife and its environs. Guided Interviews Q~~estions were conducted in the local language by trained interpreters and interviewers. Efforts were made to conduct the interviews in privacy away fi-oin others in the household. It took the researcher seven weeks including weekends to coinpletc the interview.

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Research instruments

Two instruincnts were i~sed ill the data collection:

1. Woniail Einpowernle~~t Inveiltory (WEI)

2. Children Invcstinent Self- Repost (CIS)

Women Evnpowerunent Inventory: Tlicse are structured and interview guided questions that contai~i 30 itc~iis response forinat anchored Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree and Strongly Disagree. The iiiternal cotisistciicy and revalidation reliability of the iiive~ltory is put at 0.74 and 0.79 respectively.

The Inveiito~y centred on decision- niakiilg autonoiny, access to econo~nic resources, participation in various I~ousehold tasks, women's education, freedo~n froin fear and coercion and women's positioii in relation to inen and other family members.

Children Iiivest~nent Self Report: This is a 25 item structured interview guide questio~is that is ancliorcd True and Untrue. Tlie structured interl~iew questions were centred on children's Education, their health status, and survival. The test- retest reliability of the self- report was found to be 0.69 and 0.74 respectively. The two instrunlents were author- constructed.

Procedure for data collection

Tlie participants for the study were interviewed in their local languages by experts. Tlie i~itel-view was done on household bases and iiidividually and moderated by the researcher. The interview of the participants took tlie researcher seven weeks illcluding weekend to complete. On tlie whole, 250 participants were interviewed.

Data analysis

The collected were analysed using Regression Analysis Statistics and Chi- square(x2) statistics to establish the influence of woliien enlpowerment factors and children investments. Also, frequency

C

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counts and pcrceutages were used to dcterllli~le the characteristics of the pai-ticipants.

Results

Table I: Frequency & Percent Distributioil of the characteristics of the sample iilvolved in the study.

Source: Field Survey 2009

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The result on Table 1 revealed the deinographic cliaracteristics of the sample involved in the study. These characteristics include marital status, age, educational background, numbcr of children, and duration in marriage. The result on marital status revealed that inajority are married representing 76.4%, while divorce\separated and widow representing 13.6%and 10.0% respectively. This iinplies that, inajority of the participants are married with their husbands living with them.

The age range of the participants showed that, those between 25years and 34years were inore involved in the study representing 75.6%, while those between 15-19years, 20-24years and 35-39years representing 3.6%, 2.8% and 8.0% respectively had low representation. The result revealed that those whose ages fall between 25-34years were mainly involved in the study. The educational background of the participants showed that, they are all literates except eight participants representing 3.2% who never had formal education. This therefore iinplies that, 96.8% of the participants could read, write, and respond to the guided interview questions.

On the number of children par participants, the result revealed that, those with two and three children representing 41.2% and 24.4% were ranked highest while 22participai1ts(l5years and above) representing 8.8% was ranked lowest.

Research Question I: To ~ ~ l ~ a t extent wozlld utortlei7 empower-nnlent factors influence children I~7vestn1entsP

Table 2: Regression Analysis on Sample Data using a combination of Independent Variables to predict Illvestment in children

Multiple R = 0.874

Multiple R-Square = 0.764

Adjusted R-Square = 0.761

Standard Error = 15.8398

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Table 2 above showed that a combination of independent variables (decision- making autonomy, participation in various household tasks, freedom fi-on fear and coercion, women's education, access to economic resources, and women's position in relation to men and other family members) in predicting children investment yielded a coefficient of multiple regression (R) of 0.761 accounting for 76.1% of the variance of investing in children. The table also showed that analysis of variance for multiple regression data. produced an F-Ratio of-239.150 significant at 0.05 alpha level. The table further showed that, F-Ratio whidh is significant implies that R' value is not due to chance.

Analysis of Variance

Research Question 11: What is the relative contribution of each of the factors to the prediction on children investments?

Sources of Variance

Regression

Residual

Total

Result on Table 3 indicates the regression coefficients (Standardized and Un-standardized), Standard error estimate, t-value, and the level at which the ratio is significant for each independent variable. The results also indicated that the standardized regression coefficient (B) ranged from -2.027 to 4.329, standard error estimate ranged froin 0.759 to 0.866, t-ratio ranged froin 2.284 to 10.722 and that, all the six variables wcre significant at 0.05 alpha level.

* Significant at 0.05 alpha level.

Sum of square

24001 1.27

74015.673

3 1402.695

Df

3

247

249

Mean square

6002.8 18

250.150

F-Ratio

239.150

P-Value

*<0.05

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Table 3: Testing the Significance on Relative Contribution to the Prediction on Children Investinents

Table 4: X' Summary on Women's Empowenneiit and Children's

7.

Investment

* sigii~fica17t at 0.05 alpila level

other family members Constant

The result of the rescarcli question on Table 4 showed that, each of the . 1 1; iiidepelldent variables made significant contributions to the prediction

52.817 5.184 - 10.189 0.00

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of investing in children's education, health and survival. This iinplies that, thcre is a strong relationsl~ip betweell those factors and children investments. The coiltributioils of cach of the variables showed that, women's education (x' cal = 33.956) is the most potent factoi- followed women's positioil in relatioil to llleil and other fainily incinbcrs (x' cal = 29.762); dccision making autonoiny (x' cal =

16.956): fi-eedom from fear and cocrcio~l (x' cal = 12.716); access to ecoiloillic resources (x' cal = 5.969); and participatio~l in various household tasks (x' cal = 1.268) in that order.

Discussion of findings

The result on Table 1 showed the frequency and percent distribution based on the characteristics of the participants iilvolved in the study. The variables considered includes: marital status, Age range, educational background, number of children, and duration of marriage. The iilfonnation on the above variables is contained in Table 1.

The result obtained in Table 2 showed that, a coinbination of decision- inakiilg autonoiny, women's education, participation in various household tasks, freedoin froin fear and coercion, access to economic resources and women's positioil in relation to men and other fainily members when taken together significailtly predicted iilvestiilg in children. The observed F-ratio of 239.150, significant at 0.05 level is an evidence that, the effectiveness of a combination of the independeilt variables in the prediction of investing in children's educatioa, health and survival- could not have occurred by chance. Furthennore, the coefficient of inultiple correlatioi~ of 0.874 and, a ~llultiple R-square Of 0.761 showed the magnitude of the relationship between children's iilvestinent and the coinbination of the iudepeildent variables. The result indicated that, a positive relationship of the indepeildent variables accounted for 76.1 % of the total variance .

in children's investment.

The results 011 Tables 3 and 4 revealed the contributions made by each indcpendeilt variable to the prediction of cl~ildrcn's investments. The

t

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t-ratio values associated with each of the independent variable showed significantly to the prediction of childre11 investinents in the areas of children schooling, health status and survival in the provision of immunization, ante and post-natal clinics.

The results on research questions on tables 2, 3, and 4 showed the significailt positioil of the results were in agreement with studies conducted by Balk, (2000) and Schuler and Hashemi (2003); Dyson and Moore (2001);Mall1otra, Vanneman, and Kishor (1995); Jejeebhoy (2002); and Visaria, (2001); Morgan and Niraula (2001); Sathar (1993); Smith et al. (1995); and Satl~ar and Kazi (1996).

The extent to which the second research question on table 3 predicted childfren's investment was however supported by Federici, Mason, and Sogner (2003); Mason (1993). The result was also in agreement with Cleland, (1990); Caldwell and Caldwell, (1993).

Conclusion and recommendations

The findings presented support the conclusioil that empowered women, or those with higher status, are better able to make positive investments in their children througll increasing their chances of survival during infancy and increasing their likelihood of ever attending school. Overall, the data support our research questions that ilnproveinents in women's status at the individual level, particularly in terms of ilnprovement of women's position in the household, will enhance child survival and the scl~ool attendance of their sons, whereas ilnproveinents in women's status at the coinnlunity level are Inore important for iinproviilg the scl~ooling chances of children: Specifically, lower levels of women's status at the individual level, particularly in terms of decision-making autonomy, limited access to financial resources, and women's education, increase the likelihood of infant mortality. On t l~e other hand, higher mean levels of women's mobility and a lower percentage of women who fear to disagree with their husbands in a coilununity are associated with a higher likelillood that children will ever attend school in rural coilununities in Nigeria.

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Woiiieil Erirpo~i~er.nle&it ns a detei.r~liilar~t o/'Iiivesfrrleiits ill C/~i/d~.eir iri Nigeria

This study thus coiltributes to t l~c literature on the relationship between woincn's status and demographic outcomes in three inail1 ways. First, it illforins us of poteiltial factors that might improve the situation of children iu regard to their health and education in an area where change is greatly needed. Not oilly is enhancing woinen's status iinportailt in its own right, it has incasurable benefits for the health and cducatioil of children. Fuither, the results point to specific aspects of women's status oil which effoits should be focused. Individual- level indicators of status, such as fear of husbands, decision-making autoaoiny, and women's access to fillailcia1 resources, appear to be more i~nportailt than those related to decision making on the part of women. These findiilgs are certainly iinportailt in terns of emphasizing routes to women's einpowerinent, sucl~ as addressing fear of coercion and the isolation of women. The results place issues of increasing participatioil in decision making and mobility of individual women in perspective.

Second, this study provides an empirical test of the theoretical framework of women's status on demographic outcomes, advancing the iinportailce of capturing various diinensioils of women's status on multiple levels to fully understand the relationship between women's status and specific deinograpl~ic outcomes. Our results clearly point to the inultidiinensionality of woinen's status and demoilstrate that different indicators of woinen's status are associated with different demographic outcoines for woineil as well as for their soils and daughters.

It is in the coinbination of the results fi-om our inodels that we find the most infonnative insight into the inultidiinensional nature of woinen's status and its influence on child wellbeing and demographic outcomes. The status of woineil is important for both infant survival and child schooling, but in very different ways. Infant mortality, more in the doinail1 of the woman and her household, is influenced by the status of mothers in the l~ousel~old as reflected by the significance of women's education, access to financial resources, and freedom from

r fear and coercion. On the other hand. children's schoo1ii~~-a decision

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with more long-tenn and public consequences in terms of einployillellt and marriage oppoltunities-may be less subject to the illfluelice of a single agent, including the mother. A rise in woineu's status-or in the value of wonlei1 and girls in the larger community-will shape decisioils that individual fainilies make about such activities as schooling for their children.

Ultimately this study reillforces the poilit that while raising the status of woinen is a well-intended and positive end in itself, the benefits extend to investilleilts in the ncxt generation. 111 tunl, ilnproveineilts in children's schooliilg and ia their chances of su~vival closely influellce the quality of lives of woineil and fainilies in a inuch broader sense.

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