volume i main report - urban sanitation€¦ · volume i – main report august 2011 . giz-asem...

Corporation of Cochin

Draft City Sanitation Plan

Volume I – Main report

August 2011

GIZ-ASEM Corporation of Cochin

City Sanitation Plan for Kochi - Draft Report Volume 1, Main Report ii

Contents

SECTION I: OVERVIEW AND CONTEXT SETTING ................................................................................................ 1

1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... 2

1.1. BACKGROUND ........................................................................................................................................... 2

1.2. SCOPE OF WORK ........................................................................................................................................ 3

1.3. APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................... 3

1.4. REPORT ORGANISATION ............................................................................................................................... 7

2. CITY OVERVIEW AND DEMOGRAPHICS .................................................................................................... 9

2.1. CITY OVERVIEW .......................................................................................................................................... 9

2.2. POPULATION AND POPULATION DENSITY ....................................................................................................... 10

2.3. IMPLICATIONS FOR SANITATION ................................................................................................................... 13

SECTION II PLAN COMPONENTS ..................................................................................................................... 14

3. ACCESS TO TOILETS ............................................................................................................................... 15

3.1. BASELINE STATUS ..................................................................................................................................... 15

3.2. SWOT AND KEY ISSUES ............................................................................................................................ 16

3.3. CONCEPTUAL BASIS AND BEST PRACTICES ...................................................................................................... 17

3.4. VISION AND GOALS................................................................................................................................... 19

3.5. RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................................................................................ 20

4. WATER SUPPLY ...................................................................................................................................... 25

4.1. BASELINE STATUS ..................................................................................................................................... 25



4.4. VISION AND GOALS................................................................................................................................... 35


5. WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT .............................................................................................................. 40

5.1. BASELINE STATUS ..................................................................................................................................... 40



5.4. VISION AND GOALS................................................................................................................................... 52


6. DRAINAGE NETWORK AND NATURAL DRAINAGE .................................................................................. 60

6.1. BASELINE STATUS ..................................................................................................................................... 60


6.3. VISION AND GOALS................................................................................................................................... 64


7. SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT ............................................................................................................... 66

7.1. BASELINE STATUS ..................................................................................................................................... 66


7.3. VISION AND GOALS ................................................................................................................................... 70



City Sanitation Plan for Kochi - Draft Report Volume 1, Main Report iii

SECTION III CROSS CUTTING ASPECTS ............................................................................................................ 72

8. GOVERNANCE AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK ................................................................................ 73

8.1. BASELINE STATUS ..................................................................................................................................... 73

8.2. STATE INSTITUTIONS AND AGENCIES ............................................................................................................. 75


9. CAPACITY BUILDING .............................................................................................................................. 88

9.1. TRAINING ............................................................................................................................................... 88

9.2. INFORMATION MANAGEMENT .................................................................................................................... 89

10. AWARENESS GENERATION ................................................................................................................ 91

10.1. ROLE OF COMMUNICATION IN SANITATION SERVICES ....................................................................................... 91

10.2. STEP 1: MOBILISING PUBLIC SUPPORT .......................................................................................................... 91

10.3. STEP 2: IDENTIFY BEHAVIOUR CHANGE GOALS ACROSS DIFFERENT STAKEHOLDERS ................................................. 92

10.4. STEP 3: DEVELOP COMMUNICATION THEMES AROUND BEHAVIOUR CHANGE GOALS ............................................... 93

10.5. STEP 4: DEVELOP SANITATION CAMPAIGNS AROUND BEHAVIOUR CHANGE GOALS.................................................. 95

11. FINANCIAL SUSTAINABILITY .............................................................................................................. 98

11.1. BASELINE STATUS ..................................................................................................................................... 98

11.2. KEY ISSUES .............................................................................................................................................. 99

11.3. GOALS ................................................................................................................................................... 99

11.4. SUMMARY OF INDICATIVE INVESTMENT REQUIREMENTS ................................................................................. 100

11.5. RECOMMENDATIONS .............................................................................................................................. 103

SECTION IV CSP SUMMARY AND ACTION PLAN ........................................................................................... 106

12. CSP SUMMARY: VISION GOALS AND ACTION PLAN ......................................................................... 107

12.1. REVISITING NUSP VISION AND OBJECTIVES .................................................................................................. 107

12.2. VISION AND GOALS................................................................................................................................. 107

12.3. COMPONENT WISE ACTION PLAN ............................................................................................................... 109

12.4. ACTIONS ON CROSS-CUTTING ASPECTS ....................................................................................................... 111

12.5. SUMMARY OF INVESTMENT NEEDS............................................................................................................. 112


City Sanitation Plan for Kochi - Draft Report Volume 1, Main Report iv

Tables

TABLE 2.1: POPULATION DENSITIES IN KOCHI AND ADJOINING AREAS ................................................................................... 11

TABLE 2.2: WARDS WITH THE HIGHEST POPULATION DENSITIES ......................................................................................... 11

TABLE 2.3: POPULATION TRENDS: COCHIN CORPORATION AND KOCHI URBAN AGGLOMERATION .............................................. 11

TABLE 2.4: OFFICIAL POPULATION PROJECTIONS: COCHIN CORPORATION AND KOCHI URBAN AGGLOMERATION........................... 12

TABLE 2.5: POPULATION PROJECTIONS: IMACS ANALYSIS AND OTHER SOURCES .................................................................... 12

TABLE 2.6: DETAILS OF IMACS CALCULATIONS ............................................................................................................... 12

TABLE 2.7: BPL POPULATION IN KOCHI ......................................................................................................................... 12

TABLE 2.8: SLUMS AND SLUM POPULATION IN KOCHI ....................................................................................................... 13

TABLE 2.9: SANITATION INFRASTRUCTURE DEMAND ......................................................................................................... 13

TABLE 3.1: ACCESS TO TOILETS – SWOT ....................................................................................................................... 16

TABLE 3.2 ACCESS TO TOILETS SUPPLY: SHORT MEDIUM AND LONG TERM TARGETS............................................................... 19

TABLE 3.3 INFRASTRUCTURE DEMAND AND COST ESTIMATE .............................................................................................. 19

TABLE 3.4 ACCESS TO TOILETS SUPPLY: RECOMMENDED ACTIONS ....................................................................................... 20

TABLE 3.5 ILLUSTRATIVE CHECKLIST FOR TOILET INSPECTION AND RECTIFICATION .................................................................... 22

TABLE 4.1: BRIEF HISTORY OF SURFACE WATER SUPPLY TO KOCHI ....................................................................................... 25

TABLE 4.2 WATER SUPPLY CONNECTIONS IN KOCHI, MARCH 2009 ..................................................................................... 27

TABLE 4.3: WATER TARIFFS IN KOCHI ............................................................................................................................ 28

TABLE 4.4 PROPOSED NEW TARIFF REGIME UNDER THE KWA ............................................................................................ 29

TABLE 4.5: WATER QUALITY FINDINGS: INDUSTRIAL STRETCHES OF PERIYAR RIVER ................................................................. 29

TABLE 4.6: PROJECTED WATER DEMAND, COC AREA ........................................................................................................ 31

TABLE 4.7: WATER SUPPLY – SWOT ............................................................................................................................ 32

TABLE 4.8 WATER SUPPLY: SHORT MEDIUM AND LONG TERM TARGETS .............................................................................. 35

TABLE 4.9 COST ESTIMATES – SHORT, MEDIUM AND LONG TERM ...................................................................................... 35

TABLE 4.10 WATER SUPPLY: ACTION PLAN .................................................................................................................... 36

TABLE 4.11 POSSIBLE LIST OF INFORMATION TO BE CAPTURED DURING THE MULTI-PURPOSE HOUSEHOLD SURVEY ....................... 36

TABLE 4.12TARIFF SETTING PHILOSOPHY - SHORT TERM AND LONG TERM ............................................................................. 38

TABLE 4.13 SURAT MUNICIPAL CORPORATION: WATER QUALITY MONITORING PROTOCOL AND SAMPLING PLAN ....................... 39

TABLE 5.1: SEWAGE GENERATION DEMAND .................................................................................................................... 44

TABLE 5.2: COMPONENTS PROPOSED UNDER THE KSUDP SEWERAGE DPR .......................................................................... 45

TABLE 5.3: WASTE-WATER MANAGEMENT - SWOT ........................................................................................................ 47

TABLE 5.4 WASTE WATER MANAGEMENT: EVALUATION OF OPTIONS ................................................................................... 49

TABLE 5.5: WASTE WATER MANAGEMENT: SHORT, MEDIUM AND LONG-TERM TARGETS ......................................................... 52

TABLE 5.6 COST ESTIMATES – SHORT, MEDIUM AND LONG TERM ...................................................................................... 52

TABLE 5.7 WASTE WATER MANAGEMENT: SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL ACTIONS ........................................................................ 57

TABLE 6.1: DRAINAGE CANAL NETWORK DETAILS ............................................................................................................. 60

TABLE 6.2: DETAIL OF MAJOR INDUSTRIES IN KOCHI ......................................................................................................... 62

TABLE 6.3: WASTE-WATER MANAGEMENT – SWOT........................................................................................................ 63

TABLE 6.4: STORM WATER MANAGEMENT: SHORT MEDIUM AND LONG TERM TARGETS ......................................................... 64

TABLE 6.5 INFRASTRUCTURE COST ESTIMATE .................................................................................................................. 64

TABLE 7.1: BREAK-UP DETAIL OF SOLID WASTE GENERATION BY SOURCE IN KOCHI .................................................................. 66

TABLE 7.2: SWM PERFORMANCE SUMMARY .................................................................................................................. 68

TABLE 7.3: SWM SERVICE LEVELS VIS-A-VIS SLB SET BY MOUD ........................................................................................ 68

TABLE 7.4: SWM - SWOT ......................................................................................................................................... 69

TABLE 7.5: SWM: SHORT, MEDIUM AND LONG-TERM TARGETS ......................................................................................... 70

TABLE 7.6 SWM: RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................................................................................................ 70

TABLE 8.1: LEGISLATIVE AND ADMINISTRATIVE FRAMEWORK FOR URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE IN KOCHI ......................................... 74


City Sanitation Plan for Kochi - Draft Report Volume 1, Main Report v

TABLE 8.2: STATE LEVEL PROGRESS ON URBAN REFORMS UNDER JNNURM ......................................................................... 74

TABLE 8.3: INSTITUTIONAL RESPONSIBILITY MATRIX FOR CIVIC SERVICES, KOCHI ..................................................................... 79

TABLE 8.4: INSTITUTIONAL RESPONSIBILITIES UNDER THE MOU .......................................................................................... 80

TABLE 8.5: OVERALL ACCOUNTABILITY FOR SANITATION SERVICES – PROJECTED SCENARIO ....................................................... 82

TABLE 8.6 ILLUSTRATIVE LIST OF AREAS FOR FORMULATING BYE-LAWS AND POLICY GUIDELINES ................................................. 83

TABLE 9.1: ILLUSTRATIVE TRAINING NEEDS ACROSS SELECT SANITATION COMPONENTS ............................................................ 88

TABLE 9.2: POSSIBLE LIST OF INFORMATION TO BE CAPTURED DURING THE MULTI-PURPOSE HOUSEHOLD SURVEY ......................... 89

TABLE 10.1: ILLUSTRATIVE BEHAVIOUR CHANGE OBJECTIVES .............................................................................................. 92

TABLE 10.2: CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION ................................................................................................................. 94

TABLE 10.3: ILLUSTRATIVE PILOT CAMPAIGN FOR SANITATION AND HYGIENE AWARENESS ........................................................ 95

TABLE 10.4: ILLUSTRATIVE PILOT CAMPAIGN FOR SAFE WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT .............................................................. 96

TABLE 10.5: ILLUSTRATIVE PILOT CAMPAIGN FOR LITTER FREE WARD ................................................................................... 97

TABLE 11.1: COC: INCOME AND EXPENDITURE ............................................................................................................... 98

TABLE 11.2: FINANCIAL SUSTAINABILITY: SHORT MEDIUM AND LONG TERM TARGETS ............................................................ 99

TABLE 11.3 CAPITAL INVESTMENT ESTIMATE AND POSSIBLE PHASING (FIGURES IN RS. LAKH) ................................................. 100

TABLE 12.1: SANITATION COMPONENTS VISION AND TARGETS ........................................................................................ 107

TABLE 12.2 ACCESS TO TOILETS: ACTION PLAN ............................................................................................................. 109

TABLE 12.3 WATER SUPPLY: ACTION PLAN .................................................................................................................. 109

TABLE 12.4 WASTEWATER AND STORM WATER MANAGEMENT: ACTION PLAN .................................................................. 110

TABLE 12.5 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT: ACTION PLAN ............................................................................................... 110

TABLE 12.6 ILLUSTRATIVE LIST OF AREAS FOR FORMULATING BYE-LAWS AND POLICY GUIDELINES ............................................. 111

TABLE 12.7 LIST OF DPRS AND ADDITIONAL STUDIES...................................................................................................... 112

TABLE 12.8 CAPITAL INVESTMENT ESTIMATE AND POSSIBLE PHASING (FIGURES IN RS. LAKH) ................................................. 112


City Sanitation Plan for Kochi - Draft Report Volume 1, Main Report vi

Figures

FIGURE 1.1 FRAMEWORK FOR THE CSP: INTEGRATED APPROACH TO INCLUSIVE SANITATION ..................................................... 4

FIGURE 1.2 STRATEGIC PILLARS SUPPORTING INCLUSIVE SANITATION .................................................................................... 4

FIGURE 1.3 A PARTICIPATORY, MULTI-STAKEHOLDER CONSULTATIVE PROCESS ADOPTED .......................................................... 6

FIGURE 2.1 LOCATION OF KOCHI .................................................................................................................................... 9

FIGURE 2.2: KOCHI AND ITS VARIOUS ISLANDS ................................................................................................................ 10

FIGURE 2.3: KOCHI URBAN AGGLOMERATION AND COC AREAS ........................................................................................... 10

FIGURE 3.1: PRIMARY SURVEY FINDINGS: TOILET FACILITIES USED BY SURVEYED HOUSEHOLD .................................................... 15

FIGURE 3.2: WARDS REPORTING OPEN DEFECATION ......................................................................................................... 16

FIGURE 4.1: SCHEMATIC OF THE EXISTING WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM ....................................................................................... 26

FIGURE 4.2 PRIMARY SURVEY FINDINGS: SOURCES OF HOUSEHOLD WATER SUPPLY ................................................................. 27

FIGURE 4.3 PRIMARY SURVEY FINDINGS: SUPPLY DURATION AND SUFFICIENCY ...................................................................... 28

FIGURE 4.4 PRIMARY SURVEY FINDINGS: PERCEPTIONS ON WATER QUALITY .......................................................................... 30

FIGURE 5.1: EXISTING AND SEWERAGE COVERAGE AREAS .................................................................................................. 40

FIGURE 5.2: A VIEW OF THE KWA STP AT ELANKULAM .................................................................................................... 41

FIGURE 5.3: SCHEMATIC OF TYPICAL WASTEWATER FLOWS IN KOCHI ................................................................................... 43

FIGURE 5.4: SANITATION SCENARIO 2014 (SHORT-TERM) ................................................................................................. 53

FIGURE 5.5: SANITATION SCENARIO 2021 (MEDIUM TERM) .............................................................................................. 54

FIGURE 5.6: SANITATION SCENARIO 2031 (LONG TERM)................................................................................................... 55

FIGURE 5.7: SANITATION SCENARIO 2041 (LONGER TERM) ............................................................................................... 56

FIGURE 8.1 ORGANISATIONAL ALIGNMENT FOR SANITATION FUNCTIONS - KWA AND COC ...................................................... 84

FIGURE 10.1: STEPS TO ADDRESS AWARENESS ISSUES ....................................................................................................... 91

FIGURE 10.2: COMMUNICATION OBJECTIVES, ACTIONS AND CHANNELS................................................................................ 93


City Sanitation Plan for Kochi - Draft Report Volume 1, Main Report vii

Volume 2: Annexure

ANNEX 1: SCOPE OF WORK AS PER TOR

ANNEX 2: LIST OF OFFICIALS/PERSONS MET

ANNEX 3: LIST OF CTF MEMBERS

ANNEX 4: MINUTES OF CTF MEETINGS

ANNEX 5: QUESTIONNAIRES FOR PRIMARY GAP FILLING SURVEY

ANNEX 6: DETAILS OF LANDUSE IN KOCHI

ANNEX 7: WARD MAP AND WARD LEVEL POPULATION PROJECTIONS

ANNEX 8: CLIMATE, HYDROLOGY, HYDROGEOLOGY AND GROUNDWATER

ANNEX 9: KOCHI UFW COMPUTATIONS

ANNEX 10: QUALITY DATA

ANNEX 11: KSPCB NOTIFICATIONS

ANNEX 12: NOTES ON KOCHI BACKWATERS

ANNEX 13: VISUAL EVIDENCE OF DRAINAGE ISSUES

ANNEX 14: SWM BYE-LAWS, AS AMENDED

ANNEX 15: ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ON INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK

Volume 3: Primary Survey findings

Volume 4: Slum List and Data Sheets for Select Slums


City Sanitation Plan for Kochi - Draft Report Volume 1, Main Report viii

Volume 5: Thematic Maps

Map 1: Location Map

Map 2: Connectivity (urban roads & transport)

Map 3: Population Density

Map 4: Ward-wise population

Map 5: Slum numbers and distribution (ward-wise)

Map 6: Water Supply Network

Map 7: Open defecation areas

Map 8: Location of public toilet facilities

Map 9: Sewerage System Coverage

Map 10: Drainage map

Map 11: Canal Map

Map 12: Solid Waste Generation Areas

Map 13: Brahmapuram Solid Waste Processing and Landfill site

Map 14: Google Earth overlay with ward boundary

Map 15: Base Map


City Sanitation Plan for Kochi - Draft Report Volume 1, Main Report ix

Acronyms and Abbreviations

ADB Asian Development Bank

ASEM Advisory Services in Environmental Management

ATP Activated Treatment Process

BIS Bureau of Indian Standards

BOD Biological Oxygen Demand

BPL Below Poverty Line

CAGR Compounded Annual Growth Rate

CDP City Development Plan

CED Centre for Environment and Development

CKM Clean Kerala Mission

CoC Corporation of Cochin

CPCB Central Pollution Control Board

CPHEEO Central Public Health Environmental Engineering organisation

CSP City Sanitation Plan

CTF City Sanitation Task Force

DMC District Mission Coordinator

DPR Detailed Project Report

GCDA Greater Cochin Development Authority

GoI Government of India

GoK Government of Kerala

GIZ Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit

HUDCO Housing and Urban Development Corporation Limited

IMaCS ICRA Management Consulting Services Limited

IKM Information Kerala Mission

JNNURM Jawaharlal Nehru national Urban Renewal Mission

KBF Kerala Builders Forum

KUIDFC Kerala Urban Infrastructure Development Finance Corporation

KILA Kerala Institute of Local Administration

KSUDP Kerala Sustainable Urban Development Project

KWA Kerala Water Authority

LPCD Litres Per Capita Per Day

LSGD Department of Local Self Government, Government of Kerala

MLD Million Litres Per Day

MGP Modernizing Government Program

MoU Memorandum of Understanding

MoUD Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India

NGO Non-Governmental Organisation

NUSP National Urban Sanitation Policy

O&M Operation and Maintenance

PMO Project Management Office


City Sanitation Plan for Kochi - Draft Report Volume 1, Main Report x

PWD Public Works Department

RWA Residents Welfare Association

SEUF Socio-Economic Foundation Unit

STP Sewage Treatment plant

SWM Solid Waste Management

SWOT Strengths, weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats

TCPD Town and Country Planning Department

TDS Total Dissolved Solids

UFW Unaccounted For Water

UIDSSMT Urban Infrastructure Development Scheme for Small & Medium Towns

ULB Urban Local Body

UPAD Urban Poverty Alleviation Department

WTP Water Treatment Plant


City Sanitation Plan for Kochi - Draft Report Volume 1, Main Report 1

SECTION I: OVERVIEW AND CONTEXT SETTING



1. Introduction

1.1. Background

1.1.1. National Urban Sanitation Policy

The 2008 National Urban Sanitation Policy (NUSP) of the Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD), Government

of India (GOI) outlined an aspirational sanitation vision for Indian cities.

All Indian cities and towns should become totally sanitized, healthy and liveable and ensure and sustain good

public health and environmental outcomes for all their citizens with a special focus on hygienic and

affordable sanitation facilities for urban poor and women.

The NUSP defines Sanitation as safe management of human excreta (including its safe confinement,

treatment, disposal and associated hygiene-related practices). It further recognises that integral solutions are

needed to take account of other elements of environmental sanitation, i.e. Solid Waste Management (SWM);

generation of industrial and other specialized / hazardous wastes; drainage and management of drinking water

supply. The NUSP emphasises that a fully Sanitized City should achieve a wider set of positive sanitation

outcomes including:

Elimination of Open Defecation

Elimination of manual scavenging and ensuring safety of sanitation workers.

Safe management of Municipal wastewater and storm water

Recycling of treated wastewater for non-potable applications

Full and safe collection and disposal of Municipal Solid Waste

Inclusive, efficient and sustainable service delivery in all sanitation services

Improved Public Health Outcomes and Environmental Standards

1.1.2. Formulation of City Sanitation Plans

To support implementation of the above vision, the NUSP envisages formulation of City Sanitation Plans (CSP)

at a city level as a comprehensive document to detail short, medium and long term plans for governance,

technical, financial, capacity building, awareness and pro-poor actions to ensure 100% access to safe

sanitation. The CSPs would also identify areas where detailed project reports (DPRs) are required.

1.1.3. GIZ’s support to CSPs

The CSP formulation for Kochi is being supported by Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), the

German Agency for Technical Co-operation under its Advisory Services in Environmental Management (ASEM)

program. The ASEM program was set up following the recognition of Environment and Sustainable

Development as important areas of bi-lateral cooperation between Government of India (GoI) and

Government of Germany and is being implemented by GIZ.

The Urban Environment component of the ASEM program is being implemented in coordination with the

MoUD, State Governments and select Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) and focuses on improving environmental

conditions in select cities by integrating environmental considerations into the Jawaharlal Nehru National

Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) program. As part of this component, Environmental Cells have been

established in select ULBs to coordinate local activities for environmental improvements under JNNURM.

Following launch of NUSP and request from MoUD and these ULBs, GIZ committed to support preparation of

CSPs in six cities, namely, Kochi, Nashik, Raipur, Shimla, Tirupati and Varanasi and retained ICRA Management

Consulting Services Limited (IMaCS) to assist in CSP formulation for Kochi1 in collaboration with the

Corporation of Cochin (CoC).

1 The focus of the study is area under the jurisdiction of the Corporation of Cochin (CoC).



1.2. Scope of work

The following activities were undertaken during preparation of the CSP for Kochi city. Refer Annex 1 for

detailed Scope of Work.

1. Formation of a City Task Force: In line with the guidelines of the NUSP a City Task Force was constituted in

consultations with CoC. Besides its formal constitution, the consultative functioning of the CTF during the

course of preparation of the CSP was also to be facilitated.

2. Carrying out a baseline review: Work with CoC to capture city-level water and sanitation data. Subtasks

included a) review of available information, b) collection of information on municipal finances, c)

identifying information gaps and carrying out preliminary surveys to bridge these and d) document

regional best practices.

3. Support awareness generation and a sanitation campaign: covering formulating the components of an

awareness programme, given the baseline sanitation status.

4. Identifying technology options: In consultation with the CTF, identify city-specific technology options for

both existing and new developments, including upgrade of existing infrastructure.

5. Enhancing capacity and knowledge management: Identify needs and gaps for capacity enhancement and

knowledge management in sanitation.

6. Formulate a City Sanitation Plan: Based on an analysis of available information and consultations draft a

CSP and finalize it in consultation with the CoC and CTF.

1.3. Approach and Methodology

1.3.1. Approach

The formulation of the CSP involved an information-based, action-led consultative approach and was guided

by the following considerations:

1. Consistency with NUSP: The NUSP envisions the CSP as a strategic framework for converging

development inputs in a holistic manner to engage city administration and stakeholders to crystallise

vision, strategy, actions to achieve NUSP goals. It is being developed as a comprehensive document

detailing (i) short, medium and long term plans for governance, technical, financial, capacity building,

awareness and pro-poor interventions to ensure 100% access to safe sanitation and (ii) the identification

of key areas where DPRs can be developed.

2. Build on existing work: The approach builds on initiatives underway including the overall spatial planning

framework of the existing Master Plan, the City Development Plan, the Sanitation Rating and Service Level

Benchmarking exercises initiated by MoUD and other participatory initiatives put in place under various

schemes and programs of national, state and local governments.

3. Integrated perspective on inclusive sanitation: The NUSP defines Sanitation as safe management of

human excreta (including its safe confinement treatment, disposal and associated hygiene-related

practices). It however, recognises the need to that integral solutions need to take account of other

elements of environmental sanitation, i.e., access to toilets, water supply, waste-water management,

storm water management and SWM (Refer Figure 1.1).



Figure 1.1 Framework for the CSP: Integrated approach to inclusive sanitation

4. Strategic support pillars for inclusive sanitation: The approach also recognises that sustainable and

inclusive sanitation cannot be achieved simply by focusing on the necessary technical options along these

components, but requires critical interventions on four other dimensions namely (i) Governance /

Institutional framework, (ii) Capacity Development, (iii) Awareness Generation and (iv) Financial

Sustainability (Figure 1.2).

Figure 1.2 Strategic pillars supporting inclusive sanitation

1.3.2. Methodology

The CSP was an effort to generate much-needed momentum, both within government and civil society, in a

segment of urban infrastructure that requires demand-led planning and renewed attention. To this end, a

structured, participatory and multi-stakeholder engaging consultative process was adopted through creation

of a City Task Force (CTF) and engaging with different stakeholders including staff of the Municipal

Corporation, departments, parastatal agencies and other state and local institutions, policy makers and

citizens (Refer

Water Sources

Surface water

Ground water

Water Supply / use

• Piped supply

• Household sources

• Tankers / Bottled supply

Waste-Water

Generation

Black Water

Toilet waste

Grey Water

Bath, Kitchen waste

Storm Water

Flooding / Rainfall

Storage, Treatment &

Conveyance

Offsite systems

Sewerage Network/ Treatment

Onsite systems

Septic Tanks, Decentralized

Other Drain Systems

Storm Drains, Canals

Access to Toilets

• Individual connections

• Community / Shared

• Public places

Solid Waste Management

• Generation

• Conveyance

• Processing / Disposal

Extent of drain clogging, stagnation and contamination

due to poor SWM practices

Extent of safe equitable water access

Extent of Toilet access and prevalence of open defecation

Adequacy/appropriateness of treatment and disposal systems for waste-water and extent of Drain clogging, flooding and stagnation and water contamination

Technical Options

• DPRs/Further studies

• Actions

Governance /Institutional

• Institutional

• Regulation and Monitoring

Capacity development

• Information Management

• Training

Awareness Generation

Financial Sustainability

• Tariff Rationalisation

• Institutional improvements

Inclusive Sanitation



Figure 1.3). Also refer Annex 2 for details and for a list of officials met during the course of this exercise.



Figure 1.3 A Participatory, Multi-stakeholder Consultative Process adopted

Inception Interactions: A kick-off workshop was held on 17 March 2010 at GIZ office Delhi. The workshop

was coordinated by GIZ to provide a shared understanding of the baseline scenario in the 6 cities namely,

Kochi, Nashik, Tirupati, Raipur, and Shimla and to agree on the broad activities and timelines for the

exercise. Following interactions facilitated by GIZ in Kochi, direct one-on-one meetings were held with

officials of the Corporation of Kochi (CoC), coordinated by the GIZ Environmental Cell in Kochi. The CTF

was constituted in consultation with CoC officials and the GIZ Environmental Cell. The list of CTF members

is enclosed in Annex 3.

Meetings with City Task Force: Following the formation of the City Sanitation Task Force a formal kick-off

meeting was organised on 19 May 2010. The objective of this meeting was to apprise the CTF of the

objectives of the CSP exercise being undertaken and the role of the CTF during the course of preparation

of the CSP and during its implementation. Apart from the inception meeting, we had one-on-one meetings

during the course of the preparatory phase with several of the CTF members, in addition to the formal

inception meeting. This was followed by two more meetings (on 23 March 2011 and 20 Aug 2011); one to

discuss and obtain approval of the Status Report and another meeting to discuss the draft CSP findings

and recommendations. The minutes of the CTF meeting are enclosed in Annex 4.

Baseline research: Interactions were held with CoC officials to understand the existing situation in terms

of (a) existing information on demographics, infrastructure and municipal finances; (b) documents such as

CDPs, Master Plans, DPRs and thematic maps and (c) qualitative issues. All findings were discussed with

the GIZ Environment Cell and the CoC to arrive at a shared understanding of issues. Interactions were held

with CoC officials to understand the existing situation in terms of (a) existing information on

demographics, infrastructure and municipal finances; (b) documents such as CDPs, Master Plans, DPRs and

thematic maps and (c) qualitative issues. All findings were discussed with the GIZ Environment Cell and the

CoC to arrive at a shared understanding of issues.

Primary Gap-filling surveys: IMaCS inducted Socio-Economic Units Foundation (SEUF), a local consulting

firm from Kerala, to support local fact-finding and to conduct rapid gap-filling field surveys of on-the-

ground sanitation issues across households, commercial establishments, slum pockets and public areas.

The survey was done to provide a field-level check of the situation of water supply, sanitation, solid waste

Diagnostic Phase Consultations / Analysis Finalisation of Outputs

• Inception Interactions

• GTZ, State Governments and

Local Bodies

• Setting up City Task Force

• Baseline research focus

• Demographic, Spatial and

socio-economic context

• Service level/Access indicators

• Ongoing / Completed initiatives

• Institutional understanding

• Methodology

• ULB interactions/data collection

• State level interactions

• Gap filling surveys

Target ed Outcomes

• Shared understanding of study

activities and outcomes

• Clarity on CTF role and

responsibilities

• Survey methodology/analysis plan

• Identification of pilot wards

• Situation Analysis

• Demographics / Spatial issues

• Sanitation infrastructure/access

• Policy / Institutional issues

• Financing

• Initiation of evaluation of options

• Technology options to bridge gaps

• Onsite and offsite

• Shared vs. stand -alone

• Pollution mitigation

• Investment / recurring costs

• Institutional framework

• Components of behaviour change

in ward level pilots

• Funding options

Target ed Outcomes

• Clarity on issues and gaps

• SWOT for sanitation for the city

• Possible issues

• Policy /Institutional

• Technology

• Funding

Deliverable

Status Report

Consultative workshop

• Crystallize range of solutions

• Vision and Targets

• Technology choices

• Institutional framework

• Funding options

• Implementation Road map

• Submission of Draft CSP

• Consultations with CTF, GTZ

and MoUD

• Finalization of CSP

Target ed Outcomes

• Finalization of CSP

Deliverables

Draft and Final draft CSP

Final CSP

Deliverables

Inception workshop with CTF



disposal and health services in order to supplement available secondary data. A total of 500 households

were surveyed along with 20 commercial and institutional establishments and reconnaissance, review of

10 public locations were covered. Detailed data collection and data entry formats were designed for each

of these categories by IMaCS and discussed with field staff that carried out the survey. The questionnaires

were administered in by surveyors in local language to facilitate better understanding, after incorporating

feedback from initial field testing in the questionnaire and survey methodology. The questionnaire format

is enclosed in Annex 5.

Reconnaissance visits and qualitative feedback: This questionnaire-based survey was complemented by

reconnaisance visits to various parts of the city, street corner meetings and interactions with opinion

leaders. The objective of this exercise was to capture insights into underlying issues and better field level

understanding of gaps and features of the sanitation infrastructure and service delivery in different parts

of the city and better validation of some of the findings emerging from the quanitative survey. The

reconnaisance visits covered all parts of the city with focus on low income pockets and public places.

Apart from a physical reconnaisance of facilities, street corner meetings and interactions with local

populace were also held to further capture local perceptions and feedback to complement findings from

the quantitaitive survey.

Review of slum survey findings: Survey findings from 70 selected slums conducted under the Kerala

Sustainable Urban Development Project (KSUDP) in Kochi were also reviewed.

Identification of pilot wards: Following discussions with CoC officials, a detailed survey was conducted in

Wards 26 and 62 to identify ward level issues to feed in to the main CSP and also to identify possible

proposals for ward level sanitation improvements in these two wards as pilot projects.

Preparation of Thematic maps: A series of thematic maps have been prepared and submitted along with

this report. These include maps on ward wise population density and projections, water supply, sewerage,

slums and visible open defecation spots.

1.3.3. Time Horizon for CSP

The City Sanitation Plan factors two time horizons:

Planning Horizon (30 years 2012-2041): The Planning Horizon considers a period of 30 years from 2012 to

2041 and involves planning for an Intermediate Stage (2021 or 10 years) and an Ultimate Stage (2041 or

30 years). This Time Horizon is consistent with typical timeframes for planning infrastructure asset

creation and preparation of DPRs.

Action Horizon (10 years 2012-21): The Action Horizon considers a period of 10 years from 2012 to 2021

and is the time frame for the actions recommended. This Action Time Horizon is further divided into

actions along a) Short Term – 3 years b) Medium Term - 5 years and c) Long Term - 10 years.

The key objective of the CSP is to facilitate achievement of Service Level Benchmark (SLB) norms outlined by

MOUD for all sanitation components within the Action Time Horizon, while factoring the demand for

sanitation services during the Planning Horizon.

1.4. Report organisation

This document covers Volume I of the Draft CSP for Kochi and is organised along four sections:

Section I Overview and context setting is organised along two chapters (Chapters 1-2). Chapter 1 (this

chapter) details the study objectives, scope of work and approach. Chapter 2 provides a city overview and

analyses population and population projections of CoC.

Section II Plan Components is organised along five chapters (Chapters 3-7). This section summarises key

issues and recommendations with respect to each of the five sanitation components namely Toilets’



Access, Water supply, Waste-water management, Storm water management and SWM and outlines

targets and actions for each of them.

Section III Plan Support pillars is organised along four chapters (Chapters 8-11) and cover issues and

actions relating to Institutional Framework and Governance, Capacity Building, Awareness Generation and

Financial Sustainability respectively.

Section IV Action Plan summary organised as a single chapter (Chapter 12) summarises Sanitation Vision,

Goals and Actions of the CSP.

Annexures and Primary Survey Findings are presented as Volume II and III respectively. Slum Lists, Summaries

and Maps are presented as Volume IV and Thematic Maps are presented as Volume V. Ward Proposals for

project proposals in Election wards 26 and 62 are presented in Volume VI.

1.4.1. Limitations and caveats

The analysis presented in the report is based on the information reported by CoC and discussions with officials

of CoC and Kerala Water Authority (KWA). A limited Primary Survey, in the nature of a dipstick assessment has

been conducted to capture field level issues and public perceptions on sanitation service delivery. Though care

has been taken to ensure representative and stratified sampling, a larger survey involving larger sampling may

be required to validate the findings and confirm representativeness. For a more detailed understanding of

underlying baseline status, this report should be read in conjunction with the Status Report submitted earlier

under this exercise.

This exercise has been conducted in the context of several baseline information gaps and constraints which

have been detailed in different sections of this report where relevant. Measures to address these gaps and to

improve information reliability are also discussed under sub-section ‘Information Management’ in chapter 10.

Additional studies required have also been outlined under Section 3. The investment estimates presented in

the CSP are normative estimates and need to be validated during preparation of DPRs that have been

identified in various chapters of this report.

Finally, the CSP is intended to complement other policy, institutional and capacity building efforts already

underway and to serve as an important and useful planning input for addressing Sanitation issues in Kochi. In

the context of the dynamic and evolving and complex nature of sanitation needs, the CSP is designed to serve

as a useful starting point. Apart from other detailed studies and further analysis recommended in the CSP, the

CSP itself should be reviewed periodically to keep the content relevant and updated.



2. City overview and demographics

2.1. City overview

Cochin or Kochi, a city situated in the Ernakulam district of Kerala (Refer Map 1 in Volume 5, PDF Maps folder),

lies along the Malabar Coast of India, and is located at 220 km from Thiruvanathapuram, the state capital. The

area under Greater Cochin Development Authority (GCDA) encompasses Kochi, six municipalities and 25

panchayats covering an area of 632 sq.km and forms the largest urban agglomeration in Kerala.

Figure 2.1 Location of Kochi

As the economic and commercial capital of Kerala, Kochi is well connected by road (Refer Map 1 in Volume 5

for a location map of Kochi and Map 2 for connectivity), rail, water and air to the rest of the country. The

Cochin port is one of the major ports in the country and is well connected to countries in Southeast Asia as

well as the Persian Gulf. It is strategically located and is the closest among Indian ports to the International

East-West shipping routes. Kerala’s status as one of the top tourist destinations in the country makes Kochi,

dubbed as the “Gateway to Kerala”, one of the most visited cities in India.

The city consists of islands (Figure 2.2) and parts of the mainland are linked by water transport and bridges. It

is dissected by numerous canals and is a coastal settlement interspersed with backwater system. It is fringed

on the eastern side by laterite capped low hills from which a number of streams originate and drain into the

backwater system. Kochi is inseparably linked with the wetlands of Vembanad estuary. A number of major

rivers of central Kerala, namely Chalakkudypuzha, Periyar, Muvattupuzha, Meenachilar, Manimalayar, Pampa

and Achancoil and lesser rivers like Keecheri, Karuvannur and Puzhackal flow into the Vembanad Lake and the

surrounding geological formation. The Vembanad wetland system is the largest of its kind on the west coast.

(Refer Annex 6 for details of land-use)

Consultant:

ICRA Management Consulting Services

Limited

Project:

City Sanitation Plan - Kochi

Client:

Kochi Municipality & GTZ

Map 1:

Location Map - Kochi

Adapted from:

Ward Map of Kerala Sustainable Urban

Development Project (KSUDP)

Scale:

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0 km0.1

Key map

Kaloor North

Kunnumpuram

Edapally

West

Mamangalam

Chakaraparambu

Palarivattom

Vennala

Elamakkara

South

Elamakkara

North

Vaduthala

Pachalam

East

Pullupady

Kaloor South

Karukapally

Amaldhavattom

Elamkulam

Kadavanthara

Perananur

Ramanthuruth

Fort cochin

KorivelpadyNazretth

Erhakulam south

Thevara

NorthEdakochiPullardesam

Edakochi

South

Perandoor

Vaduthala

Konthuruthi

Thayyazham

Mundamveli

Boat jetty

Jose jn.

KSRTC

Bus Stand

South Rly.

Station

Rajive Gandhi

Indoor Stadium

ChilavanoorRavipuram

Ravipuram jn.

Bridge-1

High CourtBridge-2

Bridge-3

Puthu vypeen

Vallarpadam

Rly. StationCochin Harbour

Naval Base

Brid

ge

YardNaval Aircraft

Old Airport

W. Island

Korivelpady jn.

Boat jetty

Ayyappankavu

Bridge

Cochin

Vendurthy

Thevara

Vembaned

LakeThevara Fery

KumbalamKacheripady

Edakochi

Paluruthy

To C

hera

nallo

or

To Thrissur

To Kottayam

To A

lap

uzha

To A

lapuzha

Thopumpady

Vypeen - Ernakulam Bridges

Rajiv Gandhi

Terminal

Boat jetty

Customs jetty

Thanthanal

Island

BolgattyIsland

To T

hrissu

r

Thevara Jn.

Shipyard

KSINCO Jetty

GCDAComplex

Rajendra

Maidan

Vypeen

Thopumpady

North Rly.

Station

NH

47 B

yp

ass

NH

17

To Moovattu Puzha

NH 49

NH

47

NH 49

NH 47 A

Rameswaram

Lakshadw

eep S

ea

Lakshadw

eep S

ea

Elemkunnapuzha

Manassery jn.

Pip

e L

ine R

oad

Kalvathi Rd.

Beach R

d.

PM

Mo

ham

mad

Rd.

Jacob R

d.

Munda

m V

eli

Rd

.

NH

47A

Ind

ira

Ga

nd

hi R

d.

Bazar Rd.

Cheralai Rd.

Ma

ula

na A

zad R

d.

Tow

n H

all

Rd.

PM

Moh

am

mad R

d.

St. G

eorg

e P

attom

Rd.

NH

47A

Mundamveli

Tow

n H

all

Rd.

KOCHI



Figure 2.2: Kochi and its various islands

2.1.1. Corporation of Cochin and Kochi urban agglomeration

This CSP is being done in coordination with CoC and focuses on the area within the CoC. The Kochi urban

agglomeration is spread over 630 sq. km., while the area under the CoC spans 94.88 sq.km and organised into

74 Wards. The institutional framework for urban services and sanitation are dealt in detailed in chapter 8.

Figure 2.3: Kochi urban agglomeration and CoC areas

2.2. Population and Population density

Kochi urban agglomeration population was 1,138,413, while CoC had a population of 5,96,473 during Census

2001. This translates to a population density (persons per hectare) of 35 and 63 in the urban agglomeration

and CoC areas respectively. The Kochi Urban Agglomeration has the highest population density among urban

agglomerations in Kerala with the state as a whole having only 8.2 persons per hectare. Refer Table 2.3 for

details and Map 3 in Volume 5 for a spatial representation of population density.



Table 2.1: Population densities in Kochi and adjoining areas

Urban Agglomeration Population as of 2001 Area

(in hectares)

Population Density

(Persons per hectare)

Cochin Corporation 5,96,473 9,488 63

Kalamassery Municipal Area 63,176 2,700 23

Thripunithura Municipal Area 59,884 1,869 32

Thrikkakara Panchayat 65,984 2,746 21

Thiruvankulam Panchayat 21,717 1,049 33

Maradu Panchayat 41,012 1,235 13

Mulavukadu Panchayat 22,842 1,927 28

Kadamakudy Panchayat 15,824 1,292 43

Varapuzha Panchayat 24,524 774 32

Cheranalloor Panchayat 26,316 1,059 25

Eloor Panchayat 35,573 1,421 25

Njarakkal Panchayat 24,166 860 12

Kumbalam Panchayat 27,549 2,079 17

Kumbalangi Panchayat 26,661 1,577 12

Chellanam Panchayat 36,209 1,760 24

Kochi Urban Agglomeration 1,138,413 33,002 35

Source: City Development Plan, Kochi

Within CoC, 7 wards had a population density of above 200 persons per hectare in 2001and are projected to

have the highest densities in the coming decades (refer Table 2.2 below. Also Map 4 in Volume 5 for a spatial

representation of ward-wise population and population projections).

Table 2.2: Wards with the highest population densities

Ward Number Ward Name Ward Area

(in hectares)

Population Density

in 2001

Population Density

Projected for 2041*

2 Kalavathy 38.23 215 253

3 Iraveli 17.39 522 612

4 Karipallam 39.62 271 318

5 Mattancherry 62.11 209 245

6 Kochangadi 31.71 253 297

26 Nazarath 32.88 217 255

28 Amaravathy 47.64 236 277

* Source: DPR, Sewerage, KSUDP & IMaCS Analysis assuming unchanged ward areas.

2.2.1. Population projections

CoC’s decadal population growth at 7.8% is significantly lesser than other parts of the Kochi agglomeration

(Refer Table 2.3). Peripheral areas are thus growing faster than CoC which can possibly be attributed to a

relatively higher population density, land availability constraints and higher land prices within CoC area. Ward

level population projections are given in Annex 7.

Table 2.3: Population trends: Cochin Corporation and Kochi urban agglomeration

Parameter Urban area 1981 1991 2001

Population Cochin Corporation 513,249 564,589 596,473

Kochi Urban Agglomeration 929,969 1,041,870 1,138,413

Decadal rates of growth Cochin Corporation 10% 5.7%

Kochi Urban Agglomeration 12% 9.3%

Source: Kochi CDP



Table 2.4: Official population projections: Cochin Corporation and Kochi urban agglomeration

Population in

2001 2005 2010* 2011 2021

Cochin Corporation 5,96,473 6,05,335 6,16,598 6,18,348 6,40,000

Kochi Urban Agglomeration 1,138,413 1,173,958 1,219,954 1,252,025 1,368,800

*Based on data from City Development Plan, Kochi

Despite the decreasing population growth in the Cochin Corporation area, in addition to the city’s natural

growth, migration into the city is expected to continue (An inward migration of 1.5 lakh families is expected

over the next 20 years) into the Urban Agglomeration. As per estimates of the Kochi’s City Development Plan

(Kochi CDP), Kochi is estimated to have a daily floating population of 2.5 lakh people. Population projections

for 2041 compiled from six different sources and computation by IMaCS are summarised in Table 2.5 below.

Table 2.5: Population projections: IMaCS analysis and other sources

Source 2001 2011 2021 2031 2041

ADB’s PPTA Study Report 5.96 6.30 6.60 6.83 -

RGI Study Report 5.96 6.47 6.82 7.07 7.24

JNU Study Report 5.96 6.50 6.86 7.04 7.00

Health Department Government of Kerala (GoK) I 5.96 6.33 6.45 6.35 6.02

Health Department GoK II 5.96 6.42 6.69 6.75 6.63

Health Department GoK III 5.96 6.42 6.74 6.88 6.90

IMaCS Analysis 5.96 6.40 6.69 7.11 7.58

Note: Sources as quoted in the KSUDP DPR: PPTA = Project Preparation Technical Assistance (ADB); RGI = Rajiv Gandhi

Institute; JNU = Jawaharlal Nehru University.

IMaCS analysis is based on an average of arithmetic, geometric and incremental growth rates based on the

estimates given in the KSUDP DPR for sewerage (see below).

Table 2.6: Details of IMaCS calculations

Year Arithmetic Geometrical Incremental Average

2001 5.96 5.96 5.96 5.96 2011 6.38 6.41 6.28 6.36

2021 6.79 6.89 6.70 6.80

2031 7.21 7.41 7.22 7.28

2041 7.62 7.97 7.86 7,82

Source: IMaCS analysis

2.2.2. Slums and slum population

The share of urban poor (Below Poverty Line or BPL) population in the CoC area and in the urban

agglomeration area is roughly the same, approximately 33-35% of the total population (Table 2.7). There are a

reported 283 slums within CoC area (See Map 5 in Volume 5, PDF Maps folder for a spatial distribution of the

number of slums in each ward). A complete list of all 283 slums in the CoC area and fact sheets of 70 select

slums are given in Volume 4 of the report. Slum Data; PDF and CAD Maps for these 70 slums are given in

Volume 5, Thematic Maps in separate folders.

Table 2.7: BPL population in Kochi

Area Population (2006) BPL population BPL as a %age of total

population

Cochin Corporation 603,597 213,120 35

Kochi Urban Agglomeration 1,191,741 398,574 33



Table 2.8: Slums and slum population in Kochi

Location Number of Slums Slum Population Total BPL Population

Cochin Corporation 283 1,27,872 2,13,120

2 Municipal Areas 51 7,515 18,515

12 Panchayats 80 3,925 1,93,219

2.3. Implications for sanitation

2.3.1. Key Issues

We list below select issues relating to the demographic context that have a bearing on the CSP process.

1. Rapid population growth in both the CoC and urban agglomeration areas: Though urbanisation has

spread far beyond the CoC limits into neighbouring areas, long-term planning is constrained by the

presence of multiple municipal/panchayat bodies. While the CSP covers only the CoC areas, there is a

need to plan for sanitation infrastructure and services keeping in mind the growth in the urban

agglomeration as a whole.

2. High floating population: Since Kochi is a strong economic centre that receives a very high level of floating

population; sanitation planning should take into account this aspect.

3. Diversity in sanitation service levels and characteristics of slums: Even though there are 283 slums in

Kochi, there is significant diversity in the characteristics of sanitation services. While most are fully

equipped with individual toilets and sanitation facilities, there is inadequate service delivery in some slums

and open defecation is prevalent in some areas. Baseline information on sanitation at the level of

individual slums available with CoC is only for 70 slums (surveyed under the KSUDP programme)

inadequate and reflects the need for a detailed mapping at a slum level.

2.3.2. Population projections and sanitation services demand

The population projections translate to an increase in sanitation services demand within CoC (refer Table 2.9)

Table 2.9: Sanitation infrastructure demand

Source: IMaCS analysis. Details of estimates covered in respective chapters under Section II: Sanitation components

Net Water demand will be 88 MLD in 2016 and increase to 90 MLD in 2021 and 102 MLD in 2041. This

translate to a waste water generation (@ 80% of net water consumed) to be 70 MLD in 2016, increasing

to 82 MLD in 2041.

Solid Waste generation is likely to grow at a faster place due to a combination of population growth and

increase in per capita consumption to 325 TPD in 2016, 368 TPD in 2021 and 493 TPD in 2041.

The demand for Public Toilet blocks (@ 1 per 100 Households and 6 seats per toilet block) is expected to

be 217 in 2016 going up to 223 in 2041 while the demand for Community toilet blocks (@ 10% slum

population requiring shared access, 1 seat per 15 HH and 4 seats per toilet block) is expected to increase

from 87 in 2016 to 101 in 2041.

Infrastructure Demand Short Medium Long

2016 2021 2041

Projected Population (CoC) – Lakh 6.5 6.7 7.6

Net Water Demand (MLD) 88 90 102

Waste Water Generation (MLD) 70 72 82

Solid Waste Generation (TPD) 325 368 493

Community Toilet Blocks (Nos.) 87 89 101

Public Toilet Blocks (Nos.) 217 223 253



SECTION II PLAN COMPONENTS



3. Access to Toilets

3.1. Baseline status

Coverage: During the primary survey (refer Figure 3.1) nearly 95.5 % of respondents reported having individual

in-house toilet facilities (which is at almost the same level as reported during Census 2001). Thus, a significant

portion of households in Kochi has access to individual toilet facilities. About 1.4 % of the respondents

reported use of shared toilets, while 0.4% reported open defecation.

Figure 3.1: Primary survey findings: toilet facilities used by surveyed household

Source: IMaCS SEUF Primary survey

Open defecation: Prevalence of open defecation is somewhat rare and was reported by 0.4 % of respondents

covered in the primary survey, and is practised in some areas including Vathuruthy, Ayyappankavu, parts of

Gandhinagar and Mattencherry (along the canals). In the case of Vathuruthy, open defecation takes place

along the railway track. Figure 3.2 provides a spatial overlay wards reporting open defecation spots (also

presented in Map 7). The prevalence of open defecation suggests the need for greater awareness generation

and creation of additional public/community toilet facilities.

Toilet access in slums: Nearly 51 %2 of the Most Vulnerable, 61 % of the Just Vulnerable and 74 % of the Upper

Crust of the Poor have their own toilets. 25 % of the poor depend on public toilets and 3 % of poor resort to

open defecation. A slum survey in 70 selected slums carried out by KSUDP indicates that 3.7 % of the slum

households have a flush type toilet, 57.4 % with toilet connected to septic tanks, 25.1 % households using a

common toilet facility, and 13% with pit toilets or other types (which presumably includes open defecation).

Other findings from the survey included the following:

o Current sanitation facilities are either poor or non-existent in below-poverty-line (BPL) and slum

areas. Even in areas where slum rehabilitation has taken place, such as Mundamveli, toilet

infrastructure has not been adequately provided.

o In some slum areas, community toilets have been built. Roughly ten households share one community

toilet, which is usually a pit latrine. However, since these slum areas are typically plagued by

inadequate water supply, it is difficult to manage the toilets and keep them clean

o Rag pickers and manually scavenging occurs, particularly in the low-income pockets of Matencherry

o Although the CoC has constructed 8 community toilets in the area, only 5 of these toilets are currently

operational. Of these, three have been recently damaged due to a disagreement between a few of

the households. The remaining two toilets are used by a few of residents in the area.

o In several cases, outlets of toilets have been directly connected to a waterway or canal.

2 Kerala Sustainable Urban Development Project (2005) City Report Kochi Volume 2, PPTA 4106 – IND, Kochi.

18%

82%

No problems Problems with maintenance

95.5%

4.1% 0.4%

Individual Shared Open Defecation



Figure 3.2: Wards reporting open defecation

Use and condition of public toilets: There are currently a reported 6 public toilet complexes set up by the

GCDA, and managed by Sulabh International under contract, and another 9 Public Toilets set up by the CoC,

under contract management by private entrepreneurs (although some toilets do not appear to be within the

CoC area). Refer Map 8 for the location of public toilet facilities. Lack of adequate water supply in public

restrooms has made it difficult to keep Public Toilets clean. Even Toilets in public institutions such as Kochi’s

General Hospital, are poorly maintained. Most slums have community toilets, but many are poorly maintained.

The primary survey revealed a similar picture: Of the 33 % that reported having used a public toilet, nearly 82

% considered facilities to be poorly maintained (Figure 3.1).

Willingness to pay: Around 80 % of those surveyed were willing to pay for public toilets: 47 % were prepared

to pay Re. 1 and 49 % were willing to pay between Rs. 1 – 3 per use, 3 % were willing to pay more than Rs. 3

per use. This possibly indicates the need for shared facilities in areas where access is constrained.

3.2. SWOT and Key Issues

Table 3.1 captures the SWOT analysis for access to toilets within CoC

Table 3.1: Access to toilets – SWOT

Strengths Weaknesses

Good coverage of individual toilets (95%+)

General awareness on sanitation hygiene is good.

Limited pockets of open defecation. Open

urination spots are very limited

Manual scavenging seems largely eliminated

Public/shared facilities are in poor condition, many with no

water facilities

Limited availability of community toilets in slum pockets and

public toilet facilities in commercial areas.

Lack of public toilet facilities for women.

No comprehensive policy and integrated planning at CoC level

Opportunities Threats

OD is limited to select low-income pockets

Areas with large floating population are

identifiable and limited.

Inadequate focus on O&M

Poor Hygiene conditions near open defecation spots and

public urinals would create health hazards



The key issues with respect to access to toilets within CoC are summarised below:

1. Open defecation while rare is still prevalent in select pockets of the city. Open defecation still prevalent

in some pockets as shown spatially in Figure 3.2. Select locations include Wellington Island (along Railway

line), Mattenchery (along canals), Fort Kochi (Fishermen colony) and some parts of Gandhinagar.

2. An integrated approach to assess, plan, maintain and monitoring provision of shared toilet access is

missing. There is a lack of a city level plan for toilet construction and access provision. Public toilet access

is through one-off efforts without adequate assessment of city level demand considerations.

3. Accountability for public toilets and community toilets is diffused across multiple agencies. Sanitation is

under the Health Department of the CoC. However, the Engineering Department is responsible for repairs

and maintenance, leading to diffused accountability. Also, public facilities are established by CoC, GCDA

and other agencies. Often the facilities and service provision are outsourced without adequate contractual

safeguards and formal oversight mechanisms. Without clear standards, critical considerations such as

gender sensitivity, 24x7 access, water availability etc., often get ignored.

4. Financing for Toilets is based on funding availability; financing for maintenance is not earmarked. There

is a need to recognise the financing gap, particularly with respect to O&M. Provision of toilets is handled

under multiple schemes and expenditure reporting on toilet construction and O&M needs improvement.

3.3. Conceptual basis and best practices

While individual household toilets are preferable, shared toilet access solutions are still appropriate in specific

situations; notably as Community Toilets in high-density slums when a high proportion of tenants are without

access to toilets and as Public Toilets in urban pockets such as commercial areas and transit points with high

floating population. Nonetheless, sustainable development and management of shared toilets has been

challenging. Box 3.1 summarise lessons and insights from recent studies and initiatives on this subject.

Box 3.1 Shared Toilet Access; Lessons and insights from recent research

WSUP. Feb 2011. When are communal or public toilets an appropriate option.

This paper argues that while individual toilets are preferable, communal or public toilets may be appropriate medium-term solution notably

in high-density slums with a high proportion of tenants and/or frequent flooding.

Where are public toilets used?

• The Sulabh organisation runs Pay-per-use toilets throughout India. Reports suggest that these facilities are profitable

in public locations, but tend to be loss-making in residential areas and are often inadequately maintained.

• In some African countries (e.g. Senegal), public toilets are not widely used while in others (e.g. Kenya), public toilets,

often poorly maintained, are seen in poor settlements. In Ghana, pay-per-use model for residential use is widespread.

• Communal toilets are seen in low-income communities of African/Asian cities. The SPARC model, implemented in

Pune and Mumbai are managed by NGOs. A moderate per-household monthly fee is collected.

Potential problems with communal and public toilets

• They are dirty and unhygienic because of poor design, construction, maintenance and insufficient funds.

• They may be unsafe, particularly women/children at night, when located in dark places with poor lighting.

• The distance to a communal/public toilet could be dissuasive; very often they lack facilities for women and children.

• User charges may be dissuasive, because people can’t pay or are unwilling to pay.

• They lack privacy and may be embarrassing for some users: they sometimes lack even basic facilities like water.

• Public toilets may be taken over by street gangs or political factions and run for excessive profit with little regard to

affordability, services or reinvestment.

Key conclusions

• Communal or public toilets may be an appropriate solution in low-income high density districts, where a) there is high

proportion of tenants, b) in areas of water-logging and c) widespread open defecation and/or foul wastewater.

• Communal or public toilets should only be introduced after exploration of the social and economic context.

• People will generally prefer communal toilets closer to home over public toilets located far-off.



• Communal or public toilets are only acceptable if they provide effective service for women and children.

• Communal toilets charging a monthly per household fee will be preferred by users than pay-per-use public toilets.

Water and Sanitation Program. Dec 2007. Public Toilets in Urban India; Doing Business differently.

This field note looks at both the achievements and challenges in the use of these contracts for public toilets in New Delhi and presented

some significant lessons for meeting the sanitation needs of the city as a whole.

The New Delhi Municipal Corporation (NDMC) proposed to engage private operators to construct new toilet blocks using

private financing and operate them for a fixed period. The right to use walls as advertising space was provided to enable

operator offset part of capital costs. The proposal allowed private financing and an incentive for maintenance.

Key outcomes, challenges and lessons

Though the increased revenue was a bonus for NDMC in the initial years, there was a marked deterioration in performance

and services subsequently. In the absence of appropriate monitoring, profits were derived from advertising revenue, and

with insufficient revenue to cover operating costs there was little incentive to spend on cleaning and maintenance. The

consequences were disastrous; while some opted to minimize open hours, closing became a profitable option for others.

The Delhi experience illustrates both the benefits and risks of private sector participation and provides valuable lessons on:

Importance of financial incentives: Advertising provides a cost recovery avenue, but needs to be judiciously exploited.

The need for monitoring and accountability mechanisms. Whatever financial incentives are in place, monitoring and

enforcement of contract conditions is critical, including termination for non-performance.

The need to prioritize service delivery. Excluding technical criteria from bidding process can result in contracts being

awarded to agencies without either the capacity or motivation to fulfil service delivery.

Options for Improving Service Delivery

Advertising rights potential does make toilet complexes profitable, so that maintenance is commercially viable. The

challenge is to develop contracts so that the public service is delivered to an acceptable standard. The following could help:

• Assess Local Demand before developing New Toilet Blocks. Where demand is high, toilets can be profitable without

advertising revenue. Demand is a prerequisite for contracts based on user charges.

• Revitalize Monitoring and Strengthen Accountability. Media interest, municipal accountability, consumer feedback

are possible solutions. Service parameters should be defined/monitored with enforcement of punitive measures.

• Increase the Lease Period. Longer lease periods could enable longer term cost recovery plans with proper attention to

maintenance when backed by contractually enforcing penalties for poor performance.

• Bundle Contracts. Bundling toilets into single contract would simplify administration and reduce monitoring burden.

WSP. April 2004. From Hazard to Convenience: Towards Better Management of Public Toilets in the City of Nairobi.

This field note looks at private sector participation in public toilet management in Nairobi and possible benefits include efficiency gains,

improved quality of service, and the ability to raise funds for refurbishment.

In 2001 the Nairobi City Council (NCC) approached WSP for technical support to develop guidelines to involve private

service providers in managing Public Toilets. The study identified the following deterrents to public toilet use:

• Insecurity. Mugging, molestation, theft, and demands for money constitute a major concern.

• Inadequate lighting. Most PTs are poorly lit, making it both difficult and unsafe to use them.

• Poor accessibility. The accessibility of some toilets is poor, with approach paths in substandard condition.

• Lack of privacy. Most PTs have broken doors and windows and so lack privacy.

• Dirty and unhygienic environment. Human waste and excreta around many toilets, renders them unhygienic to use.

The main issues to be addressed by any new management option were identified as:

• Changing the role of NCC in direct management to one of policy formulation and oversight.

• Retaining ownership by NCC (asset holding) while causing minimum disruption to the existing NCC structure.

• Meeting costs of the initial repairs /rehabilitation and subsequent O&M

• Ensuring competitive practices in allocating management responsibilities and avoiding cartel control.

Three management models were considered: a) Private management contracts of PTs refurbished by NCC, b) Private

company owned by NCC and c) Concession contracts. Eventually two options were selected: (1) a full concession for a

private sector company inside the CBD and (2) a community-based contract in markets and residential areas.



3.4. Vision and Goals

3.4.1. Vision

“Eliminate Open Defecation through provision of equitable and efficient access to public and community

toilet access and by making all citizens sanitation-conscious through sustained awareness effort”

3.4.2. Goals

Table 3.2 summarises service delivery targets to achieve the above Vision.

Table 3.2 Access to toilets Supply: Short Medium and Long Term targets

Parameter Unit Norm Baseline Timeframe To Achieve SLB Norms

Short Medium Long

Open Defecation and Urination

% Of population practising OD * % 0% 0.4% √

No. Of open urination spots * Nos. 0 ~ 10 √

No. Of open defecation spots * Nos. 0 ~ 10 √

Toilet Coverage

Access to Public Conveniences (PC)* HH / PC 100 ~ 500 √

Access to Community Toilets (CT) * Slum HH / CT 15 N.A √

Source: IMaCS analysis. Discussions with CoC officials. *These parameters are not part of MoUD SLB indicators and have been introduced to complement the SLB indicators.

3.4.3. Infrastructure demand and cost estimates

The basis and computation to arrive at the requirement of public and community toilets is shown in Table 3.3.

Table 3.3 Infrastructure Demand and Cost Estimate

Particulars Year

2016 2021 2041

Projected Population 6,49,928 6,69,092 7,57,972

Projected Households 1,29,986 1,33,818 1,51,594

Projected Low-income Households (HH) 25,997 26,764 30,319

Demand for Community Toilets

% of slum households needing Shared Toilets 20% 20% 20%

No. of Toilet Seats (@ 1 seat per 15 Low-income HH) 347 357 404

No. of Toilet Blocks (@ 4 seats per toilet block) 87 89 101

Demand for Public Toilets

No. of Toilet Seats (@ 1 seat per 100 HH) 1,300 1,338 1,516

No. of Toilet Blocks (@ 6 seats per toilet block) 217 223 253

Capital Cost Estimate (Rs. Lakh) - Toilets Short Medium Long

Public Toilets @ Rs.10 lakh per toilet block 2,230 300

Community Toilets @ Rs. 8 lakh per toilet block 712 96

Total 2,942 - 396

O&M Costs (Rs. Lakh) – Toilets 2016 2021 2041

Annual O&M Costs – Shared Public Toilets 501 657 1,978

Capital costs are at 2011 prices. O&M expenditure is based on an annual O&M cost estimate of Rs. 1300 per ton

which is escalated at 5% annually.



3.5. Recommendations

Specific actions in this regard are summarised in Table 3.4 and detailed below.

Table 3.4 Access to toilets Supply: Recommended actions

ACTIONS BY TIMEFRAME

S M L

1. Prepare and Implement a city wide Toilet Development/Rehabilitation Plan CoC √

i. Prepare DPR for location selection, configuration and sizing of Public and Community Toilets CoC √

ii. Implement Community Toilets, starting with identified slums / wards with OD prevalence CoC √

iii. Implement Public Toilets starting with commercial areas having high floating population CoC √

iv. Progressively increase Public Toilet coverage to provide city wide access CoC √ √ √

v. Enable facilities for the treatment of wastewater or sludge from public toilets CoC √

2. Implement a comprehensive inspection/monitoring protocol for Toilet monitoring CoC √

i. Render existing toilets usable through designated accountability among sanitation officials CoC √

ii. Engage local stakeholders in maintenance, monitoring and oversight of shared toilets CoC √

iii. Undertake periodic Third Party Evaluation Audit of facilities and disseminate findings CoC/GoK √

3. Strengthen statutory basis and capacity through formulation of bye-laws and guidelines CoC / GoK √

i. Incorporate Toilet Sizing and specifications as part of Building regulations. CoC / GoK √

ii. Enforce fines for open defecation and urination as per amended Municipal bye-laws CoC / GoK √

iii. Prepare a Guidance Manual on development and maintenance of public toilets CoC / GoK √

4. Drive behaviour change through awareness campaigns and branding initiatives CoC √

i. Initiate a Slum sanitation campaign to eliminate open defecation CoC √

ii. Initiate a Trader-support campaign in commercial areas to eliminate open urination CoC √

iii. Leverage the MoUD –GIZ School Sanitation initiative to initiate a school level campaign. CoC √

iv. Standardize branding (logos, painting, signage) for Public Toilets and Community Toilets CoC √

5. Initiate actions to improving financial sustainability CoC √

i. Prepare a dedicated Toilet Budget annually CoC √

ii. Explore appropriate outsourcing models for Public Toilets; Adopt contractual safeguards

while outsourcing toilet development and maintenance. CoC √

iii. Encourage adoption of toilets through Corporate Social Responsibility initiatives CoC √

1. Prepare and implement a comprehensive city wide Toilet Development and Rehabilitation Plan. CoC

should initiate implementation of a City-wide Toilet Development and Rehabilitation Plan with the

objective to eliminate open defecation and open urination within a time frame of three years.

a. CoC should prepare a comprehensive DPR to i) validate demand for Public and Community Toilet

access, ii) identify locations for setting up Public and Community Toilets, iii) develop standardized

designs and configurations for setting up toilets (including infrastructure and facilities required)

depending on space available and iv) Estimate Capital and O&M costs for implementing this plan. A

possible Terms of Reference for preparation of this DPR is provided below.

Box 3.2 Suggested Terms of Reference for Toilet Development and Rehabilitation Plan:

While preparing this DPR, it may be useful for CoC to make a distinction between Public Toilets and Community Toilets

during planning and execution. Community Toilets are typically required to tackle open defecation in slums / low-income

pockets. Community toilets complexes typically require facilities for bathing, particularly in dense slums and separate areas

for washing clothes. They are primarily required in view of the land limitations and nature of building layouts in low-income

areas, provision of individual toilets does not appear feasible in these areas. Public Toilets on the other hand are required

to address the needs of floating population. They are required to be provisioned on priority in commercial areas and

progressively in all parts of the city. These need to be typically designed to have a higher proportion of urinals and wash

basins, given that these tend to be used primarily for urination.



Community Toilet Component:

• Conduct a slum mapping exercise to validate Visible Open Defecation spots within the city

• From the findings of the Multi-purpose household sanitation survey, comprehensively map vulnerable clusters with

low individual toilet access and along with existing community toilet locations

• In vulnerable pockets with existing community toilets, undertake and report an inventory of Community toilets

covering, asset condition, facilities, gaps, availability of designated care-taker, current and potential level of usage.

• In vulnerable pockets without existing community toilets, identify potential locations and confirm land availability.

• Develop modular toilet designs along three or four types; Single Male and Female Toilet; Small, Medium and Large

Toilet complex with bathing, urinal, wash basin and toilet facilities factoring gender sensitivity and needs of children.

Identify demand for facilities for bathing, particularly in dense slums and separate areas for washing clothes.

• Comprehensively map a list of locations for a) developing new toilets with appropriate size and design and b)

rehabilitation of existing toilets with added features and improvement in asset condition and facilities.

• Recommend appropriate measures to handle, treat and dispose waste-water safely at each of the locations

• Identify user group organisations such as resident associations , slum associations, community groups or NGOs that

could potentially handle local oversight and monitoring

Public Toilet Component:

• Validate commercial zones with prevalence of open urination.

• From the findings of the Multi-purpose household sanitation survey, comprehensively map potential locations for

setting up public toilets starting with commercial zones with lower toilet access.

• Review existing public toilets, undertake and report an inventory covering, asset condition, facilities provided, gaps,

availability of designated care-taker, nature of outsourcing/revenue model, level of usage.

• Identify potential locations for development of public toilets and confirm land availability for the same.

• Develop modular toilet designs along three or four types; Single Male and Female Toilet; Small, Medium and Large

Toilets with bathing, urinal, wash basin and toilet facilities, factoring gender sensitivity and requirements of children.

• Recommend and comprehensively map a list of locations for a) developing new toilets with appropriate size and

design and b) rehabilitation of existing toilets with added features and improvement in asset condition and facilities.

• Recommend appropriate measures to handle, treat and dispose waste-water safely at each of the locations

• Identify user group organisations such as resident associations , slum associations, community groups or NGOs and

ward committees that could potentially handle local oversight and monitoring

b. This DPR should be followed with a phased investment program for implementation. Priority of

implementation could be as suggested below:

i. As an immediate step, CoC should enable facilities for treatment of wastewater or sludge in all existing

public toilets.

ii. Initial focus of new development should be to provide Community Toilets in slums, especially

those wards/locations with high OD prevalence. Since the focus of NUSP is to eliminate open

defecation, slum locations having high OD prevalence and low availability of individual toilets are

high priority. Importantly, Infrastructure upgradation and slum development /re-location

proposed as part of other slum development initiatives, if any should be factored in this regard.

iii. This should be complemented by provision of Public Toilets in commercial areas with high

floating population. CoC is already in the process of evaluating proposals for implementing Public

Toilets in about 10-15 high floating point locations in the city.

iv. In the medium to long term, CoC should progressively expand Public Toilet facilities in all parts

of the city to meet a pre-set standard, say 1 Public Toilet every 500 m of arterial roads and roads

in commercial areas.

v. CoC should explore provision of Mobile toilets in slums that could potentially be re-located or

proposed for comprehensive rehabilitation / upgradation as part of slum development programs.

They could also be considered in high floating population locations during peak tourist seasons to

complement Public Toilets.



2. COC should establish a comprehensive inspection/monitoring protocol covering the following actions.

a. Render existing Toilets usable by designating sanitation officials to be responsible for specific

Public/Community toilets. COC could consider initiating a periodic inspection protocol for existing

Public toilets. An Illustrative checklist for carrying inspection is provided in the format in Table 3.5

Table 3.5 Illustrative checklist for toilet inspection and rectification

Location

Date and time of inspection

Checks Compliance vis-à-vis standard

Smell

Floor

Wall

Dustbin

Mirror

Basin

Soap

Water Availability

Taps

Urinals

Toilet seats

Qualitative Remarks and Complaints

Actions to be taken by COC / Service Provider along with Time frame for rectification

Signatures of User representative and sanitation official

b. Designated sanitation inspectors should be given the responsibility for inspection at a fixed frequency

say, once every week to start with. The frequency of inspection could be reduced progressively as the

maintenance process is streamlined. The maintenance should cover provision of the following:

i. Designated caretaker and ensuring round-the-clock access

ii. Water availability: Where piped water supply is not available, COC should providing connection

from existing power bore to a storage tank to ensure continuous water availability.

iii. Lighting, signage and doors for privacy and safety: Rectify and provide lighting and proper doors

/ ventilation along with padlocks. Provide signage at and around the toilet.

iv. Consumables for users and for cleaning the toilets.

v. Waste-water disposal: All toilets should be connected to sewerage network or onsite facilities.

c. Engage local stakeholders in maintenance, monitoring and oversight of shared toilets. COC should

involve local stakeholders in monitoring and oversight. Operationalization of ward committees and

formalized local oversight for sanitation to these Ward Committees can help in this regard.

d. Undertake periodic Third Party Evaluation Audit of facilities and disseminate findings. An annual

Third Party Evaluation Audit can provide independent inputs on status of toilets and could review

service levels, asset condition and citizen satisfaction. The findings when disseminated can help

improve public confidence. Refer Box 3.5 for Terms of Reference for such an audit.

Box 3.5 Suggested coverage of the Terms of Reference for Third Party Evaluation Audit:

Review and report findings with respect to functioning of Shared Toilet facilities with respect to the following

• 24x7 access of toilet to users

• Asset Condition of the Toilet and its environment covering a) Availability of Facilities, b) Cleanliness c) Operating

Condition of various components such as Urinals, Basins, Taps etc., d) Lighting and e) Signage



• Availability of Water, Soap and other consumables

3. COC should in consultation with GoK, create and enforce statutory provisions / guidance to support

toilet management including the following:

a. Incorporate Toilet Sizing and specifications as part of Building regulations. Several countries have

specific regulation for toilets in their building code. Refer box 3.4.

b. Enforce fines for open defecation and urination in public places. CoC should explicitly communicate

citizens’ duties to maintain cleanliness (including prohibition of littering, open defecation and open

urination) and should enforce levy of fines for open defecation.

c. Incorporate toilet specifications as part of slum re-development and re-location programs. Planning

of toilets should be done in synchrony with any slum re-development/relocation programs. If a slum

is to be re-located, explore use of mobile toilets in existing slum in the interim. If an in-situ re-

development is planned, plans for toilet access should be incorporated in the design.

d. Prepare a Guidance Manual on design, development and maintenance of shared public toilet

facilities. COC in consultation with GoK and MOUD should consider bring out a Guidance Manual,

which could spell out standards and guidance that could cover:

i. Norms and Modular Designs for development of Public / Community Toilets with particular focus

on gender and children sensitivity, 24x7 safe and secure access.

ii. Minimum Technical standards and infrastructure to be made available at the toilets.

iii. Governance and monitoring process including local participation in oversight.

iv. Revenue and outsourcing models along with bid documents and term sheets for contracting

Box 3.4 Building regulation for toilet provision in commercial areas: select examples from other countries

California: Source: http://www.ehow.com/list_7196739_california-requirements-commercial-toilets.html

• Accessibility: Under the California Health and Safety Code, any local or state-run building that's open to the public

has to maintain at least one restroom for each gender, and the toilet must be open for use free of charge. Publicly and

private facilities open to public must be equipped with temporary or permanent restrooms to meet peak demand.

• Cleanliness: All public restrooms are required to be regularly maintained and reasonably sanitary. Members of the

public can't be exposed to any unreasonable danger due to unsanitary conditions in public restrooms, and local

building codes govern what is considered an unreasonable danger.

• Commercial Buildings: The number of toilets required in a commercial building depends upon how many employees

work in the building. In non-industrial office buildings, public buildings, and similar establishments, only one toilet is

required if the building has between one and 15 workers. Two toilets are mandatory for buildings with 16 to 35

workers, and buildings with 36 to 90 employees are required to house a minimum of three toilets. In buildings used

for industrial purposes, such as factories and warehouses, one toilet is required for every 10 employees, up to 100.

For industrial buildings that house over 100 employees, one additional toilet is required for every 15 employees.

UK: Source: http://www.hse.gov.uk/contact/faqs/toilets.htm

The relevant legislation is the Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1992. Regulation 20, Sanitary

conveniences, states: Suitable and sufficient sanitary conveniences shall be provided at readily accessible places. Without

prejudice to the generality of paragraph (1), sanitary conveniences shall not be suitable unless the rooms containing them

are adequately ventilated and lit; they and the rooms containing them are kept in a clean and orderly condition; and

separate rooms containing conveniences are provided for men and women except where and so far as each convenience is

in a separate room the door of which is capable of being secured from inside.

People at work No. of Toilets/Washbasins

1-5 1/1

6-25 2/2

26-50 3/3

51-75 4/4

http://www.ehow.com/list_7196739_california-requirements-commercial-toilets.html

http://www.hse.gov.uk/contact/faqs/toilets.htm



76-100 5/5

4. COC should initiate awareness campaigns to facilitate awareness, usage and ownership of shared

community toilet facilities at the levels of slums, trader communities and schools.

a. The Community Toilet Development and Rehabilitation program should be backed by an intensive

Slum level sanitation campaign to facilitate awareness, usage and ownership. The focus of the

awareness campaign in vulnerable pockets should be on a) Health Hazards of Open Defecation and

social mobilisation/peer communication b) Use of toilet facilities and c) Good sanitation practices

including washing hands, keeping toilets clean and d) Community role in monitoring and oversight.

b. An awareness campaign with support of traders could help limit open urination in commercial areas.

c. A campaign targeted at primary schools students backed by provision of good sanitation facilities at

schools should be initiated in coordination with the school sanitation initiative of MoUD/GIZ.

d. COC (in collaboration with other agencies) should develop a standardised visual themes (logos,

painting, signage) for Public Toilets and Community Toilets in the city as a means of effective

branding and ease of spotting of toilets for users.

5. Initiate the following actions relating to improving financial sustainability of toilet access provision

a. Prepare a dedicated Toilet Budget annually. CoC should prepare and earmark dedicated budget for

development and maintenance of toilets annually and report expenditure on toilets separately.

b. Adopt appropriate outsourcing models and endeavour to achieve O&M Cost recovery. CoC should

actively adopt outsourcing approaches. In general, Public Toilets are amenable to pay per use

approaches and advertising streams could potentially enable full cost recovery for Public Toilets in

high density traffic locations. If managed well, CoC should be able to recover the O&M cost of

provision of all shared toilets (public + community toilets) and recovery part of its capital costs.

i. Pay and use public toilets in high density commercial areas have potential to recover full cost if

advertising potential is leveraged. CoC could consider unbundling advertising rights and toilet

maintenance as separate contracts. This could enable CoC to maximize its revenue potential.

ii. Community toilets will require subsidization but could recover O&M cost. Since a pay-per-use

model could deter usage, a monthly flat fee through issue of toilet use cards may be a better

alternative for Community Toilets. COC could consider using Self Help Groups or delegate

maintenance to local community while providing oversight to ensure asset upkeep and repairs.

c. Adopt contractual safeguards while outsourcing toilet development and maintenance. As stressed

under the section on insights and lessons from experiences elsewhere in Box 4.1, it is critical to

ensure contractual safeguards in developing and maintaining toilets particularly in PPP and

maintenance contracts. Possible procurement and contractual safeguards are suggested below:

i. Appropriate shortlisting criteria to ensure well contested bids among reputed operators

ii. Well defined service levels to ensure communication of expectations on service delivery

iii. Meeting obligations of COC including land, water supply and waste-water infrastructure

iv. Clearly defined monitoring mechanisms involving three-way monitoring covering COC,

community and independent audit as explained earlier

v. Punitive measures including right to terminate in case of non-compliance.

d. Encourage adoption of public and community toilets on CSR to reduce financial burden. To further

reduce burden on the Municipal finances, COC could encourage adoption of toilet complexes by

reputed entrepreneurs and business houses as a Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) initiative. COC

could coordinate with agencies like CREDAI Kochi, which have supported such initiatives. Reputed

Institutions with a strong CSR focus may not allow their reputation to be tarnished by poor



maintenance and would generally tend to ensure a strict oversight and may therefore pave the way

for more sustained toilet upkeep and maintenance.

4. Water supply


4.1.1. Climate, rainfall and groundwater

Climate and rainfall: Ernakulam district has wet monsoon type of climate. The district experiences heavy

rainfall during southwest monsoon season followed by northeast monsoon, while during other months rainfall

is considerably lower. Nearly 100 years of data (1901 – 1999) show that the annual rainfall averages 3359 mm

and ranges from 3233 to 3456 mm at different places of the district. The district is drained by the Periyar River

and its tributaries on the north and Muvattupuzha River on the south.

Groundwater: The depth to water level in the district shows wide variation on account of the physiographical

units in which the wells are located and undulating terrain in the mid land. Water level is shallower in western

coastal part (less than 2 mbgl in general) while in the eastern part of the district it follows the riverine alluvial

belt of Periyar River. In the midland region, the water table is between 5 and 10 mbgl and at isolated pockets

it is found at deeper levels (more than 10 m). In the coastal belt, the water level is very shallow and less than 2

mbgl throughout. Analysis of hydrographs show that some areas show a rising trend of water level (shallow

wells of 2 mbgl in the coastal belt) while some others show declining trends.

Climate, rainfall, and hydrology are described in detail in Annex 8.

4.1.2. Infrastructure

Sources and availability

The primary source of drinking water is the Periyar River, which is located approximately 20 km northeast of

CoC. A brief history of water supply to the Kochi area is provided in Table 4.1 below.

Table 4.1: Brief history of surface water supply to Kochi

Year Capacity Treatment Plant Source

1914 Chowara Water Works

Periyar River

1965 + 48 MLD

Aluva Head Works 1969 + 72 MLD

1993 + 70 MLD

2002 + 35 MLD

Source: City Development Plan, Kochi

Treatment facilities

Currently, the water treatment plant, called the Aluva Head Works, which was set up in 2002 and services the

following areas: CoC, four adjoining municipalities (Paravur, Aluva, Kalamassery and Thrippunithura) and 27

Panchayats. The installed capacity of the Aluva plant is 225 MLD, and it is the sole source of drinking water

supply point to most parts of GCDA area and adjoining Panchayats. KWA estimates indicate that the supply to

the CoC area is currently approximately 170 MLD; other unofficial estimates suggest it may be around 140

MLD.

Storage, transmission and distribution

The present storage and distribution system has three ground-level storage reservoirs and seven elevated

overhead tanks, which have a combined storage capacity of 10 million litres. (Refer Map 6 of Volume 5 for a

spatial representation of the Water supply network in Kochi.) Only one overhead tank at Thoppumpady is

under operation. The rest are not functional due to inadequate pressure of water. Presently, there are three



distribution mains from the Aluva Water Treatment Plant and a total water supply distribution network of

approximately 1,500 km long (Figure 4.1).

The first main 900 mm CI pipe supplies approximately 48 MLD of water to Perumannur sump at Ernakulam

and boosted into the town distribution system, covering areas such as Cochin Port, Naval Base, Cochin

Shipyard and Western part of Kochi.

The second main is a 1050 mm diameter pipeline that conveys water to Ernakulam town and several

tappings are provided to convey water to various local bodies and bulk consumers.

Figure 4.1: Schematic of the existing water supply system

Source: KWA; based on Kerala Sustainable Urban Development Project (PPTA 4106 – IND), Technical Analysis, Final Report

Volume 6, May 2005

The third main, a 1200 mm pipeline, also conveys water to the CoC, and is the other main supply water to

Municipality/Panchayat populations located in close proximity to the head works. Although a pipe was laid by

HUDCO (with World Bank assistance) to augment water supply of 105 MLD in West Kochi, existing railroads

caused an obstruction, and the pipes could not be extended past Thammanam. Thus the current service levels

of water supply in West Kochi, especially in areas like Fort Kochi and Mattancherry is poor. The water supply

network in the CoC is between 10 and 25 years old as per the Service Level Benchmarking (SLB) exercise of the

MoUD. 3

3 At a national workshop on 6 February 2009, the Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD) launched a Service Level Benchmarking (SLB)

pilot project covering 27 cities spread across 14 states and one Union Territory, including 16 JNNURM cities (NIUA, 2010). Service levels for

various parameters are calculated based on the methodology given in MoUD (2009).



45%

35%

20%

Municipal only Municipal + others Others only

4.1.3. Service levels

This section reviews the performance of water supply service provision in Kochi vis-à-vis the SLBs.

Connections and Coverage: There are more than 109,500 reported connections (Table 3.2), which translate to

more than 83% coverage. Although the entire CoC area is said to be covered with piped water supply network,

households seem to have supplementary sources of water supply. As per primary survey findings while more

than 80% of households rely on municipal water supply, about 35% of respondents supplemented this with

other sources including bore-wells and private sources (Figure 3.2). Similarly, the survey of commercial and

industrial establishments, schools and hospitals found that 67% of the establishments relied exclusively on

KWA water supply. 16% also had their own bore-wells for water supply. All had supplementary sources,

including tankers and bottled water.

Table 4.2 Water supply connections in Kochi, March 2009

Type of Connection Number of Connections

Domestic household 109,500

Public stand post 7,629

Non-domestic 8,217

Industrial 233

Source: Water Supply DPR, KSUDP

Figure 4.2 Primary survey findings: sources of household water supply

Source: IMaCS-SEUF primary survey

Per capita supply: After taking into account losses in processing and distribution of water (including water lost

due to leakages in pipes, storage reservoirs), present per capita water availability to the Ernakulam region is

estimated to be approximately 90 LPCD. Parts of West Kochi, such as the Mattancherry area suffers from low

water supply, estimated to be approximately 25-30 LPCD. As a result, many households in the West Kochi area

rely on private tankers for additional supply of water. The sources for these tankers are from the Periyar River

at Aluva area and near around. The CoC normally makes 1200 trips/month with each tanker making 3-4

trips/day and depends upon the service area.

Supply hours and Sufficiency: The duration of water supply across the Corporation area is intermittent and

ranges from half an hour per day to eight hours per day. These observations are validated by the primary

survey, with a majority (49%) reporting 2-4 hours per day, 34% reporting more than 8 hours per day, 12%

reporting 4-8 hours per day and 5%, less than 2 hours per day (Figure 4.3). More than a third of the

respondents indicated that the water supply quantity is insufficient.



Figure 4.3 Primary survey findings: Supply duration and sufficiency

Source: IMaCS-SEUF primary survey

Metering: Currently, all household water supply connections are metered in the Cochin Corporation area;

however, as per discussions with KWA officials, nearly 40% of water meters are faulty.

Cost recovery: In the absence of information of exact user charge revenues from KWA, cost recovery analysis

is constrained. Only partial information on O&M costs is available (from discussions with KWA personnel) for

the Aluva head works, which suggest that annual costs for plant and machinery O&M for there is about 73.39

lakhs, electricity charges at about 140.44 lakhs, and establishment costs of around 313.94 lakhs. However, the

water tariffs currently levied by KWA are as follows:

Table 4.3: Water tariffs in Kochi

Consumption per month (in kilo litres) Tariff (effective from March, 2009)

Domestic connections

Up to 5 KL Minimum charge- Rs. 20 per month

Between 5 KL and 10 KL Rs.20 + Rs.4 per KL

Between 10 KL and 20 KL Rs.40 + Rs. 5 per KL



Between 40 KL and 50 KL Rs. 250 + Rs. 14 per KL

Above 50 KL Rs. 390 + Rs. 25 per KL

Non-domestic connections

Up to 15 KL Minimum charge- Rs. 125 and Rs. 10 per KL

Between 15 KL and 50 KL Rs. 150 + Rs. 14 per KL

Above 50 KL Rs. 640 + Rs. 25 per KL

Industrial connections

For entire month Minimum charge- Rs. 250 and Rs. 25 per KL

Source: KWA website

In connections with faulty meters, water tariff is calculated based on average water consumption in previous

three months. For non-domestic consumers having more than 10KL, meter readings are taken once a month,

while non-domestic consumers having a consumption of less than 10KL, no fixed meter reading cycle exists. In

cases, where meters are not working, an alternative of estimating the actual consumption by adopting certain

per capita consumption norms are carried out. There are about 650 consumer personal ledgers (CPL) for about

65,000 consumers. In addition, a large proportion of the meters (50 to 70%) are not working, largely due to the

poor water pressure and intermittent supply. A systematic approach and mechanisms to maintain and replace

faulty meters is missing. KWA proposes to increase existing tariffs as given below to cover O&M costs and

increase financial viability.

6%8%

34%

13%

39%

< 2 hours >8 hours 2-4 hours 4-8 hours all day

32%

68%

Insufficient Sufficient



Table 4.4 Proposed new tariff regime under the KWA

Consumer Category Proposed New Tariffs(Rs)

Domestic

Minimum tariff 38

0-10 KL 3.50 per KL

11-30 KL 6.00 per KL

31-50 KL 10.00 per KL

Above 50 KL 15.00 per KL

Non-Domestic

Minimum tariff 203.00

0-50 KL 15.00 per KL

Above 50 KL 20.00 per KL

Industrial Consumers

Minimum tariff 503.00

All consumers 20.00 per KL

Public Fountains, etc. 3100.00 per year

Source: KWA, Summary of the JNNURM Water Supply Scheme to Kochi City, Part 1

Non-revenue water: KSUDP reports4 suggest that the estimated loss of water in the distribution system on

account of leakage is to the tune of 30 % but when taking into account other losses like process, transmission,

unauthorized connections, the estimated unaccounted for water (UFW) within CoC could be greater than 60

%. A detailed UFW analysis carried out by KSUDP is presented in Annex 9.

Water quality: Findings on surface and ground water quality, as well as consumer perceptions are presented

separately below.

Surface Water: A recent report5 suggests physiochemical water quality parameters in River Periyar exceed

the desirable limits of the downstream stations during all the seasons.

Table 4.5: Water quality findings: Industrial stretches of Periyar River

Parameters Minimum Maximum

1 Temperature 28.5 31.7

2 pH 3.59 7.4

3 EC (micro siemens/cm) 86.1 28900

4 DO(mg/l) 4 6.06

5 BOD(mg/l) 0.5 2.33

6 Colour (Hazen) 8.4 15.8

7 Turbidity (NTU) 2.3 22

8 TDS, (mg/l) 55.36 18582.7

9 Total Alkalinity(mg/l) 400 800

10 Total Hardness(mg/l) 400 4000

11 Calcium Hardness (mg/l) 200 800

12 Calcium (mg/l) 80 320

13 Magnesium (mg/l) 0 780.8

14 Sodium (mg/l) 4.4 15306

15 Potassium (mg/l) 0.7 335

16 Iron (mg/l) 0.02 0.18

17 Chloride( mg/I) 237.05 10777.5

18 Sulphate(mg/l) 3.68 282.4

19 Nitrate-N,(mg/l) 0.02 2.48

20 Salinity(ppt) ND 17.6

21 Phosphate-P,(mg/l) ND 0.05

4 Kerala Sustainable Urban Development Project (PPTA 4106 – IND) Final Report Volume 2 - City Report Kochi, May 2005

5 Source: KSCST, Environmental Monitoring Programme on Water Quality, Chapter 2, Periyar River Basin, 2009



Bacteriological analysis carried in the same study clearly indicates the microbial contamination of the river.

Ground Water: Surveys of groundwater carried out by the CPCB6 in 2008 show the following.

o The pH values for most samples are well within the limits prescribed by BIS (1991) and WHO (1996)

for various uses of water including drinking and other domestic supplies.

o About 20% of samples had total dissolved solids (TDS) above the desirable limit but within the

maximum permissible limit of 2000 mg/L during both pre- and post-monsoon seasons.

o About 12% of the samples had calcium and magnesium (along with their carbonates, sulphates and

chlorides) above the desirable limit of 300 mg/L, but within the permissible limit of 600 mg/L during

both the pre- and post-monsoon seasons

o More than 90% of the samples fall within the desirable limit of chloride, i.e., 250 mg/L, during both

pre- and post-monsoon season, while all samples were within the desirable limits for sulphate.

o About 92% of the samples fall within the desirable limit of 45 mg/L while only 4% of samples exceed

the maximum permissible limit of 100 mg/L. Phosphate levels were generally low at all the locations.

o No sample exceeds the maximum permissible limit of 1.5 for fluoride.

o The bacteriological analysis indicates contamination at few sites.

o Heavy Metals concentrations are largely within permissible limits.

o Out of 25 samples analysed for pesticides and two pesticides (Aldrin, and DDE) have been detected at

few locations, due to their use in agricultural activities and for vector control programmes. Although

the concentrations of these pesticides were lower in the post-monsoon season as compared to pre-

monsoon season, the concentration of Aldrin exceeded the permissible limit prescribed for drinking

water at one location in the pre-monsoon season.

At Treatment Plant Level: At the Aluva WTP level, only turbidity and pH is analysed and recorded at the

raw water intake and treated water. Annex 10 provides a sample of quality data on Turbidity and pH.

At Pumping Station Level: Examples of water quality monitoring data at a distribution pumping station

level is given in Annex 10.

Perceptions of Water Quality: About 36% of respondents of the household-level primary survey felt that

the water quality was good and about 22% felt that quality was average (refer Figure 4.4). About 42% of

respondents felt that water quality was occasionally or always poor. Since a majority (64%) consider water

quality average or poor, this perception needs to be rectified by visible and tangible actions on priority.

Figure 4.4 Primary survey findings: perceptions on water quality

Source: IMaCS-SEUF Primary survey

Service levels in slums: The primary survey revealed that all the slums in CoC are equipped with a water supply

network and thus seem to have a reasonable good access to water supply relative to the rest of the city.

However, while many of the slum dwellings are pucca structures, most residents often do not have direct

access to drinking water supply at the household level. Often, several households, usually ten or more, share

6 Status of Groundwater Quality in India -Part-Ii, Groundwater Quality Series: GWQS/ 10/2007-2008, CPCB, April, 2008

36%

1%22%

41%

Always good Always poor

Average Occasionally poor



one water pipe and a community toilet. In areas like West Kochi, where the average water supply per capita

per day is as low as 25 lpcd7, piped water is only available twice a day, for an hour each. The water pressure is

often very low, and access requires the use of a hand pump. Moreover, the water quality is poor. Primary field

surveys revealed that in areas such as Mattancherry, residents of the slums reported the presence of worms

and maggots in the water, rendering it unsafe to drink without boiling. The slum survey carried out by KSUDP

for 70 select slums suggests that public water taps are available in 93 % of the slum settlements, and that five

out of the 70 slums do not have any public water taps at all. KSUDP’s findings also suggest that in only 89% of

cases is treated water supplied. The frequency ranges from daily supply in 80% of slums, alternate days’ supply

in 12%, and occasional supply in 8% of slums.

4.1.4. Demand projections and on-going/proposed initiatives

Given the likely growth in population and assuming a gross demand of 170 LPCD for future years, water

demand in CoC is projected to increase to 115 MLD in 2021 and 122 MLD by 2041. (Refer Table 4.6).

Table 4.6: Projected water demand, CoC area

Year Population (lakh) Assumed Gross Per

Capita Supply (LPCD)

Estimated

Residential Demand

(MLD)

2016 6.50 170 88

2021 6.69 170 90

2031 7.11 170 96

2041 7.58 170 100

Source: IMaCS analysis. Demand varies from KSUDP DPRs which assumes Gross demand at 200 LPCD for computation.

On-going initiatives to enhance water supply

Currently, two separate initiatives are being planned to augment/improve the existing water supply systems

for Kochi – one under the KSUDP, and another project under JNNURM, proposed by the KWA.

The KSUDP DPR estimates that the CoC alone will require supply of treated water of about 142 MLD for a

population of approximately 7,06,760 by 2031 (RGI) considering an average per capita water supply of 200

LPCD, as against present rated supply of 125 MLD and the net water availability of 50 MLD due to various

losses. KSUDP aims to achieve the target through rehabilitation of water supply transmission and

distribution systems and NRW/UFW, and thus make available 200 lpcd water to 160,000 persons to be

served through the proposed sewerage systems and 148 lpcd for non-sewered population of 5,23,000 in

2031 and ultimately provide a 24-hour water supply.

Under the KWA DPR, a new water supply project to increase water supply to parts of the CoC area as well

as four neighbouring Panchayats in the CDP area including Maradu, Kumbalam, Kumbalangy, and

Chellanam covering a projected population size (in 2036) of 2,51,880 and supply of 37.78 MLD (domestic,

in 2036) and 53.20 MLD (non-domestic, in 2036) at 150 lpcd is suggested, including the Muvattupuzha

river as source and a new 100 MLD treatment plant to be set up at Nettoor.

At present, there appears to be no integrated master plan for water supply covering the entire value chain

from source to customer tap for the CoC and the extended urban agglomeration including the neighbouring

municipalities and panchayat areas. This is critical to ensure that new initiatives or augmenting sources and

water availability take into account demand in extended areas and equitable service across the urban

agglomeration in medium to long term.

7 Kerala Sustainable Urban Development Project (PPTA 4106 – IND) Final Report Volume 2 - City Report Kochi, May 2005




Table 4.7 captures the SWOT analysis for water supply within CoC areas.

Table 4.7: Water supply – SWOT

Strengths Weaknesses Opportunities Threats

Periyar and

Muvattupuzha river

currently have

sufficient water

KWA system covers

the entire city

region in terms of

distribution

network.

Distant perennial sources - makes water

supply costly. Non-availability of local

spot sources due to salinity, especially in

coastal areas. Entire planning area has to

depend mainly on protected water

supply of KWA.

Supply is intermittent in many areas

especially the coastal stretches and

newly developed areas.

Treatment and Transmission capacity

augmentation is required, though these

have been planned for.

Prioritizing sewage and

sanitation systems would

reduce ground and surface

water pollution.

Augmentation being

undertaken under JNNURM

would help in meeting future

water supply demand.

Pollution concerns in

backwaters and in the

river sources in the

context of rapid

urbanisation and lack of

sewerage systems

Augmentation of the

existing system and the

maintenance would

require considerable

investment and

management capabilities.

The key issues with respect to water supply within CoC/KWA are summarised below:

1. Service delivery in Water Supply within CoC falls significantly short of SLB norms. There is wide variation

in supply duration and frequency with very low pressure and duration of supply in parts of the CoC area, in

the Fort Kochi area in particular. Reconnaissance indicates use of local hand pumps to suck out water from

the piped networks due to low pressure. There is inadequate information baseline on NRW levels and

water supply is based on an intermittent supply system and not continuous supply. Even though KWA has

implemented universal metering, lack of periodic recording and faulty meters (estimated at 40%)

constrains effective volumetric tariffs.

2. Information discrepancies and inadequacies severely constrain baseline analysis and decision-making.

Very poor information base/availability on most aspects of water supply, service provision. It is also critical

to capture and analyse ring-fenced financial and operating information relating to water supply to

evaluate costs of supply and to rationalise user charges to meet the target of 100% O&M cost recovery.

3. Lack of an updated Master Plan for water supply constrains planning and coordination across multiple

project development initiatives. Since KWA, a state agency is managing the water supply function, there

is need for a greater clarity on the road map for transfer of the water supply function to the ULB as

required under JNNURM reform commitment. While the MoU between CoC and KWA is a good starting

point, the level of coordination in planning, operational management and information sharing among

KWA and CoC needs significant improvement. Though there have been recent initiatives to synchronise

project development initiatives under KWA and KSUDP, seamless coordination is constrained by the

absence of a holistic Water Supply Master Plan for CoC and the urban agglomeration. Further, in the

absence of ring-fenced information on water supply system costs within the CoC area, analysis of

baselines cost recovery and collection efficiency levels is constrained.


Apart from ensuring equitable supply of water, cities should initiate measures to ensure measures to promote

water conservation. Rainwater harvesting (RWH) and NRW reduction are two critical focus areas as cities

embark on improving their water supply systems. Box 4.1 provides insights on a) initiatives taken by states

with respect to Rainwater harvesting and b) use of performance based contracts for NRW reduction.



Box 4.1 Water conservation: RWH legislation, Performance Contracts for NRW reduction

Legislation on Rainwater harvesting

Source: http://www.rainwaterharvesting.org/policy/legislation.htm

Several states and cities have passed legislation for implementing Rainwater harvesting as a water conservation measure.

Andhra Pradesh: The Government of Andhra Pradesh vide a Government Order of the Municipal Administration and

Urban Development Department in 2000 had made it mandatory for all including residential buildings to provide

required facilities for conservation and harvesting of rain water.

Himachal Pradesh: All commercial and institutional buildings, tourist and industrial complexes, hotels etc., existing or

coming up and having a plinth area of more than 1000 square metres will have rain water storage facilities

commensurate with the size of roof area. No objection certificates, required under different statutes, will not be

issued to the owners of the buildings unless they produce satisfactory proof of compliance of the new law. Toilet flush

systems will have to be connected with the rainwater storage tank. Buildings will have rain water storage facility

commensurate with the size of open roof and set back area of the plot at the rate of 0.24 cft. per sq m of roof area.

Ahmedabad: In 2002, the Ahmedabad Urban Development Authority (AUDA) had made rainwater harvesting

mandatory for all buildings covering an area of over 1,500 square metres. According to the rule, for a cover area of

over 1,500 square metres, one percolation well is mandatory to ensure ground water recharge. For every additional

4,000 square metres cover area, another well needs to be built.

Bangalore: In order to conserve water and ensure ground water recharge, the Karnataka government in February

2009 announced that buildings in the city will have to compulsorily adopt rain water harvesting facility. Residential

sites, which exceed an area of 2400 sq. ft. (40 x 60 ft.), shall create rain harvesting facility according to the new law.

Chennai: Rainwater harvesting has been made mandatory in three storied buildings (irrespective of the size of the

rooftop area). All new water and sewer connections are provided only after installation of RWH systems.

Kerala: The Kerala Municipality Building Rules, 1999 was amended by a notification dated January 12, 2004 issued by

the GoK to include rainwater harvesting structures in new construction.

Use of Performance based contracts for NRW reduction. Excerpts from a World Bank Report on The Challenge of Reducing Non-Revenue Water (NRW) in Developing Countries How the Private

Sector Can Help: A Look at Performance-Based Service Contracting. The full report is available at

http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTWSS/Resources/challengeofreducingnonrevenuewater.pdf

High levels of NRW reflect huge volumes of water being lost through leaks, not being invoiced or both and affect the

viability of water utilities through lost revenues and increased costs. An estimated 45 million cubic meters are lost

daily through water leakage in distribution networks in developing countries. All this affects capacity of water utilities

fund expansion of service, especially for poor. Reducing NRW is not just a technical issue but one that goes to the

heart of failings of water utilities. They often lack incentives and specialist expertise to implement an effective NRW

program. This is where private sector could be of assistance. Short of management contract or concessions, a new

alternative for private involvement, performance-based service contracting (PBC) holds good potential. Here, a

private operator is contracted to carry out a NRW reduction program with sufficient incentives and flexibility to

ensure accountability for performance and payment linked to actual results in NRW reduction. Such an approach

could be especially attractive when the government decides to keep the water utility under public management, but is

looking for ways to capitalize on technical expertise and efficiency of the private sector. The driving factor when

designing a PBC for NRW reduction is to establish incentives to encourage private sector to deliver results cost-

effectively and allocate risk appropriately between the parties. Such contracts have been used in Selangor (Malaysia),

Bangkok (Thailand), Dublin (Ireland) and Hubli-Dharwad (India).

Selengor (Malaysia)

In 1997, an estimated 40 % of water produced in Selangor was not being invoiced and leakage was estimated at 25 %.

The State Waterworks Department accepted an unsolicited proposal from a consortium led by a local firm, in joint

venture with an international operator that committed to reduce NRW by specified amount agreed in advance in a

given time. The contractor had full responsibilities for designing and implementing NRW reduction activities with own

staff, in exchange for a lump sum payment, with penalties of 5 % of total fees and a performance guarantee of 10 % of

contract value. The project was done in two phases: an 18 month Phase I on a limited part of network to reduce NRW

by 18,540 cubic meters per day (cu.m / day) for a lump sum payment of US$4.5 million or US$243 per cu.m / day of

NRW saved. Phase 2 followed a similar framework over 9 years to reduce NRW by 198,900 cubic meters per day, with

a lump-sum price of US$105 million or US$528 cu.m / day.

http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTWSS/Resources/challengeofreducingnonrevenuewater.pdf



The contract began in April 2000 and showed impressive results. 222 NRW reduction zones were established, about

11,000 leaks were repaired and over 119,000 meters were replaced. Physical water loss reduction of 117,000 cubic

meters per day (20 % more than 2009 target of 97,500 cu.m / day) and commercial loss reduction of 50,000 cubic

meters per day was achieved. Positive featured included impressive NRW reduction, simple performance metrics and

clear monitoring. Negatives included negotiated contracting in Phase 2, scattered zoning and high fees.

Hubli Dharwad (India)

Hubli-Dharwad had been suffering from irregular water supply; once in 5-6 days and covering only 50 % of its

population. Since all households did not have individual meters, a fixed rate of Rs 90 per month was charged to all

users. Richer households met their additional water needs by buying water from tankers. Illegal water supply

connections were prevalent in many households. Contamination of water with sewage due to leaking pipes led to

health and hygienic issues. The Karnataka Urban Water Supply Improvement Programme (KUWASIP), a structured

initiative to reduce NRW involved a PBC in select demo zones in three cities namely Hubli-Dharwad, Belgaum and

Gulbarga. The management fee structured into fixed and performance fee – 60:40 with the performance fee only

after achieving milestones for Performance Targets set in the Contract. The Capital expenditure limited to a maximum

ceiling (agreed after three pre-bid meetings) and beyond this, the Contractor to bear the additional expenditure. A

bonus of saving of more than 25% of maximum ceiling was allowed. Penalties were to be imposed if minimum

stipulated performance targets were not achieved. A private operator was selected through an International

Competitive Bidding process to develop an investment program to refurbish and transform the existing system and to

implement the program. Today more than 2 lakh residents enjoy the benefits of 24X7 water supply with a world class

water distribution system as a result of a pilot project. Billed volumes went up to nearly 91% of water supplied while

losses were reduced to 5.3 litres per connection per day versus a target of 20 litres per connection per day

In the context of Kochi, it is important to explore models to progressive increase the role of CoC in discharge of

the water supply function. Box 4.1 provides a recent initiative in Orissa to create corporatized entities as a

gradual approach starting with ring progressively increasing role of ULB in water supply service delivery.

Box 4.1 Ring fencing and creation of Corporate Operating Entity – Orissa approach

In Orissa, Water supply and sewerage assets are created and maintained by PHEO. Clarity on the roadmap for transfer of

water supply function to ULBs will facilitate effective development and appraisal of projects and become essential for

innovative funding options including PPPs and loan financing of projects. Devolving of responsibility of Water Supply and

Sewerage to ULBS in tune with 74th constitutional amendment was programmed to be implemented by 2009-10 as per

decision of Government of Orissa. As per Government Resolution circulated in November 2006, the operation and

maintenance of water supply systems and collection of water tariff was to be transferred to ULBs along with personnel on

deputation basis in 2009-10 in fulfilment of the provisions of 74th Constitutional Amendment Act. After a detailed study, a

ring-fenced regional or city-level Corporate Operating Entity (COE) approach as shown below was recommended.

Under this approach, COEs carved out by ring-fencing assets of PHEO and corporatization will provide services through a

performance based contractual relationship with the ULB, thus ensuring accountability of ULBs in service provision in

accordance with JNNURM reform agenda. While Corporatization would provide administrative and financial autonomy, the

proposed contractual relationship with the ULB will ensure consonance with the letter and spirit of the 74th

Constitutional

Amendment Act. Additionally, areas such as introduction of accrual based double entry accounting system, ring fencing of

operations, benchmarking of performance of utilities, financial sustainability, MIS, capacity building and training etc. will be

addressed in a holistic manner. As a first step, a pilot implementation to ring-fence water supply assets of PHEO

Bhubaneswar division and to prepare a budgeting and costing manual has been carried out.




4.4.1. Vision

“Achieve Water Security through provision of equitable and efficient access to continuous piped potable

quality water supply in a financially environmentally sustainable manner”

4.4.2. Goals

Table 4.8 translate the above vision into tangible service delivery targets. CoC and KWA could potentially

achieve the SLB norms for water supply within a 10-year timeframe.

Table 4.8 Water Supply: Short Medium and Long Term targets

Parameter Unit Norm Baseline

Timeframe

Short

3 years

Medium Term

5 years

Long Term

10 years

Coverage % 100% 83% √

Per Capita Supply LPCD 135 90 √

Non-Revenue Water % 20% 60% √

Metered connections % 100% 100% Achieved

Continuity Hours 24.00 2-4 √

Complaints Redress % 80% NA √

Quality of Supply % 100% 58% √ √

Cost Recovery % 100% NA √

Collection Efficiency % 90% 22% √

Source: CoC. IMaCS analysis. *Though the reporting under BSL indicates that these SLB norms have been achieved in the

context of poor information reliability on these indicators, these figures need to be validated.

4.4.3. Infrastructure demand and Cost estimates

Table 4.9 reflects the Infrastructure demand and cost estimates (Capital and O&M) over the next 30 years.

Table 4.9 Cost Estimates – Short, Medium and Long Term

Particulars Year

2016 2021 2041

Population projections 6,49,928 6,69,092 7,57,972

Net Water Supply Demand (at 135 LPCD) 88 90 102

Gross Water Supply requirement (at 170 LPCD) 110 114 129

Capital Cost Estimate (Rs. Lakh)

Short

3 years

Medium

5 years

Long

10 years

Water Loss Audit 300

Bulk Metering 100

Network improvements / consumer metering 5,000 10,400

Sub-Total 400 5,000 10,400

Capital costs are at current prices and do not reflect inflation. *Distribution improvements estimated based on norm

for Class IC cities in report on Indian Urban Infrastructure and Services prepared by High Powered Expert Committee

set up by MoUD released in March 2011.




Table 4.10 summarises a set of suggested actions on water supply, each of which is detailed subsequently.

Table 4.10 Water Supply: Action Plan


S M L

1. Strengthen Baseline information on water supply (and sanitation indices) CoC/KWA √

i. Conduct a Household Sanitation Survey to capture baseline sanitation information* CoC/KWA √ √

ii. Install Bulk Meters at Intake points, Treatment Plants, Storage and Pumping points KWA √ √

iii. Put in place organizational accountability for maintaining and reading of water meters KWA √ √

2. Set up a coordination committee to implement the institutional framework envisaged

under KWA-CoC MoU; Shift to a Service Agreement framework in the medium-long term* CoC/KWA/GoK √ √ √

3. Develop a Water Supply Master Plan for CoC and Urban agglomeration; prepare DPRs to

implement a phased investment program to achieve SLB norms CoC/KWA/GoK √ √ √

4. Track costs of service provisioning in CoC area; Formulate a Water Tariff Policy and set

mechanisms for tariff fixation /revision* CoC/KWA √ √

5. Formulate/Enforce Bye-laws and policy instruments for a) Ground water conservation/

Rainwater Harvesting, b) Tariff Policy, c) Connection Policy and d) Citizen charter* CoC/KWA √

6. Implement a water quality monitoring protocol for piped supply and ground water CoC/KWA √

7. Implement measures to improve coverage and collection efficiency. CoC/KWA √

Source: IMaCS analysis. *These recommendations are relevant across other sanitation sub-components.

1. CoC and KWA should initiate the following actions to strengthen baseline information:

a. Conduct a comprehensive household sanitation survey on priority and tag this to its property tax

database. A possible approach to capture/household baseline information is suggested below:

i. A list of information to be captured at household level is presented in Table 4.11. This

information when compiled should be recorded in the property tax database.

ii. Updation should then be done through a periodic self-declaration process (this can be

coordinated with payment of property taxes by citizens)

iii. Accuracy of information can be ensured through sample inspection of say 1-2% households along

with hefty fines in case of providing erroneous information will help ensure information validity.

Table 4.11 Possible list of information to be captured during the Multi-purpose household survey

Property Tax Identification Code

Toilet Access Yes/No

Type Toilet within Property / Shared facility

No. of people using the toilet

Primary Water Source

Other Water source 1


Toilet connected to Septic Tank/Sewer/local treatment system/open drain/others

If Septic Tank, last cleaned on Date

If Sewered, is grey water outlets also connected Yes / No

Covered under SWM Door-to-door collection Yes/No

Practising source segregation Yes/No



b. CoC /KWA should undertake installation and maintenance of Bulk Meters at Intake points,

Treatment Plants, Storage and Pumping points. To overcome information constraints on water flows

along with implementing mechanisms to keep a log of water flows and discharge at these locations

daily. As a medium-long term measure and along with service improvement initiatives, CoC should

also shift to comprehensive consumer level metering.

c. Given that KWA has already adopted universal metering, it should undertake immediate steps to put

in place processes for regular meter reading and periodic repair/maintenance of meters to

effectively implement volumetric tariffs with a view to improve cost recovery.

2. CoC should steer creation of a coordination committee to implement the institutional framework

envisaged under KWA-CoC MoU; Shift to a Service Agreement framework in the medium-long term

a. CoC in consultation with GoK should steer creation of a Coordination Committee (comprising officials

from CoC, GoK and other ULBs in Kochi agglomeration) charged with implementing the following:

i. Completion of ring-fencing of ULB level water supply accounts of KWA to enable identification

and tracking of assets that service each of the ULBs, identify ULB specific direct O&M Costs and

appropriate mechanisms for allocation of shared costs (for instance, costs of Water Treatment

Plant can be allocated to various ULBs based on the actual demand within a ULB)

ii. Oversee and finalise preparation of Water Supply and Wastewater Management Master Plans

and DPRs in line with the priorities outlined in point 3 below.

iii. Share information on properties and connections among CoC and KWA to improve penetration

of piped connections and deal effectively with unauthorised connections.

iv. Put in place processes for effective O&M and financial sustainability of water and waste-water

service delivery within CoC and other ULBs in the agglomeration.

b. In order to shift to a service agreement framework as envisioned under the MoU between KWA and

CoC, the Government of Kerala (GoK) should prepare a roadmap for KWA level institutional reform

to bring in more effective accountability and decentralisation (in line with the requirements of 74th

CAA). While specific recommendations on institutional reform of KWA is beyond the scope of this

exercise, future actions could possibly involve evaluating the following options:

i. Restructuring KWA as a bulk service provider with the city level network planning and distribution

investment and O&M responsibility vested and transferred to the local bodies

ii. Corporatize regional / city-level assets of KWA as a service provider in all the ULBs through a

formal service agreement with independent regulation of tariffs.

3. KWA should develop a Water Supply Master Plan for Kochi urban agglomeration, followed by DPRs to

implement a phased investment program to achieve SLB norms within CoC.

a. In order to ensure effective service delivery and prioritisation of implementation actions, KWA in

coordination with CoC and other ULBs in Kochi agglomeration should prepare a Water Supply Master

Plan. This Master Plan should review aggregate demand for services in the context of urbanisation

and population growth in the agglomeration and given the prevailing service levels and outline a

prioritised time-bound set of actions to achieve SLB norms in Kochi urban agglomeration.

b. Along with preparation of the Master Plan, KWA along with CoC and GoK should initiate preparation

of DPRs for implementing a time-bound investment program to achieve SLB norms in CoC. The

prioritisation of the investment program for water supply could be along the following lines.

i. Speedy completion of projects currently underway under KSUDP and KWA initiatives

ii. Water supply system (including storage capacity upgradation) improvements in Fort Kochi area

iii. Water supply system (including storage capacity upgradation) improvements in rest of CoC

iv. Water supply system (including storage capacity upgradation) improvements in rest of Kochi

agglomeration.



4. KWA should track costs for service provisioning in CoC area and implement a Water Tariff Policy to

clarify cost recovery objectives and set mechanisms for tariff fixation /revision involving the following:

a. Map the various components of the water value chain and develop processes / mechanisms to

ascertain overall cost of service provision (Capital and O&M costs)

b. Implement a tariff policy that clarifies cost recovery objectives to trade-off affordability and financial

sustainability considerations. A possible approach to tariff fixation and cost recovery is shown below:

Table 4.12Tariff setting philosophy - short term and long term

TYPE OF CUSTOMER / CONNECTION

Service Commitment Tariff Type Cost recovery principle

SHORT TERM (3 YEAR HORIZON)

Residential – Notified Slums and Low income housing

80 LPCD, One hour / day Tanker / Group connections

Lowest slab: Group metered charges

Subsidised

Residential – Individual connections

100 LPCD, One hour / day Piped connections

Volumetric Metered Tariffs

O&M Cost recovery in full

Residential – Bulk connections / Apartments

100 LPCD, One hour / day Piped connections

Volumetric Metered Tariff – Bulk Connections

O&M Cost recovery in full

Commercial / Industrial Volume commitment to meet industrial / commercial requirement

Volumetric Metered Tariffs

Full cost and ‘Ability to bear’

LONG TERM (5-10 YEAR HORIZON)

Residential – Notified Slums and Low income housing (BSUP schemes etc.)

In line with SLB norms Group metered connection

Subsidised Lifeline supply + O&M Cost recovery

Residential – Individual connections

In line with SLB norms Volumetric Metered Tariffs

Full cost recovery

Residential – Bulk connections / Apartments

In line with SLB norms Volumetric Metered Tariffs

Full cost recovery

Commercial / Industrial In line with SLB norms Volumetric Metered Tariffs

Full cost recovery

5. KWA and CoC, in consultation with GoK, should implement the following actions relating to formulation

and enforcement of guidelines and bye-laws:

a. Formalise adoption of tariff setting principles and cost recovery targets for not just water supply, but

all sanitation services, through development of a Tariff Policy.

b. Formulate and enforce municipal bye-laws on Groundwater management and Rainwater harvesting.

c. Develop and disseminate a periodically updated Citizen Charter outlining commitments and

assurances on service levels including the following:

i. Duration, quantity, quality and cost of supply,

ii. Periodicity of reading and calibration of water meters

iii. Process and Time taken for providing a water connection

iv. Time taken for resolving major and minor complaints

v. Periodicity and policy for tariff revision

vi. Penalties in case of detection of unauthorized connection

6. KWA and CoC Implement a Water Quality Monitoring Protocol covering both piped supply and ground

water in consultation with KPCB to ensure compliance to IS: 10500 standards. As an illustration, the

water quality sampling plan of Surat Municipal Corporation (SMC) is presented in Table 4.13. CoC should

also consider implementing a protocol for monitoring of groundwater quality. Given low penetration of

sewage connections and weak regulation of septic tanks, this is critical to monitor groundwater for

possible contamination and confirmation of suitability of ground water for potable use.



Table 4.13 Surat Municipal Corporation: Water Quality Monitoring Protocol and Sampling Plan

Stage Type of Test Frequency

Source (River)

at stilling

chamber

Turbidity, FRC, DO, pH Online

Turbidity, FRC, pH Hourly

Physical-Chemical tests Every shift of 8 hours

Bacteriological tests Weekly

WTP Outlet

Turbidity, TDS, FRC, DO, pH Online

Turbidity, FRC, pH Hourly

Physical-Chemical tests Every shift of 8 hours

Bacteriological tests Weekly

Intermediate

(At WDS)

FRC, Turbidity at inlet of WTP Once in every supply from WTP

FRC, Turbidity before supply Twice in every supply to consumers.

Consumer end

(During supply)

FRC (At site) Daily 460-480 samples

Chemical test (Lab testing) Daily average 220 samples collected from all zones

SMC reports summary of consumer quality test results on a monthly basis on its website.

Source: http://www.suratmunicipal.org/content/hydraulic/water_quality.shtml

7. CoC and KWA should initiate a connection drive to increase penetration of individual piped connections

and implement measures to improve and sustain collection efficiency covering the following actions:

a. Consider an instalment based option spread over 1-2 years for recovery of connection deposits of

water supply and sewerage connections. A number of ULBs have introduced this in the recent past

with a reasonable degree of success in improving penetration of connections. In addition, the

following actions could help improve connection penetration and in handling customer complaints:

i. Commit and articulate service levels and timelines with respect to provision of water

connection/handling complaints and disseminate the procedure widely.

ii. Initiate steps to make the process of applying for water connections and filing complaints user-

friendly including allowing filing of applications/complaints online and on telephone.

iii. Incentivise adherence to timelines for providing a water service connection through a partial / full

waiver of connection deposit in case of delays beyond the committed timelines.

iv. Track status of connection applications; set targets to improve timeliness in giving connections.

v. Track and report information on time taken for providing connections, with the names of

operating personnel responsible to fix effective accountability and reduce delays.

b. KWA should initiate specific measures to improve collection efficiency including the following:

i. Integrated billing and multiple payment options to customers including through a) payment

through banks b) additional facilitation / e-governance counters, c) mobile vans and door-to-door

collection drives and d) online payment option

ii. Combination of rebates (for early payment) and penalties (for late payment) and create

awareness regarding these options to incentivise payment on time

iii. Dissemination of user charge defaulters online and across media. The Top 20 default cases in

each ward should be brought to notice of individual Council members and support of the Council

Members and Residents’ Welfare Associations should be sought to resolve these cases.

iv. Insist clearance of user charge dues when citizens require access to other urban services (issue of

birth certificate etc.)

v. Focused one-time drives and settlement schemes to clear arrears in a focused manner.

vi. Implementation of clear Accounting policy to provide for and write-off of bad debts.

http://www.suratmunicipal.org/content/hydraulic/water_quality.shtml



5. Wastewater management


5.1.1. Off-site sanitation

Network, coverage, and connections

The Master Plan of Kochi divides the CoC areas into seven major sewerage zones depending on geography,

existing sewerage and sanitation for planning purpose. However, currently, only a small scale sewerage system

(managed by the KWA) in the municipal area, which partially serves (Ernakulam South) the central area. (See

Figure 5.1 below and Map 9, Volume 5 for a representation of current /proposed sewerage coverage areas.)

Figure 5.1: Existing and sewerage coverage areas

Two and half sq.km of sewerage network runs through some part of the Central Business District, such as M.G.

Road and the General Hospital area, and the 1.50 square kilometre stretch of sewerage network runs through

Gandhi Nagar area. Although parts of Gandhi Nagar have a sewerage line running through it, very few

households are connected to the main sewerage line and most have opted for on-site sanitation instead.

Discussions with KWA suggest that details of service connections were recorded only from 1998-99 onwards –

and records indicate 1052 connections, including about 300-400 in the Gandhinagar area.

Additionally, the GCDA maintains a small sewerage network in the Marine drive area designed and

implemented to collect the wastewater generated in the GCDA complexes/other apartments constructed in

the immediate vicinity, and covers only about 0.01 square kilometres.

Corporation / Project Boundary

River, Canal, Water Bodies

Minor Roads

Railway

National Highway

BASE LEGEND

Major Roads

Nh Bypass

Consultant:

ICRA Management Consulting Services

Limited

Project:

City Sanitation Plan - Kochi

Client:

Kochi Municipality & GTZ

Map 9:

Sewrage System/network Map - Kochi

Adapted from:

Kerala Sustainable Urban Development

Project (KSUDP)

Scale:

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0 km0.1

Lakshadw

eep S

ea

Lakshadw

eep S

ea

Korivelpady

Thopumpady

Ravipuram

Elemkunnapuzha

Key map

Selected Sewerage Projects

Area Covered by existing sewerage system

Sewerage System - South Ernakulam

Population - 60,000

Sewerage - North Kochi

Population - 180,000

1. Additional 10 MLD STP

(South Ernakulam)

2. 23 MLD STP of North Kochi

at Mundamvelli

OVERLAY LEGEND

Kaloor North

Kunnumpuram

Edapally

West

Mamangalam

Chakaraparambu

Palarivattom

Vennala

Elamakkara

South

Elamakkara

North

Vaduthala

Pachalam

East

Pullupady

Kaloor South

Karukapally

Amaldhavattom

Elamkulam

Kadavanthara

Perananur

Ramanthuruth

Fort cochin

KorivelpadyNazretth

Erhakulam south

Thevara

NorthEdakochiPullardesam

Edakochi

South

Perandoor

Vaduthala

Konthuruthi

Thayyazham

Mundamveli

Boat jetty

Jose jn.

KSRTC

Bus Stand

South Rly.

Station

Rajive Gandhi

Indoor Stadium

ChilavanoorRavipuram

Ravipuram jn.

Bridge-1

High CourtBridge-2

Bridge-3

Puthu vypeen

Vallarpadam

Boat jettyRly. StationCochin Harbour

Naval Base

Brid

ge

YardNaval Aircraft

Old Airport

W. Island

Korivelpady jn.

Boat jetty

Ayyappankavu

Bridge

Cochin

Vendurthy

Thevara

Vembaned

LakeThevara Fery

KumbalamKacheripady

Edakochi

Paluruthy

To C

hera

nallo

or

To Thrissur

To Kottayam

To A

lap

uzh

a

To A

lapuzh

a

Thopumpady

Vypeen - Ernakulam Bridges

Rajiv Gandhi

Terminal

Boat jetty

Customs jetty

Thanthanal

Island

BolgattyIsland

To T

hrissu

r

Thevara Jn.

Shipyard

KSINCO Jetty

GCDAComplex

Rajendra

Maidan

Vypeen

Thopumpady

North Rly.

Station

NH

47 B

yp

ass

NH

17

To Moovattu Puzha

NH 49

NH

47

NH 49

NH 47 A

Rameswaram

Lakshadw

eep S

ea

Lakshadw

eep S

ea

Elemkunnapuzha

Manassery jn.

Pip

e L

ine R

oad

GCDA STP

GCDA STP



Treatment facilities

Elankulam STP: Currently, the KWA maintains one sewerage treatment plant (STP) located on Fatima Road in

Elankulam, which has a capacity of only 4.45 MLD, although this can be expanded up to 10 MLD (Figure 5.2).

The STP follows the Activated Treatment Process (ATP) of sewerage treatment

Figure 5.2: A view of the KWA STP at Elankulam

Treated effluent is discharged into the Elankulam Thodu. Sample time series influent (after grit chamber) and

effluent discharge quality data available with the KWA show that BoD levels of influent are abnormally low.

The reasons for this will require further research, but could be due to dilution from fresh water entering the

system or probably diluted by infiltration into the sewerage, probably groundwater or water from the drains

infiltrates into the sewer system. Various reports available from the KSPCB unit in Kochi for the water quality

parameters for Elankulam Thodu, where the treated effluent from the KWA STP is discharged, show that the

discharged water is high in chloride and total dissolved solids (see Annex 10, in Volume 2 to this report).

GCDA STP: To service the sewer network in the Marine Drive area, the GCDA maintains a small STP, also

located in Marine Drive. The overall capacity of the STP is 900 m3 and has a collection tank, aeration chamber

(diffused type), clarifloculator, and a filter bed. Treated effluent is discharged into the sea nearby. A report

from the KSPCB analysing the effluent from the GCDA STP (see Annex 10) shows that the effluent discharged

from the STP are within desirable limits for pH, suspended solids (SS), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and

oil and grease.

Present O&M practices

A single sewerage sub division at KWA undertakes daily monitoring of the sewerage system, its appurtenances,

two pumping stations and the sewage treatment plant. An Assistant Executive Engineer is in charge of the

division supported by an Assistant Engineer, responsible for monitoring the sewage treatment plant and

pumping stations. The cost incurred by this division is approximately 16 lakhs per month (according to

discussions with KWA), which includes the salary cost of staff. In %age terms, about 60 % of the total costs are

for the STP alone and 75 % if pumping costs are included and about. Presently no mechanized sewer cleaning

methods are employed for daily maintenance of the system.



Tariffs and revenue

KWA: The Sewerage System run by the KWA does not generate any revenue, apart from new connection

charges and is maintained by the grants obtained from the State Government. A proposal to levy 60 % of the

monthly water charge as sewer cess from each consumer, where sewerage network is available, is under the

consideration of Government. While until recently, the KWA without any user charges was maintaining the

existing sewerage scheme; it is now charging a connection fee of Rs. 2500/connection. In addition, the

proposed tariff for sewerage services will be 60 % of the monthly water tariff (see section on water supply

above) for all consumer categories. This is under consideration by the GoK.

GCDA: For the Marine Drive STP, the GCDA charges the builders an initial payment around 10-15 lakhs as

onetime fee to get connected this system, based on the number of flats/buildings. The monthly O&M

expenses were shared by the builders/beneficiaries.

5.1.2. Onsite sanitation

Coverage of septic tanks and on-site treatment systems

Since only 5 % of the city is covered by the existing sewerage network, and considering the fact that almost

every household excepting a few in certain slum areas have a toilet, 95 % of the city is dependent upon some

form of on-site sanitation facility. Typically, wastewater from households is routed to septic tanks, but in

recent years, a combination of growth of high-rise buildings and KSPCB regulations for onsite treatment

systems for high-rise and commercial establishments, has increased the penetration of onsite treatment. From

data available with the KSPCB that about 102 high-rise apartment complexes and 108 hotels have been given

permission to establish such treatment units (see Annex 11 for the lists of these apartments and hotels with

treatment facilities, obtained from the KSPCB). However, there is currently no database of septic tanks in use

in the CoC area with any agency and thus extent of compliance of these tanks with CPHEEO or IS specifications

is suspect. Never the less, the primary survey findings broadly concur: nearly 85 % of the respondents have

household septic tanks.

Cleaning, collection and transportation

Most of the houses in the areas visited have flush or pour flush toilets connected to pits or septic tanks. In

areas with urban poor, toilets are separated from living houses. Sometimes toilets that are used commonly by

a number of households can be found in these areas. Houses in better conditions have integrated toilet rooms.

Effluents of septic tanks as well as grey water outlets typically discharge into storm water drains. Occasionally

toilets even discharge without any pre-treatment into the receiving waters. A schematic of typical wastewater

flows in Kochi is given in Figure 5.3.

In some more recent examples, residential areas with high-rise apartment buildings particularly occupied by

middle to higher income groups and hotels use black water and grey water pipes connected to on-site

wastewater treatment.

Depending on the size of the septic tank, the septage collected in it will need to be cleaned out periodically –

typically, once in every 2-3 years. Currently, private sector providers deliver services for cleaning and ongoing

maintenance of septic tanks. There are approximately 25-30 such service providers in the Corporation area.

Each provider typically has a vehicle, which is able to hold approximately 6 KL of wastewater. Interviews with

these service providers suggest that they tend to be small-scale business owners, who have little or no

knowledge of the scientific management and disposal of septage. As a result, collection methods are often

extremely unscientific and often hazardous to the personnel operating the equipment. Previously, septic tank

cleaners used to charge approximately Rs. 3,000 per trip (from household to dumping site), however, due to

stiff competition in the city, prices have fallen to anywhere between Rs. 2,300 to Rs. 2,500 to transport 6 KL of

waste water. Transportation and dumping is a major problem, as land is scarce and there is no designated area

for septage disposal. As a result, septage is usually illegally dumped in any open space, typically in some type

of water body. Disposal of wastewater and sludge has become a major problem in the city.



Perceptions from primary survey

The primary survey of households showed the following:

1. Management of septic tanks: 96 % of the respondents reported that the septic tank maintenance and

cleaning in managed by individuals directly.

2. Cleaning frequency: 45 % respondents indicated that they had not cleaned their septic tanks at all (which

seems to suggest that there is a likely to be either percolation or leakage into storm drains). 43 %

indicated a cleaning frequency of once in 3 years. Less than 8 % of the respondents indicated a cleaning

frequency of less than two years.

3. Perceptions on wastewater disposal: Nearly 90 % indicated that they were not aware of where the

wastewater taken from the septic tanks are disposed, indicating citizen apathy on this issue.

Figure 5.3: Schematic of typical wastewater flows in Kochi

Source: Report of Hamburg Wasser and University of Applied Sciences, Ostwestfalen-Lippe, Germany

Regulations for on-site waste-water treatment

The KSPCB has issued several notifications on onsite treatment systems. Under the notifications, all high rises

and commercial establishments with an area of over 2000 Sq. plinth area have to establish a wastewater

treatment and disposal facility conforming to specific standards. (Copies of these notifications and the

standard specifications are given in Annex 11) As per KSPCB norms, such treatment units need to be composed

of the following unit operations – (a) screen chamber, (b) sewage collection tank, (c) anaerobic high rate

reactor, aeration tank, settling tank, filter feed tank, pressure sand filter, disinfection facility, activated carbon

filter, and soak pit. For sullage operations, the units need to have grit-cum-oil separator, collection tank,

flocculation tank, and settling tank. Several high-rise buildings and commercial complexes, as well as hotels

have been given permission to establish and operate decentralised wastewater treatment units under these

notifications.



5.1.3. Demand projections and on-going initiatives

Sewage generation and initiatives

Table 5.1 shows the level of sewage waste-water generation given the population projections and the

projected water demand.

Table 5.1: Sewage generation demand

Particulars Year

2016 2021 2041

Population Projections

Population 6,50,000 6,74,000 7,16,000

Households 1,30,000 1,34,800 1,43,200

Slum Households 1,34,266 1,43,664 1,58,031

Floating Population (FP) 2,59,500 2,70,000 2,98,500

Gross Water Supply Demand (at 170 LPCD) in MLD 110 115 122

Net Water Supply Demand (at 135 LPCD) in MLD 88 91 97

Waste water generation (at 80% of Net Supply) in MLD 70 73 77


Master Plan for Sewerage8

A report by the KSPCB indicates that waste water generation in Greater Kochi area (with a projected

population of 20 lakh by 2025) will generate 240 MLD of waste water. Given that the current STP capacity of

only 4.5 MLD, the report calls for an urgent development of sewage treatment infrastructure. As per this

report, Master Planning of sewerage for CoC has been done based on the design population of 700,000

persons in year 2041 and an average per capita water supply of 150 lpcd. CoC has been broadly divided into

seven major sewerage zones depending on geography, existing sewerage and sanitation for planning purpose.

This will also decentralise the collection, transportation and treatment.

Zone – I: West Kochi Area comprising of ward no. 1 to 10, 24 to 28 and a part of ward no -11 (30%).

Zone – II: West Kochi Area comprising ward no. 12 to 23 and part of ward no – 11 (70%)

Zone – III: Willington Island comprising of ward no – 29 and 30

Zone – IV: Central Kochi comprising of ward no – 52 to 54, 59 to 62, 64, part of ward no. 63 (90%) and 65

(20%)

Zone – V: West Kochi comprising of ward no – 31 to 38, 40, 66 to 71 and part of 39 (70%), 41(10%), 63

(10%) and 65 (80%).

Zone – VI: East Kochi comprising of 42 to 48, 51 and part of 41 (90%)

Zone – VII: South Kochi comprising of ward no 49, 50, 55 to 58

Zones I and II covering Fort Kochi, Mattanchery and Palluruthy area are densely populated. It is not techno-

economically feasible to prepare an integrated sewerage scheme for this part of Kochi with the main land and

an independent system of collection, transportation and treatment is proposed. Zone I and II have design a

population (2041) of 165,151 and 134,634 respectively with estimated sewage generation at 38 MLD

considering water supply at the rate of 150 LPCD and other factors like ground water infiltration, floating

population and institutional demand. The sewage is proposed to be treated at the 38 MLD (FAB Technology)

Sewage Treatment Plant proposed at Mundamveli before letting in to the Pandarachal Canal.

8 Extract from Action plan for Greater Kochi Area. Kerala State Pollution Control Board. July 2010



Zone – III is an island mostly occupied by Indian Navy, separated from main land by large water bodies,

ultimate projected population of this zone is 6794. Therefore, a treatment plant of 1.2 MLD based on

Sequential Batch Reactor technology is suggested.

Zone – IV is Central Kochi, some portion of this zone has been covered under sewerage scheme, ultimate

population of this zone is 87, 894, and sewage generation from this zone will be in the order of 14.50 MLD, out

of which 4.5 MLD is already treated in the existing STP at Ernakulam, it is proposed to expand the present STP

for accommodation of additional units of 10 MLD STP based on FAB technology.

Zone – V is the West Kochi covering Kaloor, Edappally and part of Vennala, this area is of relatively low

population density. Ultimate population of this zone is 151,329 and sewage generation from this zone will be

around 28 MLD. A private land has been identified at the north end of Amritha Institute of Medical Science for

treating sewage generated from this zone.

Zone - VI is East Kochi with ultimate population of 86, 543 and sewage generation from this zone will be in the

order of 15 MLD. it will be economical to construct a STP in the ward no. 45 nearer to Edapally Thodu.

Zone – VII is the South Kochi area comprising of Thevara. Ultimate population of this zone is 52, 676 and

sewage generation will be in the order of 9 MLD. As this zone covers a wide area, it will be economical to

construct a STP in the ward no. 55 nearer to Chilavannoor area.

Proposed initiatives

KSUDP and KWA have proposed new initiatives to address parts of the Sewerage Master Plan

Proposed sewerage component under KSUDP: This is aimed at extension of the sewerage networks in

South Ernakulam and North Kochi, extending the existing STP at South Ernakulam for additional 10 MLD

capacity, construction of a 20 MLD STP, procurement of sewer cleaning equipment, in order to collect and

treat approximately 30 MLD of sewage from 160,000 users in the urban areas of Kochi Corporation. Total

component beneficiaries at EOP (2011) are expected to be 573,300 of which 40,800 are poor.

Table 5.2: Components proposed under the KSUDP sewerage DPR

Sub-

Component Proposed initiative

Sub-

Component 2a

Extension of sewerage in South Ernakulam -- 92 km. Sewers (150-750mm dia) and 12,000 house

connections serving 60,000 population; and Sewage Pumping Stations

Sub-

Component 2b

Extension of existing STP at South Ernakulam -- Construction of additional 10 MLD STP using FAB

technology at existing STP. The STP will also have provision to treat the septic tank sludge of non-

sewered areas of Ernakulam

Sub-

Component 2c

Extension of sewerage in North Kochi -- 110 km. Sewers and 20,000 house connections serving 100,000

population; and 4 No. Sewage Pumping Stations

Sub-

Component 2d

Construction of new STP for West Kochi -- Construction of new 23 MLD STP using FAB technology at

Mundamveli at MC land. This STP will have provision to treat the septic tank sludge of non-sewered

areas of Kochi

Sub-

Component 2e

Facilities for Non-Sewered Areas -- One jetting cum suction sewer machine each for South Ernakulam

and North Kochi plus seven vacuum (4 in Ernakulam and 3 in Kochi) sludge cleaning machines will be

procured for emptying sludge from septic tanks benefiting a total population of 382,500; and Provision

of 4,500 household twin pit pour-flush latrines and 30 community sanitation blocks (included under

poverty alleviation component).

Proposed scheme by KWA: Based on the demand studies conducted by KWA and considering land

availability, the KWA has proposed a sewerage scheme covering six Divisions (Kadavanthara and Thevara)

out of the 20 divisions under the Central Zone, under the JNNURM. Administrative sanction has been

obtained from the GoK and the proposals have been forwarded to GoI. The total proposed budget for the

project is 7555.84 lakhs.



5.1.4. Challenges in implementation of new initiatives

An independent analysis of the proposed initiatives for sewerage augmentation were examined by specialists

from Hamburg Wasser and University of Applied Sciences, Ostwestfalen-Lippe, Germany on invitation by GIZ

and CoC during the course of the CSP exercise identified the following challenges in implementing the

proposed gravity sewer systems.

While the gravity sewer system in Fort Cochin is technically feasible it requires high sophistication in

construction owing to high groundwater tables and sub-surface geologies in Kochi. Additional effort for such a

system is very high due to additional works for excavation, shoring and dewatering. These works can be only

done by excellent and experienced construction companies, which have shown their capacities in similar

projects. The extremely challenging project demands would require an appropriate supervision as well. All the

additional efforts would result in an extremely expensive sewerage system both in terms of construction as

well as O&M. Experiences from various numbers of sewer projects have shown a high number of unforeseen

costs due to unknown conditions. At the present stage follow-up costs for operation costs are nearly

impossible to calculate due to the unknown volume of groundwater seepage.

As per the proposed plan and design of the new sewerage scheme at Fort Kochi (West Kochi area) involves

installation of Gravity sewers (material: reinforced concrete) at 5.60 m below ground. Nine lifting stations up

to 8.60 m depth will be installed in the project area. All lifting stations have several pumps and diesel

generators for the operation during power failures. For the design flow of 23 MLD, a STP will be installed

outside of Fort Kochi area, but is not part of the current design process. Capital costs have been calculated by

the consultancy WAPCOS to be about Rs. 90 crore. There is concern that the actual tendered costs could be

higher in view of the challenges listed above, as also O&M of the proposed systems.

Design and construction: The depth of the sewer system is planned to be up to more than 5 m bgl (below

ground level). The width of the roads is generally very limited and the soil is reported as unconsolidated

sand. Hence a proper shoring is necessary to keep the trench open and to avoid damage to the adjacent

buildings. Proper shoring requires excellent expertise of the construction companies on this terrain and

will consequently raise the cost of construction.

Level of groundwater: The ground water table at Fort Kochi is high. As a result most of the sewers will be

constructed below the ground water table. This necessitates heavy pumping to dewater the area during

construction to keep the ground water below the invert level of the pipes. Nevertheless the risk of

groundwater entrance from aside or from the bottom of in the excavation area is still very high. An

additional risk is that the water saturated sandy soil starts caving into the trench. This would weaken the

bearing capacity of adjacent areas and again forms a risk to the buildings. Drawdown of groundwater will

still have an impact on the soil conditions. This impact could cause severe damages on the buildings due to

settings and claim of compensations of the property owners may follow.

Sewer pipe bedding: Proper foundation work is required to avoid settling of the RCC pipes in the different

soil conditions. Otherwise cracks will occur and will cause infiltration of groundwater into sewer system.

Excavation works: Bottom of sewerage pumping stations in the sewer system is reported to be approx. 8.0

m bgl. This construction requires large excavation works with proper shoring and dewatering. Under the

boundary conditions mentioned above this work can be undertaken only by excellent experienced

construction companies.

House connections: Connections provided for the houses have to be designed in advance and done during

the construction. Otherwise later connections will cause higher cost due to dewatering and in proper

connections may lead to entry of ground water into the sewer.

Tendering: The project has already been tendered and with work initiated.




Table 5.3: Waste-water management - SWOT


Overall Very little incidence

of open defecation;

most HHs have

toilets

Separation of grey

water and black

water at source is

common

First step in sanitation

ladder already achieved,

now focus should be on

further improvements.

Adapted treatment and

use is feasible

Sewerage The existing sewerage system

covers only 5% of the CoC area.

Flat terrain makes natural

gravitational flow difficult - the

soil is mainly loose sand and clay,

making open cutting difficult –

high water table necessitates

sewage-pumping stations at

frequent intervals

Leakage of sewers - infiltration

(increase of flow) or exfiltration

(pollution of groundwater)

Low connection rate to

conventional sewerage

JNNURM and ADB funded

projects would

considerably improve the

situation.

Capacity building or PPP

required

Implementation

and maintenance of

a proper collection,

transportation,

treatment and

disposal of sewage

demand huge

investment and

management

capabilities.

KWA underfunded

On-Site

Sanitation

High prevalence of

septic tanks

Private operators

available for septic

tank desludging

High standards in

newer apartment

blocks

High water table and hence septic

tanks, two pit latrines, etc. do not

function properly; and within the

urban areas, residential and other

activities are so densely located,

that the septic tank system does

not work leading to water and soil

pollution.

Currently no regulatory

framework

Lack of existing sites for

septage/sludge treatment

Low capacity of KWA and

municipality in terms of

management of decentralized

facilities

Septic tanks can be used

as decentralized pre-

treatment facilities.

Vehicles and manpower

available but

improvements such as

formalization are

necessary

Technologies for

decentralised treatment

already in place and

functional

Regulatory Framework

for on-site sanitation

could be brought in,

along with appropriately

designed septage

management programs

where treatment for

collected septage is done

at existing/proposed STPs

On-site- sanitation

supports faster and more

flexible development of

the wards because of

better adaption and

higher flexibility

High pollution loads

from on-site

systems to

waterways and

canals continue to

be a risk. Requires

dedicated planning

and political will,

apart from

considerable IEC for

citizen’s buy-in

Open/unregulated

dumping of

septage/sludge

Infiltration of

wastewater by

unsealed septic

tanks



The key issues on waste-water management within CoC areas are summarised below:

1. Baseline information on waste-water flows and facilities is weak. There is no reliable baseline database

on septic tanks in the city. Given that less only 5% of the city area is sewered, the lack of information on

household sanitation makes planning for city-wide interventions challenging.

2. Existing STP capacity utilisation is sub-optimal: Treated effluent is discharged into the Elankulam Thodu.

Effluent discharge quality data show abnormally low BoD levels of influent which will require examination.

3. Apart from the recent KSPCB guidelines for high rise apartments and commercial establishments,

regulation of on-site sanitation and septage management is very weak. There is no accountability for

onsite sanitation. Septage management is handled by informal private service providers, without

adequate safety practices and discharge of sludge in open places is the default mode of black water

disposal. Grey water is predominantly discharged in the open. A recent study on groundwater in Kochi

revealed high bacteriological contamination in groundwater.

4. Implementing sewerage systems in Kochi is technically challenging, could involve higher costs and will

require very rigorous preparatory work in the form of design, baseline information compilation and

sophisticated construction capabilities. The analysis by Hamburg wasser presents challenges involved in

implementing sewerage systems which do not appear to be adequately factored in project development.


5.3.1. Options for Waste water management

Box 5.1 provides a brief description of possible options for waste-water management at household level. A

summary of evaluation of these options is presented in Table 5.4.

Box 5.1 Brief description of wastewater management at a household level

Fully on-site sanitation: Fully on-site sanitation arrangements will involve on-plot treatment and disposal of all waste

water and involves septic tank and soak pits to receive and treat waste water. Septage (sludge from septic tanks) is

transferred to another location for treatment. Onsite sanitation typically covers:

Septic tank with soak pits: All discharge of waste water resulting from bathing, washing, cooking, cleaning and usage

of toilets is treated in the septic tank. The septic tank effluent is disposed in dispersion trenches or soak pits. Septage

is periodically cleared and taken to a treatment facility. In the case of Kochi, soak pits are not recommended owing to

the high water table and infiltration of blackwater or water with excreta into groundwater is undesirable; therefore, in

the Kochi context, soakage trenches are more appropriate.

Twin soak pits (leach pits): Wastewater from latrine is discharged into soak pits. Domestic waste water from bathing,

washing, cooking, cleaning, etc. is disposed into another soak pit. For an uninterrupted functioning, two pits are used.

Improvements in existing household disposal facilities: Existing household sanitation arrangements, which do not

have proper disposal, can be improved by a) Construction of soak pits for existing toilets having only septic tanks, and

b) Providing a septic tank / soak pits.

Public toilets: Community/public toilets could also be provided with a septic tank based on-site system with a soak pit

or soakage trenches (for effluent disposal).

Septage management: An efficient septage collection system, operated by the ULB or private agencies is required

along with regulation and monitoring of septic tanks and septage disposal.

Small-bore sewerage: Here, all waste water is diverted to an on-plot septic tank. Households constructing new individual

sanitation facilities should be encouraged to construct septic tanks/interception chambers. Some households could use pit

latrines. Only grey water may be connected to sewers. Septage is removed for further treatment and final disposal. Small

diameter sewer pipe (< 200 mm) is laid at a flatter gradient to carry the effluent from septic tanks. Here the following

arrangements will be possible:

Household sanitation: a) Septic tank is connected to small-bore sewerage network: all domestic waste water is

partially treated in septic tank and the effluent is disposed into small-bore sewerage network. Septage is periodically

cleared. b) Twin pit latrine waste water is disposed into soak pits.



Public toilets: A septic tank-based on-site system is constructed. The septic tank effluent is disposed into a small-bore

sewerage network for further treatment and final disposal.

Disposal of septage: An efficient septage collection system, operated by the ULB or private agencies is required along

with regulation and monitoring of septic tanks and septage disposal.

Conveyance of septic tank effluent: The septic tank effluent is disposed into a network of small-bore sewer pipes for

centralized or decentralized treatment and final disposal.

Treatment of waste water: Effluent from septic tanks is partially treated, but still is not safe for discharge into water

bodies. Prior to disposal, the collected waste water should be treated to meet effluent discharge standards.

Centralized or decentralized sewerage system: This alternative includes the regular sewerage network to collect the waste

water from the households. The network is normally laid through most of the town. A detailed topographical and land

availability survey will be necessary to determine the feasibility and required number of decentralized waste water

treatment plants. In the area covered with a sewerage network, efforts should be made to connect all households to the

sewerage network. Even in this alternative, there is a possibility that a few households will still be served by on-site

sanitation systems – mainly pit latrines. The following household arrangements will be possible:

Household sanitation arrangement: The entire domestic waste water discharge of a household is disposed into the

sewerage network, or the entire domestic waste water (including bathing, washing, kitchen and latrine) of those

households, who chose not to connect to the sewer network, is disposed directly into soak pits.

Public toilets: Public sanitary conveniences will be directly connected to the nearest sewer line of the network.

Mixed system: Here, a combination of all options is promoted. The combination includes both on-site sanitation

arrangements and off-site sanitation systems. Here, the following arrangements are envisaged for household/public

sanitation and waste water treatment and disposal arrangements.

Household sanitation: a) Septic tank with soak pits receives the entire household waste water. Septage is periodically

cleared and taken away to a common treatment facility. b) Sewerage network receives all the household waste water

and conveys it to the centralized or decentralized treatment plant(s).

Public conveniences: Waste water discharge is disposed into sewerage network for further treatment and disposal. In

areas where some sewer network is provided and in others, discharged is done into a septic tank with soak pits.

Disposal of septage: For households served by on-site sanitation systems, an efficient septage collection system,

operated by the ULB or private agencies is required along with regulation / monitoring of septage disposal.

Waste water conveyance and treatment: Domestic waste water, disposed into the sewerage network, is transported

to the waste water treatment site(s) for treatment and final disposal. Treatment will meet the disposal standards.

Combined systems with infrastructure systems in parallel (e.g. on-site and areas with sewer coverage) should be

avoided. This will led to additional costs and cannot be communicated to other stakeholders; rather, the

infrastructure system should be adopted to the local conditions with area-wide infrastructure systems: areas with on-

site sanitation and areas with central infrastructure systems

Table 5.4 Waste water management: Evaluation of options

Parameters Waste water disposal systems

Onsite sanitation (A) Local Small bore (B) Sewerage (C) Combined (D)

Public Investment Least Low Highest High

Ease of Implementation Fast, depending on user response Easy and Fast Most difficult Easier than (C)

Ease of O&M Easy, as user responsible

Easy, as less

complex,

But multiple

schemes

Most difficult and

expensive

Easier than (C)

Use of existing household

facility Maximum Maximum

Septic tanks will be

redundant

Easier than (C)

Septage Management Separate system required Separate system

required

Not for household

septage

Required to

some extent

Land availability Problem in core city and

developed area

Problem in core city

and developed area

Land for pumping

stations and Treatment

Choice as per

land availability

Impact on groundwater Maximum Less than A Least Much less

Willingness to pay Not applicableMore LessUnknown More Depends on type

Suitability Suitable in small isolated areas; Suitable in isolated Suitable in core and Suitable



Parameters Waste water disposal systems

Onsite sanitation (A) Local Small bore (B) Sewerage (C) Combined (D)

not suitable in large places areas, but not

in central sewerage

developed areas depending on

land use.

5.3.2. Challenge and practices in regulating Onsite sanitation

The NUSP makes specific reference to on-site sanitation systems. However, institutional structure,

organizational resources and personnel for onsite systems is not yet in place. Typically, problems associated

with on-site sanitation facilities can be grouped into four primary areas:

Insufficient knowledge/capacity/awareness and public involvement: There is a general lack of awareness

of on-site systems and how these should be planned, designed, installed, operated and maintained,

especially among owners and public and also often among ULBs.

Inappropriate system design and selection processes: On-systems are not built to national standards and

installed by untrained personnel, leading to sub-optimal performance, higher environmental risks and

quality impacts. Septic tanks with outlets to local open drains or channels are also prevalent.

Poor O&M: Septic tank failures are linked to poor O&M and can be attributed to infrequent desludging,

hydraulic overloading and increased water use when piped water supply is provided.

Poor monitoring: Often, institutional mechanisms for inspection, monitoring, and other regulatory

measures are non-existent, or even if present, are not effectively enforced.

Box 5.2 provides the recent measures by select states towards some form of regulation.

Box 5.2 Regulation of onsite sanitation – initiatives by select State Governments

Source: Review of Policies and Regulatory Frameworks for On-Site Urban Sanitation. IMaCS. Water And Sanitation

Program World Bank. 2010

• Madhya Pradesh (MP): The Government of MP has developed draft guidelines for Septage Management Program.

These guidelines articulate septage management and its imperative, the role of septic tanks, basic regulatory

provisions for constructing these, as well as regimes for permits, etc. The roles of ULBs and the Town and Country

Planning Department have also been articulated. Institutional arrangements have been articulated, included

formation of a City Septage Management Cell (CSMC), comprising officials and representatives from ULBs, District

Administration, City Health Office, General Services, and Pollution Control Board, apart NGO representation. Basic

mention of monitoring evaluation, and desludging protocols have been included, apart from user fees (to cover O&M

costs, and fixed in consultation with public), and penal provisions.

• Maharashtra: Maharashtra has developed a draft State Urban Sanitation Policy that envisions fully sanitized cities by

2015 with a focus on urban poor and women. The Policy recognizes that “The underground systems are expensive,

need higher amounts of water supply and are expensive in operations and maintenance. The ULBs that cannot afford

to build and manage such centralized underground systems should adopt the onsite and decentralized options...” The

Policy puts the onus of providing on-site systems on households: “.... ULBs should encourage and incentivize all

households to build/ repair their own toilets, urinals and septic tanks…. Where space is a problem for households to

build their own toilets, ULB should encourage the households to adopt community latrines and / or go for decentralized

options like: small bore sewer, DEWATS etc.

• Orissa: Bhubaneswar city has specific clauses under Sub-Section (3) of Section 16 of the Orissa Development

Authorities Act, 1982 to make installing of sanitation systems a pre-condition for obtaining building permissions. The

Rules lay down that:1) The applicant shall first develop all infrastructure work, including septic tank, soak pit, water

supply, and drainage system up to the satisfaction of the Bhubaneswar Municipal Corporation (BMC) and the

Department of Public Health and 2) A joint inspection of the above facilities would be carried out by the BMC and the

Bhubaneswar Development Authority (BDA), and the permissions to go ahead with the main building shall be given

only after the site inspection report is approved.

5.3.3. Use of shallow bore approach in Kochi – a conceptual outline

Given the low penetration of sewerage systems in Kochi and the challenges in implementation of such systems

both technical and financial, experts from Hamburg Wasser and University of Applied Sciences, Ostwestfalen-



Lippe, Germany have proposed a decentralised approach using shallow bore networks to address waste-water

management in Kochi. Box 5.3 presents a summary of the approach suggested and through provide a

schematic of the approach suggested for short, medium and long term actions.

Box 5.3 Conceptual outline for a shallow bore decentralised waste-water management system for Kochi


The proposed sanitation system is based on a decentralized structure of collection, transport, and disposal of

wastewater, sludge and septage. Treatment has to take place in specific areas, the so-called Service Centres, which are

distributed throughout the city. Decentralized operation areas on the lower level are the Local Service Centre (LSC). These

local service centres will serve approx. 10,000 – 40,000 inhabitants. Therefore, these service centres have to be installed in

the city area. For each 10,000 inhabitants an area of approx. 1,000 m2 is necessary. These areas have to be reserved as

soon as possible by the Corporation of Cochin. The Local Service Centres (LSC) are required for similar purpose as the

existing secondary collection points used for waste segregation and further transfer. It is suggested that a feasibility study

is carried out whether the secondary collection points for waste, which are located throughout the city of Kochi, can be

upgraded to serve as local service centres for sewage management as well or if additional plots are required to fulfil the

function of local service centres. The next level of more centralized operation is located at sites called Urban Service

Centres (USC), where final treatment facilities are in place. The USC can also be located outside of the city in the Greater

Kochi region. They will serve approx. 250,000 inhabitants. Depending on the project status LSC have different functions: -

treatment of sludge from septic tanks (2021); - collection of blackwater (2031); - treatment of greywater (2041)

In the short term, the focus should be to strengthen septage management and create Urban Service Centres (Treatment

Plants) to receive, treat and safely dispose wastewater and sludge. Such facilities should be equipped with drying beds

possibly in the STP site or the waste-processing site. This will also entail putting in place guidelines for septage

management and onsite sanitation and strengthening baseline information on waste-water flows.

In the medium term, existing septic tanks could be rehabilitated to make them impervious and be used as interceptor

tanks linked to Localised service centres (LSCs) through small bore systems. Focus medium activity on black water

management; initiate planning for secondary activities including deployment of grey water management systems.

In the long term, include grey water management systems in addition to the (by now deployed) black water systems. Grey

water pipes can be deployed along existing areas drains and transported to grey water treatment plants, which are located

in the LSCs. Treatment, can be by rotating biological contactors or even simple filter ditches. Upgrade black water handling

systems to vacuum sewers. The vacuum pipes suck off the septic tank contents from time to time (controlled by the

centralized operation of the vacuum system) and transport the black water to the LSC. This can be done by the former

transport pipes. From the LCS black water will be transported via pressure pipes to the USC, where the treatment and use

of the black water is located.The proposed concept plan developed by Hamburg wasser, based on source separation of

wastewater and the installation of local and urban service centres has advantages of incremental implementation while

potentially enabling achievement of a larger and prioritised coverage (Bigger problem first approach where black water is

the initial focus).

The implementation of a settled sewerage (i.e. with smaller pipes at shallower depth for the settled effluent of septic tanks

only) could potentially reduce construction costs compared to a conventional sewerage scheme (i.e. UGSS). Treatment

facilities are also designed for smaller wastewater volumes, which reduces investment costs. The approach helps prioritise

the bigger problem first i.e., tackling Black water. As analysis of the current sanitation situation in Kochi shows (see, for



example, City Development Plan, 2006), KWA is highly underfunded for extending the sanitation infrastructure. Therefore,

external funds can play an important role for supporting any investments (i.e. construction activities). The step-wise

implementation and upgrading of the proposed concept also facilitates flexibility in financial investments that can be

carried out depending on availability of funds.


5.4.1. Vision

“Capture and Treat all black and grey water to prescribed standards and incorporate recycling and re-use to

conserve fresh water resources

5.4.2. Goals

Table 5.5 indicates targets in short, medium and long-term.

Table 5.5: Waste water management: short, medium and long-term targets

Parameter Unit Norm Baseline Timeframe to achieve norm

Short Medium Long

% of area with piped network % 100% 5% NA – alternatives recommended

% of households with individual connections % 100% ~5% NA – alternatives recommended

Coverage of appropriate sanitation options % 100% NA √

WW Collection Efficiency % 100% NA √

WW Treatment Adequacy % 100% NA √

Quality of WW Treatment % 100% NA √

Septage sludge treatment % 100 NA √

Reuse and Recycling % 20% NA √



Collection Efficiency % 90% NA √

Source: IMaCS analysis. SLB ISIP report

5.4.3. Infrastructure demand and Cost estimates

Table 5.6 reflects the infrastructure demand and capital costs during 2021 to 2041 for CoC area alone. The

KSPCB Action Plan indicates an estimate of Rs. 720 crore for sewerage development in Greater Kochi Area.

Table 5.6 Cost Estimates – Short, Medium and Long Term

Particulars Year

2016 2021 2041

Population 3,42,630 3,91,987 6,79,635

Waste water generation 37 42 73

Capital Cost Estimate (Rs. Lakh)

Short

3 years

Medium

5 years

Long

10 years

Normative estimates for Waste-water management* 10,000 20,000

Total 10,000 20,000

Capital cost estimate based on HPEC report on Urban Infrastructure @Rs. 3360 for 2041 population. Rates have been

escalated by 15% above the HPEC benchmark in view of implementation challenges in Kochi



Figure 5.4: Sanitation scenario 2014 (short-term)




Figure 5.5: Sanitation scenario 2021 (medium term)




Figure 5.6: Sanitation scenario 2031 (long term)




Figure 5.7: Sanitation scenario 2041 (longer term)





Table 5.7 summarises suggested actions on waste water management, each of which is detailed subsequently.

Table 5.7 Waste water management: Suggested additional actions

ACTIONS WHOM TIMEFRAME

S M L

1. Review on-going sewerage projects, given challenges identified for possible changes in

design/construction ; Strengthen project monitoring and oversight on these projects CoC/KWA

√

2. Implement mechanisms and processes for Onsite sanitation CoC/KWA √

i. Create a dedicated onsite sanitation department within CoC CoC √

ii. Implement guidelines and bye-laws on onsite sanitation and septage management. CoC/KWA √

iii. Empanel service providers and regulate tariffs for cleaning septic tanks CoC/KWA √

iv. Conduct a feasibility study to create facilities to receive and treat septage. CoC/KWA √

3. Conduct a feasibility study for a shallow bore system in a pilot area; Scale-up project if

pilot yields favourable results CoC/KWA

√ √ √

4. Review Sewerage Master Plan and prepare DPRs for implementing a phased

investment program for waste-water management in Kochi Urban Agglomeration CoC/KWA

√ √

5. Establish a waste-water quality monitoring protocol in coordination with KSPCB; CoC/KWA √

6. Conduct a feasibility study to evaluate/ address reasons for low incoming BOD at STP CoC/KWA √.

7. Earmark budgets and clarify tariff policy and cost recovery objectives CoC/KWA √

8. Initiate the following actions to encourage waste-water recycling and re-use √

i. Mandate recycling in commercial establishments and large townships CoC / KSPCB √

ii. Evaluate feasibility for catering to industrial water demand from recycled sewage CoC / KWA √ √



design/construction; Strengthen project monitoring and oversight on these projects.

a. KWA along with CoC should undertake a technical and financial review of the proposed projects to

factor challenges highlighted and to incorporate safeguards as necessary to mitigate adverse impacts,

including gravity, which is a challenge also due to the high risk of failure (failures during construction

(bedding, joints etc.).

b. The steering committee proposed among KWA and CoC (as recommended under section 4.5 point 2)

could be charged with the responsibility of monitoring of implementation of these projects.

2. Implement mechanisms for effective Onsite Sanitation management covering the following actions

a. Create a dedicated Onsite sanitation department within CoC vested with responsibility of

implementing recommendations on onsite sanitation.

b. Formulate bye-laws for monitoring and regulating guidelines on septage management and on-site

sanitation backed by implementation of Onsite Sanitation Monitoring framework. A set of well-

defined bye-laws and guidelines, accompanied by a draft set of rules for on-site sanitation and

septage management should be adopted by CoC and backed by implementation of a Septage

Management Program. The following principles should be factored while drafting bye-laws.

Model Byelaws and Guidelines for Onsite sanitation: Possible coverage

• Creation of database of on-site sanitation installations in use and their share in waste water management

• Accountability for development, maintenance and monitoring of onsite installations

• Criteria for choosing between onsite and offsite options on area level

• Potentially appropriate onsite technologies and septage treatment options

• Regulation of services (including septage collection, desludging and O&M of decentralized treatment facilities)

• Empanelment and licensing of service providers (septage management and decentralized treatment)

• Guidelines for Safety, Health and Environment Practices and reduction in extent of manual intervention.



Elements of an Onsite sanitation management framework

• Design and Construction. Regulatory oversight for the design, installation and use of onsite options

• Procedures for Septage pumping, Transportation and Treatment. Best practices for pumping and transporting the

septage once it is removed from the tank.

• Recordkeeping and Reporting. Mechanisms such as manifests, receipts, and other records.

• Septage Treatment and Disposal. Infrastructure to accomplish septage treatment, disposal and reuse.

• Full Cost recovery. Mechanisms for full cost recovery

• Social Marketing and Awareness generation. Selling the concept of improving sanitation to the people.

c. Empanel service providers and regulate tariffs for provision of onsite sanitation services to facilitate

compliance to safety, health and environment practices. CoC should initiate empanelment of service

providers and periodic renewal of this empanelment to ensure adequate availability of equipment,

effectively regulate tariffs and monitor compliance to safety, health and environment practices.

d. Conduct a feasibility study to create facilities for receiving and treating septage collected from

septic tanks and soak pits to avoid indiscriminate dumping of waste-water. Such facilities can be

created alongside existing/proposed STPs or solid waste processing facility.

3. Conduct a feasibility study to implement a small bore system pilot as suggested by Hamburg Wasser

team; Scale-up the project if pilot yields favourable results. CoC along with KWA should initiate a

feasibility study to explore implementation of options other than conventional sewerage including the

Hamburg Wasser concept plan for a small bore system.

4. Review and update the Waste-water Management Master Plan and follow it up with preparation of

DPRs for implementing a phased investment program for waste-water management.

a. KWA along with CoC should initiate preparation of a waste-water Management Master Plan. A

possible scope for the Master Plan is recommended below.

Suggested coverage of Terms of Reference for review of Sewerage Master Plan in Kochi

Validate Waste-Water Demand in Kochi agglomeration at intermediate state (2026) and ultimate stage (2041)

Evaluate alternative options for waste-water management including gravity sewers, shallow bore approaches based

on empirical evidence of past initiatives and suitability to unserved areas.

Review overall approach including zoning and strategy for different zones in terms of technology options including

centralised / decentralised approaches for collection, conveyance and treatment

Evaluate Technical options to achieve MOUD’s SLB norms including coverage and connection of grey and black water.

Prioritisation of DPR preparation and investment program in terms of geography and investment components.

Estimates of investment and DPRs required to implement the Master Plan for ULBs / group of ULBs within Kochi

Phasing of implementation starting with implementation of sewerage network within CoC and in rest of Kochi

Scope for waste-water re-use and waste-to-energy solutions for environmental / financial sustainability

b. Based on the prioritisation of components and locations to be provided under the updated Master

plan, CoC and KWA should initiate preparation of DPRs and launch of a phased investment program

(in consultation with GoK) to implement waste-water management infrastructure within Kochi

agglomeration and to achieve SLB norms within a ten-year timeframe.

5. Establish a waste-water quality monitoring protocol in coordination with KSPCB. As in the case of water

supply, CoC should in consultation with KSPCB and KWA implement a waste-water quality sampling,

monitoring and information dissemination protocol to ensure compliance of water quality to CPCB and

KSPCB norms.

6. Conduct a feasibility study to evaluate reasons for low incoming BOD levels at the STP. In view of low

incoming BOD levels at STP, CoC/KWA should conduct a feasibility study to evaluate/ address the same.



7. Earmark budgets for capital and O&M costs; clarify tariff policy and cost recovery objectives. KWA and

CoC should put in place processes to ascertain costs of service both O&M and Capital Costs. In line with

commitment under JNNURM, O&M costs should be recovered in full through user charges along with

identified allocation of tax revenues in a transparent manner to aid financial sustainability.

8. KWA and CoC in consultation with KSPCB should initiate the following actions to encourage recycling

and re-use of waste-water in the medium to long term.

a. KWA and CoC should work with KSPCB to mandate waste-water recycling and re-use provisions in its

guidelines for according consent to establish and operate decentralised treatment facilities for

commercial establishments and large residential projects.

b. KWA and CoC should conduct a feasibility study to assess scope for use of tertiary treated sewage to

meet industrial water demand in the adjoining industrial areas of Kochi. Along with a progressive

water tariff policy (that recovers full cost of industrial water supply), this initiative could potentially

help improve financial and environmental sustainability of industrial water supply.



6. Drainage network and natural drainage


Kochi is characterized by an almost flat topography and high water table. On an average, the eastern parts of

the city are situated approximately 7.5 metres above mean sea level, while much of CoC area lies between 1

metre and 2.5 metres above mean sea level. Further, the city has sand bars running from the north to the

south, with several tidal canals in between. Finally, the climate in Kochi is tropical and the city enjoys

monsoons twice a year, translating to annual rainfall of approximately 3,099 mm. The southwest monsoon,

which usually lasts between June and September, brings around 60 % of the annual precipitation, while the

Northeast monsoon, which takes place between October and mid-November, typically brings about 25 % of

the annual rainfall in the region.

With narrow roads and drains, the above factors make managing drainage a challenge in Kochi. A recent study

of the run off of the catchment and discharge efficiency of the drains in the Kathrikadavu - Pullepady area

(CBD) in CoC indicated the average efficiency of the drain at only 43.31 %. Of 34 catchment areas studied, 12

have less than 25 % efficiency and only one has 100 % efficiency among the secondary, tertiary drains. The

hydrological characteristics of the region make surface water drainage, an important element of urban

renewal efforts.

6.1.1. Drain network coverage

Three levels of drainage systems (refer Maps 10 and 11 in Volume 5, PDF Maps folder for spatial

representations of drainage network and canal network) can be categorized as:

1. Primary canals - major natural canals, which are running in north-south direction and a few natural

canals, cut across the sand bars.

2. Natural and man-made secondary drains. Natural secondary drains are the feeder drains/canals of

primary canal. The man made secondary drain encompasses major roadside drains, which go beyond the

level of area, drains and which link with the Primary drains (tidal canals) running in north-south direction.

3. Area Drains. The area drains are the drains which discharge the storm and sullage water from a

neighbourhood to secondary drain. The city has large network of area drains, which act as major storm

water receivers. The total length of the area drain is assessed to 1229 Kms. Of this, 330 km in CoC area

requires upgradation.

Table 6.1: Drainage canal network details

Type of drain/ canal Quantity (in km)

Cochin Corporation Municipality and Panchayat

1 Total length of the primary canals 77 254

2 Total length of the natural and man-made secondary drains 222 198

3 Total length of area drains 740 489

Source: KSUDP DPR, Storm Water Drainage

As part of the Kochi CDP the following primary and secondary canals were identified as priority canals for

rehabilitation and upgradation:

Primary Canals: Thevara-Perandoor canal and its major branches, Edappally thodu and its major branches,

Rameswaram – Kalvathy canal, Chilavanoor puzha, Champakara canal, Changadam poku thodu,

Karanakodam thodu, Ponnethuchal thodu, Koyithara canal, Railnagar thodu, Punchathodu, Valavikadavu

tho du, Pallichal thodu,Pandarachal, Pushnithodu, Chitrapuzha and Konothu puzha

Natural Secondary Canals: Kari thodu, Adimuri thodu, Karuveli thodu, Athirthi thodu, Thodu along Major

road, Kathmbayil thodu, Mullassery canal, Market canal and, Seena thodu.



6.1.2. Proposed initiatives

A storm water drainage DPR has been prepared by the CoC. The proposals in this DPR are for the

construction/modifications of area drains (interior drains) manmade roadside secondary drains, as indicated in

the CDP, covering approximately 10 sq. km of central area of CoC. The central area of CoC is taken as a priority

area considering the large segment of population, including a significant percentage of workforce in BPL

category that are daily commuters to the city, and depend on public rail/road transport system. After a

detailed analysis of the topography and hydraulic parameters, areas identified as prone to water logging are

broadly grouped into the following drainage zones considering the varying reasons for each zone.

o Zone – 1: Kotte Canal, Town Hall, Kalabhavan and areas north of Banerjee road.

o Zone- 2: M.G. Road north of Mullassery canal.

o Zone- 3: K S R T C bus stand area between A.L. Jacob road and Veekshanam road.

o Zone- 4: K S R T C bus stand—Karikkamuri Ernakulam Railway Junction area

o Zone- 5: K S N Menon Road, V.R.M>Road, Kizhavana road- South Panampilly Nagar area

o Zone- 6: Some stretches of low lying area in Panampilly Nagar in the vicinity of T.P.Canal

The DPR consists of proposals for construction of arterial drains, (Interior – area drains) running alongside

selected roads in each zone, that will divert the rainfall runoff water mostly west words to the backwaters, by

properly designing the slope and width of drains to carry the discharge water from highest intensity of rain fall

(previous 23 years) in the designated area. It is expected that the recommendations also help in reducing the

quantity of rainfall run off into the T.P. Canal, thus reducing its load, and making it more effective. No debt

component is planned. The CoC plans to meet the project cost by Grants from GoI and GoK and own fund of in

the proportion 50: 20: 30.

6.1.3. Backwaters and water bodies9

The drain and canal networks in Kochi are inextricably linked to the

Vembanad lake and backwaters, which form part of a long chain of lakes

and canals with its northern boundary at Azheekodu and southern

boundary at Thannirmukham bund (See figure alongside). The total area

of the Backwater is about 157 sq.km (from Survey of India toposheet,

1981) with depth ranging from 2m to 8m. Two rivers, Periyar and

Muvattupuzha discharge into these backwaters. Their ecological

importance stems from the following:

The salinity gradient in Kochi Backwaters supports diverse species of

flora and fauna, according to their tolerance for saline environment.

This tropical estuary, with high productivity acts as a nursery ground

for species of marine estuarine finfishes, molluscs and crustaceans.

The low-lying swamps and tidal creeks dominated by sparse patches

of mangroves provide shelter to juveniles of many species.

The areas of the backwaters with fine sediments and organic matter

supports diverse fauna.

The changes in the hydrology of backwaters controlled by the seas play an important role in regulating the

migrant fauna of the estuary.

9 Adapted from Department of Ocean Development (2002), Critical Habitat Information System for Kochi Backwaters – Kerala, Integrated

Coastland Marine Area Management Project Directorate, Department of Ocean Development, Government of India Chennai, and K. K. Balachandran, (undated) Ecosystem modelling of the Vembanad Lake (Cochin backwaters), Regional Centre, National Institute of Oceanography, Dr. Salim Ali Road, Kochi, which, in turn, are summarized in Annex 12.



Major threats to Kochi Backwaters and related concerns include massive reclamation for development,

creation of hydraulic barrier bunds that impact natural flushing in the canal systems, siltation, sewage dumping

and disposal, pollution due to coconut husk retting, industrial pollution from the Eloor Kalamassery belt and

over-exploitation of fish and other resources.

6.1.4. Industrial effluent and pollution

There are no large-scale industrial units within CoC. However, there is concern of industrial pollution from the

Eloor-Kalamassery industrial belt from where about 260 MLD effluents are discharged into the backwaters

through the Periyar River. Nearly a quarter of industrial units of Kerala are located along a 5 km stretch in the

Eloor- Edayar area of River Periyar, which is 10 km north of Cochin port. These industrial complexes depend on

the river for intake of process water and disposal of effluents (Table 6.2). The Greater Kochi Area (GKA) ranked

24th (with CEPI score of 75.08) amongst the critically polluted areas (CPA) in the country.

Table 6.2: Detail of major industries in Kochi

Name of Industry Raw Materials Used Products Effluent

Discharge,

ML/day

Point of Disposal

Fertilizers and

Chemicals Travancore

Ltd, Udyogamandal,

Aluva

Sulphur, Rockpowder,

Naphtha,

Hydrochloric Acid

Ammonia, Ammonium Sulphate,

Sulphuric acid, Ammonium

Phosphate, Phosphoric Acid,

Super Phosphate, Ammonium

chloride

8800 Periyar River

Indian Aluminium

Company Ltd, Eloor

Alumina, Petroleum

Coke, Pith, Aluminium

Fluoride

Aluminium Ignate, Aluminium

Extrusions, Aluminium Wire Rod 7090 Periyar river

Periyar Chemicals Ltd,

Edavar, Kochi

Caustic Soda, 30%

Carbon Monoxide,

Sulphuric Acid

Fermic Acid, Sodium Sulphate 22 Periyar River

United Catalyst India

Ltd Edayar

Copper, Zinc,

Sulphuric Acid,

Caustic Soda,

Ammonia, Graphite

Catalyst for Fertilizer and

Petrochemical industries 537 Periyar River

Cominco Binani Zinc

Ltd, Binanipuram,

Aluva

Zinc Concentrate Zinc, Sulphuric acid, Cadmium 5330 Periyar river

Indian Rare Earths

Ltd, Udyogamandal

Monazite sand,

Caustic soda,

Hydrochloric Acid,

Chlorine, Nitric Acid

Trisodium Phosphate, Rare Earth

Chloride Rare Earth Oxide 2405 Periyar river

Travancore Cochin

Chemicals Ltd, Aluva

Common Salt,

Sulphur, Zinc Dust,

Sulphur Dioxide

Caustic Soda, Sodium Sulphate,

Liquefied Chlorine, Hydrochloric

Acid, Bleach Liquor

6579 Periyar River

Hindustan Insecticide

Ltd , Udyogamandal,

Aluva

Benzene, Alcohol,

Oleum, Chlorine

DOT Tech, BHC, DDT (50%), BHC

(50%) 620 Periyar river

Source: Kerala State Council for Science and Technology, Environmental Monitoring Programme on Water Quality, Chapter

2, Periyar River Basin, 2009

An analysis by KSPCB indicates that river quality data show that Periyar and Chitrapuzha rivers are meeting

designated water quality parameters except for DO at Brahmapuram and Manackakadavu. The high coliform

count at Kalady and the lowering of DO at Brahmapuram, Manackakadavu and Irumpanam are influenced by

non-industrial sources. Even though 95 % of household in Kerala have toilet facilities, there is negligible

sewerage coverage. The rest of the householders and institutions are depending on on-site sanitation, the

inadequacies of which also contribute to the pollution.



The lowering of DO is attributable to agglomeration of residential buildings and high rise apartment buildings

in and around Kakkanad, which houses the District administration headquarters and many IT industries and

also due to the stagnation caused due to silt deposition due to run off from agricultural farms. The area has no

sewerage coverage. Provision of sewerage and sewage treatment for the fast developing residential area is an

urgent necessity.

Though all large industries in GKA are having in situ effluent treatment plants, there is risk of major chemical

pollutant contamination through acids, alkaline, suspended solids, fluorides, free ammonia, ammoniacal

nitrogen, insecticides, dyes, chromium, Hg, Zn, other metals and unknown quantity of radioactive materials

(Thorium and Uranium). Ambalamugal, 16 km east of Kochi has also been developed into an industrial complex

with establishment of a giant fertilizer plant and an oil refinery. Many hazardous substances including heavy

metals discharged into the aquatic environment are known to accumulate in the estuarine sediments. It affects

the productivity and larval resources of this environment. While this may beyond the purview of CoC, a

coordinated effort to mitigate risks of industrial pollution is critical for environmental sustainability.


6.2.1. SWOT

Table 6.3 captures the SWOT analysis for storm water drainage in Kochi

Table 6.3: Waste-water management – SWOT


Natural canal

network system

supplemented by

manmade drains.

Area drain coverage of only 41%

Flooding due to decreased

carrying capacity of canal system

due to encroachment, conversion

of canals to roads, waste

dumping, obstruction due to

utility lines and silting

High incidence of discharge of

septic tank overflows/effluents

into open drains

Greater focus on Inland water

transport would help conserve

primary canals

Sewerage and SWM projects

being implemented would

contribute to reducing pollution

levels in the canal system.

Implementation of a

comprehensive drainage plan

could improve drain efficiencies

Flat terrain of the region

makes drainage planning

difficult.

Inadequate public

awareness and support

Maintenance of the

system requires a higher

level of coordinated

management.

6.2.2. Key Issues

1. Waste dumping and sullage flows in the canal and drain networks, apart from rendering them

ineffective, are making them vulnerable pollution hotspots. The primary canals which convey storm

water run-off to the back water system are degraded due to encroachments, waste dumping, silting, weed

growth, low maintenance and inadequate protective measures. Almost all tidal canals are in poor

condition, due to dumping of wastes, lack of facilities for cleaning, inaccessibility of cleaning equipment.

Experts from National Institute of Oceanography expressed concern that the hydraulic barriers/bunds (at

Thannirmukkam and north of Bolgaty to prevent saline ingress into agricultural lands) impede natural

flushing action of tidal movements, and impacts canal networks. (A note on backwater systems and

environmental concerns is given in Annex 12).

2. Lack of a city wide drainage and canal master plan, lack of integration and inadequate focus on design

requirements further limit the functioning of the cities drain network. Even though the City

Development Plan for Kochi has recommended a city wide Master Plan for Drainage, the drainage

network if being implemented in a piece-meal manner without a city wide plan. In several places, drains

have been built without factoring design considerations including run-off levels and contours. Area drains

and drains from premises do not have silt pits to intercept silt and solids and discharge directly into

roadside area drains these drains are silted to very high degree and clogged due to solid waste especially

plastics (visual evidence of some of these problems is in Annex 13).



3. Inadequate provision of area level drains in several pockets of the city coupled with poor canal and

primary drain efficiency leads to water logging and other health/sanitation problems. Relative to total

road length of 1665 km, the drainage network coverage is estimated at 41 %. Area drains are absent in

many of the areas especially in areas with urban proliferation. These drains need immediate attention.

These are the primary cause for water logging in the various neighbourhoods in the city.


6.3.1. Vision

“Revitalise Kochi’s Drainage network to make it technically functional, aesthetically appealing,

environmentally safe and efficient in handling storm water flows of Kochi”

6.3.2. Goals

CoC should aspire to provide a city wide drain network to cover both sides of 100 % of all roads in the city that

takes into account the city’s topography and flooding areas within a 5 – 10 year time frame. Table 6.4 provides

the timeframe for achieving SLB norms relating to storm water management

Table 6.4: Storm water management: Short Medium and Long Term targets

Parameter Unit Norm Info

reliability

Baseline

SLB

Time to meet SLB norms

S M L

Coverage (Drain length/road length) % 100% NA 41% √

Incidence of waterlogging Nos. Zero B N.A √

Source: IMaCS analysis. SLB ISIP report. Kerala Sustainable Urban Development Project (PPTA 4106 – IND) Final Report

Volume 2 - City Report Kochi, May 2005

6.3.3. Infrastructure demand and cost estimates

The normative capital cost estimates for storm water area drains alone works to Rs. 230 crore over the next 10

years and is shown in Table 6.5. However, given that significant investments are required in rehabilitation and

development of primary drains and secondary canals, investment requirements for overall drainage

requirements could be significantly higher. The CDP for Kochi (2006) estimated overall capital investment for

drainage system at Rs. 900 crore.

Table 6.5 Infrastructure Cost Estimate

Particulars Short Medium Long

Capital cost estimate for area drains. Rs. Lakh 5,000 8,000 10,000

Source: IMaCS analysis. Capital costs estimated at Rs. 4140 per capita for Class IA cities (HPEC 2011), assuming

60% new drains and 40% rehabilitation at one-third of the norm)


The storm drain and canal network in Kochi is emerging as vulnerable pollution hotspot as solid waste

dumping, sullage flows and poor maintenance threatens to create adverse health and environmental impacts.

Storm water drain networks cannot be addressed in isolation, but need to be managed along with initiatives

on SWM and waste water flows covering the following actions.

Firstly, it is critical to stop garbage dumping and sullage flows into storm drain networks on priority. This

will require putting actions to improve SWM and waste-water management (as detailed in chapter 5 and

chapter 7). These are crucial to keep the drain network effective to deal with storm water flows in the city.

Secondly, as cleanliness in existing drain networks improve, a city wide Drainage Master Plan should be

formulated and implemented. The design of storm water drains should be done by using appropriate

meteorological and hydraulic parameters. Specific actions to be implemented with respect to Storm water

management (in addition to actions listed under SWM and Waste-water management) are listed below:



1. CoC in consultation with GoK should prepare a Master Plan for Drainage for Kochi urban agglomeration.

To facilitate an integrated approach to dealing with storm water flows, the CoC in consultation with the

GoK should prepare a detailed Master Plan which among other things should cover

a. Review of the status and efficacy of primary and secondary drainage in Kochi urban agglomeration to

identify interventions to rehabilitate / develop them given city topography and water flows

b. Run-off management strategy at a regional / zonal level including identification of low-lying areas

where gravity based flow is limited and pumping maybe required to address water logging

c. Network Zoning and phasing for implementation of a comprehensive area level drains across the city

to achieve SLB norms for storm drains within CoC

2. Following the preparation of the Drainage Master Plan, the CoC and other agencies should in

consultation with GoK prepare Detailed Engineering studies and Project Reports and implement a

phased investment program to rehabilitate and improve the entire drain network.

3. CoC in consultation with GoK should clarify accountability for operations and maintenance of drain

systems. Each of these agencies should earmark adequate budgets for maintenance and upkeep of the

drainage and canal systems, based on the requirements identified in the Master Plan. Given that the

drain network is being executed and maintained by multiple agencies including Concerned local bodies

including CoC, Irrigation Department and Public Works Department, GoK should clarify the responsibility

for development and O&M of these networks (including earmarking adequate budgets for the same)

among the various agencies.



7. Solid waste management


7.1.1. Generation

KSUDP data on solid waste generation in Kochi indicate an average waste generation of 707 grams per capita

per day. Based on the Census 2001, a population of 0.60 million for generates total waste of 421.50 MT/day.

Table 7.1 indicates the source-wise solid waste generation at the corporation level. Solid waste is generated by

a variety of sources, ranging from households, to commercial establishments, public and institutional areas

(See Map 12 in Volume 5, PDF Maps folder for a spatial representation of solid waste generating sites, etc.).

Table 7.1: Break-up detail of solid waste generation by source in Kochi

Sources of waste Quantity TPD %age

Households 279.12 66.22

Commercial 89.15 21.15

Institutional 10.66 2.53

Road sweeping 18.63 4.42

Drain cleaning 7.97 1.89

Clinical 9.31 2.21

Construction and demolition 6.66 1.58

Total 421.5 100%

Source: Kerala Sustainable Urban Development Project (PPTA 4106 – IND) Final Report Volume 2 - Kochi, May 2005

7.1.2. Collection and handling

Household collection: Currently, in Kochi the municipal solid waste is collected at the household level in bins in

segregated form (approximately 57000 pairs of refuse bins have been given to household for segregating their

wastes, and another 75000 green bins for biodegradable material has also been supplied to the city under the

KSUDP) at the household level by the waste collector. This collection of waste from households is carried out

by workers belonging to different groups like self-help groups under the banner of Kudumbashree (self-help

groups Govt. of Kerala program), Resident Welfare Associations and Kerala Builders Forum (KBF), Rotary Club,

NGOs, etc. Kudumbashree covers 15 of 71 wards of the city with the help of its 200 workers. The remaining 53

wards are served by contracted workers of RWAs, KBF, Rotary Club or NGOs. The CoC has provided 2 coloured

bins, a green one with a 15-litre capacity, for biodegradable waste, and a white one with a 10-litre capacity, for

dry waste) to all households.

Collections from commercial establishments: Waste that is not collected from small hotels and commercial

establishments by the Hotels Association is collected by either Kudumbashree or RWA workers serving that

ward. The large hotels have their own systems and mostly produce biogas from their kitchen waste. The CoC is

in charge of the main road sweeping and drain cleaning for all drains across the city. The collection and

transportation of this waste is also done by the CoC. However, the by-lanes are not swept by the CoC, and

these become problem areas in terms of accumulation of solid wastes, which also enter the drainage systems

including the storm water drains and canals. Discussions with KSUDP personnel suggest that Waste from 36 %

poor households, 24 % LIG households and 30 % MIG household areas are collected by NGOs, private sector,

and Kudumbashree groups.

The CREDAI Initiative: CREDAI Kochi has launched an initiative called the “CREDAI Clean City Movement”, as

part of the social responsibility in keeping the city clean and healthy. The implementation of the project is also

linked with poverty alleviation programme, whereby women from economically weaker section of the society

are given employment. The initiative is an eco-friendly SWM system. The eco-friendly waste management

technique uses the aerobic microbial composting system for SWM and includes:



Awareness generation programme: An awareness campaign with the aid of audio-visual presentations

was initiated in the apartment complexes intending to enlighten the residents. Initial reluctance gradually

subsided; and the success of the system provided wider acceptance for this unique social initiative. Today,

70 % of apartments in the city of Kochi are covered by this scheme.

Bio-Bin System: The Clean City Movement uses Bio-Bins to process the Bio-Degradable Organic Waste.

The Bio-Degradable Waste is deposited in 6 feet long, 3 feet wide and 2.5 feet high bio-bins and a solution

of Micro Organism is sprinkled onto it. Corporation of Kochi approved the system and made it mandatory

in all apartment complexes during 2009. Encouraged by this, CREDAI Kochi decided to enlarge the scope of

its Corporate Social Responsibility activities. Now the Bio-Bin system has been set up in more than 200

apartment complexes covering 15,000 flats in the City of Kochi.

SWM System for individual houses: CREDAI Clean City decided to spread the concept of SWM into the

residences with an aim to adopt the system to the entire city. A suitable model has been identified and

successfully tested in some gated colonies.

The Don Bosco Initiative: Don Bosco, a Christian charitable service, is running a shelter for orphans and rag

pickers. They work in various areas throughout the city, such as Panampalli Nagar, with the help of pushcarts.

Through Don Bosco, there are currently six rag pickers for the area of Panampalli Nagar, who are involved in

primary waste collection for approximately 1,200 households. The rag pickers charge households a user fee of

Rs. 25 each. Rs. 20 of this is paid to the refuse collection crew and Rs. 5 is allocated to vehicle repairs and

maintenance. Rag pickers transport the collected waste to secondary collection points, after which it is

transported by the Corporation to landfill sites. Rag pickers earn a minimum income of Rs. 4,000, but many

supplement this income with other work, usually odd jobs.

7.1.3. Tariffs and charges

There is a solid waste charge, which is 2 % of the property tax and is collected along with the property tax.

There are also user charges that are collected @ Rs. 30 per household and @ Rs.50 per commercial

establishment. These user charges are collected directly by the door-to-door waste collectors and are used for

funding the salary and insurance charges of the workers and also for maintenance and diesel charges of the

vehicles used for collection of waste. However, there are currently no records maintained by the RWAs for the

fees collected and as to how these are used. For areas served by Kudumbashree, there are approximately 13-

14 workers per ward and the user charges collected by these workers are deposited in an individual account

for each ward. These micro accounts are operated and maintained by each self-help group and are used for

salary disbursal, maintenance of vehicles, taking loans for groups’ activities, etc.

7.1.4. Transportation, processing and disposal

Transportation

Segregated waste is collected by workers in two separate dustbins and brought to the secondary collection

points. The primary collection vehicle is either an auto rickshaw or a cycle rickshaws that belong to the

Corporation and has been given to the various groups for collection of waste. On the vehicle 4 bins are

provided in which pre-segregated waste at the household level is collected. Some of the workers also collect

wet waste in the cart and dry waste in bags. After primary collection the waste is brought to the secondary

collection points (each administrative circle comprising 2-3 wards has one such secondary collection point)

where the garbage is further segregated on the floor, before it is transferred to the Corporation truck. These

transfer points have been pre-determined by the Corporation and the time when the vehicle reaches this spot

is also defined. In some places the pre-segregated waste from households is directly transferred to the trucks

from the large bins. The transportation system consists of 40 large open trucks at the CoC, 2 covered trucks

(supplied under KSUDP), 30 three wheelers, 35 small 4 wheelers, and 264 hand-carts/wheel barrows.



Processing and disposal

Processing of solid waste was not done in the Cochin Corporation area at all, until recently, due to the scarcity

of available land, and Cheranalloor was used as a dumping site, but this was discontinued due to protests from

local residents in that area. Some disposal was also done at Willingdon Island, however since the disposal site

falls within the ‘air funnel’, the Indian Navy announced that disposal would have to cease by November 2006.

Today, all the solid waste from the secondary collection points is transported to the Brahmapuram site, a 37.3

acre parcel of land, which has a solid waste treatment plant, at a distance of approximately 20 km from the

city centre (see Map 13 in Volume 5, PDF Maps folder for location of the Brahmapuram site). The plant is

currently run by an NGO, CED, under a contract from the CoC. A further 100 acres of land has been acquired by

the CoC in the same area for developing additional capacity. The site has the capacity to process 200 tonnes of

mixed waste via mechanical composting and 50 tonnes of organic waste via vermicomposting daily. In April

2010, the refuse-derived fuel (RDF) plant was inaugurated at the Brahmapuram plant. At this plant, recyclable

material from combustible non-biodegradable waste material can be recovered to create a high calorie

uniform material, which can be used as a substitute for fuel at cement kilns and incinerators.10

However,

various environmental concerns have been expressed about the suitability of the Brahmapuram site, which is a

low-lying and water logged area, in close proximity of the Kadambria River.

7.1.5. Service levels

Table 7.2 provides a summary of the service levels in Kochi. Table 7.3 provides a status update vis-a-vis the

parameters identified under MoUD’s Service Level Benchmarking program.

Table 7.2: SWM performance summary

S.No. Indicator 2010

1 Total waste generated (tons/day) 421.5

2 Per capita waste generated (kg/day) 0.7 kg

3 Collection of waste (tons/day) 169.36

4 Distance of disposal point (km) 20 km

5 No. of Safai karmacharis (sweepers/drain cleaners/loaders) 857+350

6 Collection efficiency % 40

7 Door to door collection % NA

8 Source segregation % NA

9 Treatment and disposal % NA

10 O&M Cost recovery NA

Source: Kerala Sustainable Urban Development Project (PPTA 4106 – IND) Final Report Volume 2 - City Report Kochi, May

2005, KSUDP SWM DPR, August 2007

Table 7.3: SWM service levels vis-a-vis SLB set by MoUD

Parameters Benchmark Information Reliability Kochi Service levels

HH coverage 100% A NA (official estimates ~100%)

Waste Collection Efficiency 100% B 40%

Source Segregation 100% B NA

MSW recovery 80% B NA

Scientific disposal 100% NA NA

Cost recovery 100% NA NA

Cost Collection efficiency 90% NA NA

Complaints redress 80% D NA

Source: SLB exercise ISIP report

10 India Environment Portal at http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/



7.1.6. On-going initiatives

A DPR at an approved cost of Rs. 88.12 crore is under implementation with assistance under JNNURM. A DPR

has also been prepared by KSUDP to complement this, involving a total cost of Rs. 10.4 crore. This includes Rs.

9.6 crore on equipment and Rs. 0.8 crore for community awareness, education and training. In view of the

challenges faced at the Brahmapuram site, CoC is evaluating a number of alternatives for waste processing and

landfill including exploring identification of a new site for waste processing. To further facilitate effective SWM,

the CoC has made amendments to their municipal bye laws (coming into effect on 1st

June 1998) for SWM (as

per Section 567 of the Kerala Municipal Act, 1994) and has included various provisions for all aspects of the

SWM cycle as well as imposition of fines, etc. (The relevant amendments are shown in Annex 14).


Table 7.4 below shows the SWOT analysis for SWM in Kochi

Table 7.4: SWM - SWOT


Door to door collection in

residential areas and

source segregation

mechanisms in place.

Kochi has a major SWM

treatment and disposal

site at Brahmapuram.

Littering and dumping of waste in

canals and streets prevalent.

Operation of Processing facility

sub-optimal.

System still not compliant with

MSW Rules 2000 and SLB norms

Current system of door-to

door collection and

segregation and

transportation can be

further optimised and

coverage increased,

making Kochi bin-free

Pollution concerns due to

waste dumping in canals and

alongside roads

Water logging and pollution

concerns at Waste processing

facility

The key issues with respect to SWM within Kochi are summarised below:

1. Information base and limited scientific/systematic approach to manage solid waste need to be address t

to improve SWM service delivery from current levels: Even though the Kutumbashree program and other

initiatives of CoC has improved the waste collection significantly, there is littering and waste dumping

observed in canals, indicating scope for improvement. Further, there are environmental concerns at the

waste processing facility which need to be addressed comprehensively.

2. Accountability for SWM is diffused which overlaps between Health and Engineering departments: While

the manpower and conservancy staff report into the Health department, the Engineering department is

responsible for procurement of vehicles and tendering creating overlaps in responsibility. Sanitary staff

are not exposed to modern waste management practices including door-to-door collection, bin-free roads

in residential areas, aesthetic waste collection points in commercial areas, optimal routing to rationalise

transportation cost and waste recovery and processing options, PPP structuring and bidding.

3. While user charges collected, there is inadequate information on extent of cost recovery achieved by

CoC: Given the current context of cost recovery norms, etc., the lack of mechanisms to track user charge

collection, utilisation and cost recovery constrains analysis and progressively achieving O&M cost recovery

objectives. Further, user charges collected under the Kutumbashree initiative for door-to-door collection

are retained with the service providers. Since CoC incurs costs of downstream transportation/ processing

user charges clearly do not meet the full cost of service provision of CoC.

4. Rampant littering reflects public apathy and lack of awareness on their responsibilities towards SWM.

General evidence from reconnaissance around the city points to rampant littering, dumping of waste at

street corners, overflowing bins and chocked storm drains apart from poor waste management practices,

also point to citizen apathy and lack of awareness of their responsibilities with respect to SWM. Therefore

a concerted effort to involve public participation and awareness generation should back infrastructure and

service delivery improvement efforts.



7.3. Vision and goals

7.3.1. Vision

“Become and remain litter-free through implementation of sustainable waste management practices”

7.3.2. Goals

Table 7.5 translate the vision into tangible service goals.

Table 7.5: SWM: Short, medium and long-term targets

Parameter Unit Norm SLB Info.

Reliability Baseline

Timeframe to achieve norm

Short Term

(3 years)

Medium Term

(5 years)

Long Term

(10 years)

HH coverage % 100% B 100% √

Waste Collection Efficiency % 100% D 97% √

Source Segregation % 100% D 86% √

MSW recovery % 80% N.A 80% √

Scientific disposal % 100% N.A - √

Cost recovery % 100% N.A N.A √

Cost Collection efficiency % 100% N.A N.A √

Complaints redress % 100% A N.A √

Source: SLB ISIP report; IMaCS Analysis.


Table 7.6 summarises a set of suggested actions on water supply, each of which is detailed subsequently.

Table 7.6 SWM: Recommendations


S M L

1. Strengthen on-going efforts on door-to-door collection to effectively implement source

segregation and eliminate road side littering and dumping of waste in drains CoC √

i. Widen Kutumbashree initiative to effectively cover the entire city CoC √

ii. Encourage wider adoption of local processing efforts CoC √

iii. Designate waste transfer locations and improve linkages with secondary transportation CoC √

2. Conduct a feasibility study to evaluate options for processing and landfill; build on findings

to prepare/implement a DPR on the solution(s) identified in the feasibility study. CoC √ √

3. Initiate following actions to clarify and achieve cost recovery objectives. CoC √

i. CoC should implement a system to comprehensively track costs of SWM service provision CoC √

ii. Rationalise user charges under kutumbashree to achieve cost recovery objectives CoC √ √

iii. Explore the use of PPPs in waste recovery and landfill CoC √ √

4. Initiate actions to improve accountability, oversight and public participation CoC √ √

i. Improve coordination among health and engineering departments and carve out a

separate SWM department to facilitate better accountability in the medium term CoC √ √

ii. Initiate a training initiative on modern waste management practices CoC √

iii. Engage local stakeholders in monitoring and oversight of SWM activities CoC √

iv. Introduce by-laws to conform to MSW rules and to introduce user charges, articulate

citizen duties, ban on plastic below 40 microns and fines for littering CoC √

v. Complement door-to-door collection and source segregation with awareness campaigns CoC √

Source: IMaCS analysis.

1. CoC should strengthen on-going efforts on door-to-door collection to effectively implement source

segregation and eliminate road side littering and dumping of waste in drains

a. The Kutumbashree initiative should be progressively expanded to cover the entire CoC area and

efforts to introduce source segregation should be scaled up and implemented city wide on priority.



b. CoC should undertake efforts to adopt bin-free approaches to the extent possible and earmark

designated locations for transfer stations / points for seamless litter-free secondary transportation.

This should be complemented with efficient street sweeping and cleaning programs along with citizen

awareness programs to avoid littering in public places / streets and waste dumping in canals/drains.

c. In recent years, Kochi has seen a significant increase in local level waste collection and processing

initiatives such as those launched by CREDAI clean city program. CoC should actively engage with

these stakeholders to widen adoption of such initiatives to pave the way for waste minimisation and

instil the principle of reduce-reuse-recycle in its SWM system.

2. CoC should conduct a feasibility study to evaluate options for processing and landfill and

prepare/implement a DPR on the solution(s) identified in this study. CoC should initiate a feasibility

study to evaluate measures for mitigating pollution and environmental concerns at existing facility and/or

evaluate alternate sites /options for waste processing (including composting, waste-to-energy etc.) in view

of recent concerns over the waste processing/ landfill facility at Brahmapuram. This should be followed up

with preparation and implementation of a DPR on proposals identified in the feasibility study for

effective waste-recovery and landfilling in a time-bound manner.

3. CoC should initiate actions to clarify and achieve cost recovery objectives in light of CoC’s reform and

cost recovery commitments under JNNURM.

a. CoC should set cost recovery objectives and should implement measures to track costs of SWM

service provision comprehensively.

b. CoC allows the service providers under Kutumbashree initiative to collect/retain user charges for

door-to-door collection, but it incurs costs of downstream transportation/ processing which are not

recovered. Therefore CoC should possibly consider mechanisms for setting / rationalising user charges

in a manner that they reflect cost of service provision and also to ensure that part of the user charges

go into the account of CoC. CoC could consider two alternative to rationalise and collect user charges

i) the local kutumbashree NGO collects a higher user fee, retains a part and passes on the reminder to

CoC or ii) CoC charges and collects a user fee and in turn pays the local kutumbashree NGOs.

4. CoC should initiate the following actions to improve accountability, oversight and public participation

a. Improve coordination among health and engineering departments. In the medium term, carve out a

dedicated SWM department within CoC to facilitate single-point accountability.

b. Initiate a training initiative on modern waste management practices Areas for training in the SWM are

highlighted in chapter 9. CoC should initiate steps to implement these on priority.

c. Engage local stakeholders and community participation in monitoring and oversight of SWM activities

on the lines of the three level monitoring and evaluation framework described in chapter 8.

d. CoC should incorporate bye-laws for formalising and articulating policy with respect to the following:

i. CoC should impose and enforce a ban on use of plastic below 40 microns and fines for littering

ii. CoC should explicitly articulate citizens’ duties with respect maintaining clean environment

(including keeping the public places litter-free and not indulging in activities like open

defecation/urination) and to fulfil their obligations in implementing modern practices such as

door-to-door collection and source segregation.

iii. CoC should enforce fines and punitive measures in case of non-compliance of citizens with

respect to their duties regarding sanitation.

e. CoC should complement door-to-door collection and source segregation with awareness campaigns.

Initiatives like door-to-door collection and source segregation involve significant mind-set change and

therefore engaging public involvement in initial stages through awareness campaigns is critical to get

public support.



SECTION III PLAN SUPPORT PILLARS



8. Governance and Institutional framework


The CoC is responsible for providing basic infrastructure and other civic services within its jurisdiction. Apart

from the CoC, a number of state level agencies are involved in planning and providing urban services within

Kochi city. This chapter provides an of Institutional framework in Kochi for urban services at State and Local

levels covering a) legal framework and state-level reform, b) state level agencies involved in urban governance

and service provision, c) municipal organisation and d) prevailing accountability for sanitation services.

8.1.1. Municipal legislation and state level urban reform

Subsequent to the 74th

Constitution Amendment Act (CAA), 1992 the Government of Kerala (GoK) embarked

on a policy of decentralization of powers to local governments. The Kerala Municipalities Act, 1994, was

drafted based on decentralization principles laid down in the 74th CAA. In September 1995, GoK transferred

powers and functions to local governments, along with institutions, offices and functionaries. Key features of

the decentralization initiative comprised: (i) transferring health-related institutions (except medical colleges

and regional specialty hospitals) to local governments; (ii) transferring all schools to Urban Local Bodies (ULBs);

(iii) planning and implementing centrally sponsored poverty alleviation schemes through ULBs; (iv) planning

social welfare schemes, implementing Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS), affecting payment of

various social security pensions, and creating centres for disabled care as ULB responsibilities; and (v) planning

and providing urban basic services, including water supply, sanitation, storm water drainage and urban roads.

GoK chose to operationalize the decentralization process through participatory local-level planning and

initiated through the People’s Plan Campaign or the Kerala Development Program. The Annual Plan of the

Municipal Corporation (MC) comprises development projects planned at the grassroots level and approved by

the Council – financing of all approved projects is through ULB own funds, loans from Financial Institutions and

plan grants under State and Central schemes. Financial devolution formed the backbone of decentralization

and comprised: (i) providing approximately 30-40 % of the total plan size of the State as untied devolutions to

local governments for developmental works – of the total allocation to a local self-government institution

(LSGI), 30 % is allocated for SC/ST development and 70 % is allocated for general purposes (comprising 10 % in

productive sectors, 10 % for slum infrastructure, not more than 50 % on infrastructure, and 30 % for service

sector); (ii) stipulating that no part of the devolved funds should be used for staff salaries and establishment

expenditure; and (iii) releasing funds in fourteen instalments during a fiscal year; any shortfalls in fund usage

would result in allocation lapsing. Of importance is the feature regarding planning and implementing projects

prepared by local self governments – 30-40 % of the plan size of the State’s budget was set apart for local self

governments with 15 % of the said amount earmarked for ULBs. Under the Kerala Municipalities Act (1994),

municipal corporations are responsible for:

Civic service delivery that consists of: (i) preparing and implementing a water supply and sewage disposal

scheme (ii) providing adequate sanitation through solid waste collection and disposal, low cost sanitation

and surface drainage; (iii) providing street lighting facilities; (iv) constructing and maintaining roads; and

(v) providing facilities for public conveniences.

Administrative services that consist of: (i) issuing various certificates; (ii) maintaining public amenities; (iii)

maintaining public utility services; and (iv) providing ambulance services.

Regulatory services that consist of: (i) issuing licenses and permits; (ii) registering births, deaths,

marriages, and private hospitals and tutorials; (iii) issuing notices and other certificates for taxation

purposes; (iv) maintaining records and registers of all municipal transactions; and (v) abating nuisances.

Transferred services that consist of undertaking: (i) maintenance and operations of health and

educational institutions; (ii) economic development in the LSGI jurisdiction; (iii) social welfare programs;

and (iv) social security schemes.



There is a fairly complex legislative and administrative framework governing urban infrastructure development

and urban management, based on Acts, Rules and Regulations formulated by the Central and State

Government (Table 8.1):

Table 8.1: Legislative and administrative framework for urban infrastructure in Kochi

A. Central Acts and Rules

a. Constitutional Provisions (Article 48 and 51) Infrastructure and Environment

b. Constitutional Provisions (Project Affected Persons) Infrastructure and Social

c. Land Acquisition Act, 1894 and as amended 1984 Infrastructure and Social

d. Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 Infrastructure and Environment

e. Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, amended in 1978 & 1988 Infrastructure and Environment

f. Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1974 Infrastructure and Environment

g. Environment Protection Act and Rules, 1986 Infrastructure and Environment

h. Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 and as amended In 1988 Infrastructure and Environment

i. Environmental Guidelines for Rail/Road/Highway Projects, MoEF, 1989 Infrastructure, Environment and Social

j. Hazardous Waste (Management & Handling) Rules, 1989 Infrastructure and Environment

k. Biomedical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998 Infrastructure and Environment

l. Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification, 1990 Infrastructure and Environment

m. 74th

Constitutional Amendment Act (CAA), 1992 Infrastructure and Management

n. Environmental Impact Assessment Notification, 1994 Infrastructure, Environment and Social

o. Municipal Solid Waste (Management & Handling) Rules, 2000 Infrastructure, Environment and Social

p. Municipal Solid Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, Notification, 2000 Infrastructure and Environment

q. National Policy on Resettlement and Rehabilitation for Project affected Persons, 2003 Infrastructure and Social

r. Labour Welfare Laws Infrastructure and Social

B. State Acts, Rules and Policies

a. Local Authorities Loans Act, 1963 Management

b. Kerala Water and Sewerage Act, 1986 Infrastructure and Environment

c. Kerala Municipalities Act, 1994 Infrastructure and Management

d. First State Finance Commission, 1996 and Second State Finance Commission, 2001 Management

e. Kerala Decentralization of Powers Act, 2000 Management

f. Kerala State Transport Project (KSTP), R&R Policy, 2000 Infrastructure and Social

g. Kerala Ground Water Control and Regulation Act, 2002 Infrastructure and Environment

h. Urban Policy and Action Plan, 2002 Infrastructure and Management

i. Kerala Infrastructure Development Bill, 2001 Infrastructure and Management

k. Kerala Fiscal Responsibility Act, 2003 Management

Status of reforms under JNNURM

Table 8.2 provides the status of state level urban reforms that are committed under JNNURM.

Table 8.2: State level progress on urban reforms under JNNURM

Reform Measure Status

74th

CAA – Transfer of 12th

schedule functions Completed*

74th

CAA – Constitution of DPC Completed

74th

CAA – Constitution of MPC NA

Transfer of City Planning Function Completed*

Transfer of Water Supply and Sanitation functions Completed*

Reform in Rent Control Not yet done

Rationalisation of Stamp Duty to 5 % Not yet done

Repeal of ULCRA Completed

Enactment –Community Participation Law Completed

Enactment – Public Disclosure Law Completed

Source: Status in Dec 2010. Report on Indian Urban Infrastructure & Services, High Powered Expert Committee, MoUD

2011. *The extent of transfer is partial in some cases. For e.g., in case of water supply and sanitation, where the former is

entirely with the KWA and sewerage is also under the KWA and an MoU has been entered into between KWA and CoC.



As can be seen from the above table, the GoK has been fairly progressive with respect to institutional and legal

reform commitments under JNNURM. However, transfer of functions and responsibilities such as city planning

and water supply is partial and has not yet been accompanied by a comprehensive assessment of staff and

appropriate transfer of staff and resources.

8.2. State institutions and agencies

Apart from CoC, a number of institutions – state government agencies and parastatals – play a key role in

urban governance and provision of urban services in the city. These are briefly described below:

At the State level, the Departments of Local Self Government, Water Resources, Public Works, Revenue

and Housing, General Administration, Power, Health, and Science, Technology and Environment provide

policy and administrative directions to various State and local-level agencies for effective urban basic

service delivery. Departments overseeing transferred functions such as education, health, etc. also play a

key role in urban service delivery.

Likewise, Missions constituted by GoK effectively administer the process of good governance, facilitate

urban environmental management, improve financial management in ULBs and assist in poverty

alleviation; these include the Modernizing Government Program (MGP), Clean Kerala Mission (CKM),

Information Kerala Mission (IKM), and State Poverty Eradication Mission (Kudumbashree). Other

Institutions supporting activities in urban management include Kerala Water Authority (KWA), Kerala

Urban Development Finance Corporation (KUDFC), Kerala Institute of Local Administration (KILA), and

Development Authorities (for a organogram depicting the state level governance structure, see Annex 15).

State Departments

The Local Self Government Department (LSGD) is in charge of urban development in the State. Through

the Secretary, Urban, the LSGD oversees the functioning of the State’s ULBs. The Secretary Urban, LSG is

assisted by a Deputy Secretary and Under Secretary in overseeing functions of the Department.

The Water Resources (WR) Department ensures urban basic service delivery through three organizations

under its control: a) Kerala State Ground Water Department, which controls ground water regulation for

domestic/industrial consumption; b) Kerala Water Authority (KWA), which is responsible for water and

sewerage provision in urban and rural areas (with the enactment of the Kerala Municipalities Act, 1994,

service provision related to water and sewerage has passed on to the ULBs); and c) Irrigation Department,

which is responsible for maintaining the waterways in the State (stretches of waterways carrying

wastewater pass through urban areas).

The State Public Works Department (PWD) is responsible for maintenance of roads (Highways and District

Roads) and roadside drains in urban areas. Through the Kerala Road Development Fund (KRDF), the PWD

has initiated improvement and maintenance of roads in Thiruvananthapuram under the Capital Region

Road Improvement Project on an Annuity system.

The Revenue and Housing (R&H) Department, through the Kerala State Housing Board (KSHB), which was

established in 1971, provides organized direction and planning in the preparation and execution of

housing and improvement schemes in the State. The primary objective of KSHB is to formulate and

implement various housing construction schemes as well as housing loan schemes catering to the housing

needs of various income groups in the State. In addition to this, KSHB also executes general improvement

schemes (like commercial cum office complex), government directed schemes (rental housing schemes,

slum improvement schemes, housing complexes for EWS, rehabilitation housing scheme, revenue towers,

etc.) and deposit works (undertaking construction of work of other agencies). The R&H Dept. is also

associated with land acquisition issues and plays an important role in providing clearances for land

availability in infrastructure creation.



The General Administration Department (GAD) facilitates urban management through the Modernizing

Government Program (MGP).

The Power Department supports urban management through the Kerala State Electricity Board (KSEB).

The KSEB is responsible for supply of electricity and maintenance of street lighting for ULBs, and is

responsible for power supply to the KWA towards pumping of water and sewage.

The Health Department controls environmental pollution in urban areas and regulates solid waste

collection and disposal through the Kerala State Pollution Control Board (KSPCB). The KSPCB’s mandate is

to ensure that ULBs comply with the Supreme Court Guidelines on municipal, bio-medical and hazardous

waste handling and disposal. The Health Department is responsible for a) preventive measures against

infectious and communicable diseases; b) overall supervision of the administration of the Prevention of

Food Adulteration Act; and c) matters pertaining to the Public Health Act within the local area.

The State Planning Board administers GoK’s FYPs, regularly assesses the State’s economy, formulates

Annual Plans for budget integration, organizes and guides planning units at the district/local levels; and

advises on all economic development and policy matters.

The Town and Country Planning Department (TCPD) is the prime agency for providing technical inputs for

the planned development of urban settlements. The TCPD a) prepares Master Plans for the State’s cities

and towns; b) prepares detailed development plans; c) provides guidance to local bodies and

Development Authorities on plan implementation; d) prepares area development plans for controlled

areas; and e) advises various State-level agencies on planning, site selection, and preparation of

development schemes

The Finance Department largely perform the function of advising the Government on all financial matters.

The formulation of the budget is one of its most important functions. The Finance Department is also

entrusted with the responsibility of framing rules regulating pay, emoluments and other service conditions

of all Government employees. It has administrative control over the departments of Local Fund Audit,

Directorates of National Savings, State Lotteries, State Insurance and Treasuries. The Department is

headed by the Principal Secretary and has two Secretaries in charge of Expenditure and Finance

Resources.

State Missions and Agencies

Kerala Water Authority: The KWA constituted in 1984 is a state-level agency, which both owns and

operates water supply and sewerage services for the CoC. While the 73rd and 74th constitutional

amendments sought to divest the responsibility of providing water supply and sanitation services to the

urban local body, this has not taken place de facto in Kochi. While the ultimate aim is to transfer all

responsibility for the provision and maintenance of water supply and sanitation services to the CoC,

currently, this responsibility continues to lie with KWA. An organogram depicting the structure of the KWA

is given in Annex 15.

Kerala Sustainable Urban Development Project: The Kerala Sustainable Urban Development Project

(KSUDP) is both a state-level execution agency for Asian Development Bank (ADB) funding, as well as a

state-level nodal agency for the Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM),

administered by Government of India’s Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD). KSUDP has a Project

Management Office (PMO), which is responsible for overall coordination, management, and

administration of the various components, such as urban infrastructure improvement, urban management

and implementation assistance. The urban infrastructure component comprises water supply, sewerage

and sanitation, SWM, urban drainage, roads and transport, and community infrastructure, and this is

implemented by KSUDP’s Project Implementation Unit, which is housed in each municipal corporation.

With the funding received from ADB as well as JNNURM, KSUDP is executing a number of civic

infrastructure projects in Kochi, ranging from improvements to the water supply, sanitation, SWM, urban

drainage and community infrastructure works. Due to the overlapping institutional arrangement in Kochi,



both KSUDP as well as the KWA are entrusted with the responsibility of augmenting as well as newly

constructing water supply and sanitation infrastructure in the Corporation area. This will be further

explained in the subsequent sections of this report.

Kerala State Pradesh Pollution Control Board (KSPCB): The KSPCB is responsible for controlling of water

and air pollution caused by various sources across the state including Kochi. It is responsible of monitoring

and oversight to ensure compliance with various state and central legislation on pollution. In particular,

the KSPCB has been active in the area of waste water management and has laid guidelines for waste water

management in apartments and commercial establishments and is responsible for providing consent to

establish and operate and in the area of Septage management where it has recently initiated discussions

with CoC and private service providers to streamline safe septage management and disposal.

Service Provision in Cities by State Level agencies

Water Supply and Sewerage: Currently, the Kerala Water Authority (KWA) creates water and sewerage

infrastructure assets and maintains the same. While the Kerala Municipality Act, 1994 and amendments

therein require the municipal corporations to maintain and arrange water and sewerage services, KWA

continues to provide water services in all municipal corporations except Thrissur. Sewerage is limited to

less than 5 % area coverage in Kochi and is maintained by the KWA. KWA directly collects water charges

from the consumers and the Municipal Corporation. New/additional lines within the MC area are

constructed as deposit works, with the MC making a deposit with KWA for the identified work. KWA

carries out major repairs (like pipe bursts/leakage) on distribution systems but the MC carries out road

rectification. Water quality assurance is by KWA and any contamination of water is reported to KWA (and

at certain instances intimation is sent to the MC’s Health Department).

Waste Management: Regarding waste treatment and disposal, the Kerala State Pollution Control Board

KSPCB’s mandate includes monitoring the methods of waste collection and transportation, and the

treatment and disposal technology. Bio-medical waste handling and treatment is the responsibility of the

waste generators/hospitals. The MC is expected to ensure that bio-medical/hazardous waste generators

dispose waste generated in an environmentally sound manner. The CKM conducts training programs for

MC staff associated with waste management, in addition to identifying waste management and disposal

strategies for ULBs in the State.

Roads and Drainage: Municipal Corporations and the State PWD are responsible for creation and

maintenance of roads and roadside drains in the cities; services offered by an agency are limited to the

assets created by it and there is overlap in jurisdictions. While the PWD caters to main road links and

highways/district roads and drains along these links, the MC undertakes works and maintenance on other

roads and roadside drains. The State PWD creates new roads and roadside drains based on the Master

Plan prepared by the TCPD and processed by the Development Authority; funding is either sourced

directly from the State or identified State Line Departments. The MC creates new roads and roadside

drains based upon the Annual Plan approved by the District Planning Committee – the funds for new

works are sourced from the plan allocations of the State for developmental works. The Project Engineer

from the MC’s Engineering Department oversees construction of all new works.

Waterways and Canals: The presence of waterways/canals affects connectivity between different parts of

the city and between the city and the hinterland. The Irrigation Department under the State Water

Resources Department maintains waterways/canals in urban and rural areas of the State. Storm water

flows into the natural drains/canals through a reticulation of roadside and secondary drains. Dredging

activities along main drainage channels are carried out by the Irrigation Department based on the gravity

of the problem.

Urban Poverty Alleviation: The MC provides infrastructure in low-income settlements, primarily housing

Below Poverty Line (BPL) households. Funds drawn from the MC’s capital budget and those available from

centrally sponsored schemes are utilized for infrastructure creation in BPL settlements. The



Kudumbashree Project of the Urban Poverty Alleviation Department (UPAD) channels funds of centrally

sponsored schemes to the MC and monitors fund utilization through its District Mission Coordinator

(DMC). Infrastructure requirement is identified through the neighbourhood groups/area development

societies/community development societies and indicated to both the MC and Kudumbashree. Based on

the funds available through Centrally Sponsored Schemes and projects/schemes approved by the MC,

Kudumbashree transfers the requisite amount to the MC for utilization in BPL settlements – 2 % of the

Municipal Corporation’s own revenue is earmarked for poverty alleviation schemes.

Town Planning: The Development Authority (DA) is a coordinating agency responsible for Master Plan

implementation, which is prepared by the Town and Country Planning Department (TCPD). The DA is expected

to coordinate with State Line Agencies and the MC regarding plan implementation. The MC currently oversees

land use zoning originally the responsibility of the DA. Under Section 30 of the KM Act, 1994, the MC is

required to carry out spatial planning; this function is currently carried out by the TCPD at the MC’s request.

Other agencies involved in Kochi

Greater Cochin Development Agency: GCDA is the planning and development Authority of the

Metropolitan area of Cochin, which is the urban hinterland of Cochin Port. The jurisdictional area of GCDA

comprises of the Cochin City, the commercial capital of Kerala, 6 surrounding municipalities and 25

intervening Panchayats covering an area of 632 Sq. Kms. The aims and objectives of the GCDA are to:

o Guide urban development by checking urban sprawl and promoting healthy growth of urban and rural

areas through long term, short term and action area oriented detailed development plans.

o Coordinate the activities of different developmental agencies including Government departments

operating in the area.

o Take up model schemes and projects in different sectors of development.

o Monitor and implement the plans and proposals through public participation, timely revision and by

prioritizing proposals.

With the above objectives, GCDA, in consultation with the State Town Planning Department has prepared

and published the following plans.

o Structure Plan for the designated Central City of Cochin with framework of the Regional Development

Plan.

o Town Planning Schemes for the sub areas of the Region each with emphasis on specific sectors of

development viz. residential, commercial, road development and, recreational development.

GCDA helps the other developmental agencies both private and public in directing investments; takes up

comprehensive sector wise studies, identifies growth centres; creates basic infrastructure including

developable land through setting up land bank and takes up private public partnership projects. GCDA also

takes up consultancy works in planning and engineering fields, and undertakes studies in urban related

projects.

The Cochin Port Trust: Kochi is an all-weather natural harbour is located strategically close to the busiest

international sea routes, and amongst all major Indian ports, Kochi is the closest to the International East

West Shipping routes. This geo-strategic location of Kochi gives it a distinct advantage. The Kochi Port is

situated on the Willingdon Island which is an artificial Island tucked inside the Backwaters. The backwaters

offer calm and placid channels for ships throughout the year, even during the Monsoon season. Also,

Kochi lies beyond the cyclone zone and therefore the risk of cyclones is negligible. Managed by the Kochi

Port Trust, the operational areas of the port are certified to ISO 9001:2000 standards. All facilities on

Willingdon Island are, in general, under the purview of the Cochin Port Trust.



8.2.1. Corporation of Cochin

Origins and current status

The Corporation of Cochin (CoC) was formed in 1967, by merging three municipalities, Fort Kochi,

Mattancherry and Ernakulam. This took place when it became apparent that a holistic and integrated

approach to city planning was necessary to accommodate the projected population growth and urban

expansion in the region. The Corporation also absorbed the following regions: Palluruthy, Edappally, Vyttila

and Vennala Panchayats and the Willingdon, Gundu, Ramanthuruthu, Vimanadweep and Thanthonni Islands.

Organisation and responsibilities

While the CoC is officially entrusted with the above-mentioned responsibilities, in practice, responsibilities for

providing civic services are somewhat more complicated. Below is Kochi’s institutional responsibility matrix for

the various civic amenities. As we will discuss in detail in subsequent sections, only about 5 % of the CoC area

is connected to an off-site sewerage system. The balance 95 % of the city disposes of its wastewater (and

sludge) through on-site mechanisms, primarily via septic tanks. The bulk of set up, construction and

maintenance of septic tanks is currently done privately, with approximately 25 septic tank cleaning agencies

throughout the city. While the KSPCB has outlined guidelines that recommend certain standards and protocol

for septic tank maintenance and septage management, there is currently no enforcement mechanism.

Therefore, septage management is currently the responsibility of the house owner and is completely

unregulated.

The collection, handling, treatment and disposal of solid waste are the responsibility of the CoC. The KSPCB

closely monitors the methods of waste collection, transportation and for the technology for treatment and

disposal the agency has no enforcement authority.

The creation and maintenance of roads and roadside drains is jointly done by the CoC, as well as the Public

Works department. While the Public Works department is responsible for the creation and maintenance of

major roads (and drains) such as highways and district roads, the CoC undertakes operation and maintenance

of other roads and roadside drains. (Note: An organogram depicting the structure of the CoC and current levels

of staffing at each level is given in Annex 15, which also lists the current Councillors, and Standing Committees

and their members.)

8.2.2. Institutional framework for sanitation and inter-agency coordination

There are multiple agencies involved in planning implementation and O&M of water and sanitation assets,

facilities and services in Kochi (Table 8.3).

Table 8.3: Institutional responsibility matrix for civic services, Kochi

Urban Services Planning Implementation Operation and Maintenance Tariff

fixation

Water Supply KWA KWA, Cochin Port Trust (for Port

areas)

KWA, Cochin Port Trust (for

Port areas)

KWA

Solid Waste

Management

CoC and other local

bodies

CoC and other local bodies CoC and other local bodies,

private sector initiatives like

CREDAI Clean City Kochi

CoC

Storm Water

Drainage

CoC, other local

bodies

CoC Engineering Department

(construction), Kerala Public Works

Department, CoC

CoC and Kerala Public Works

Department

Not

applicable

Sewerage and

Sanitation

KWA, CoC KWA, CoC, Cochin Port Trust (for

Willingdon Island), and other local

bodies

KWA, Cochin Port Trust (for

Willingdon Island), and other

local bodies

KWA



MoU for inter-agency coordination

Service delivery by the KWA and the relationship between the KWA and the CoC is governed by a tripartite

MoU signed in November 2007, between the CoC, KWA and the Departments of Local Self Government &

Water Resources, GoK. This Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) seeks to develop a governance framework

including mechanisms for accountability between the parties through performance agreements for water

supply and sewerage service delivery projects under the JNNURM, UIDSSMT supported by the MoUD, GoI and

the Kerala Sustainable Urban Development Project supported by the ADB. The MoU is valid for the

JNNURM/UIDSSMT/KSUDP project period and is subject to annual review and periodic revisions as required by

all parties (See Table 8.4).

Table 8.4: Institutional responsibilities under the MoU

LSGD (GoK) Municipality/ Municipal

Corporation Kerala Water Authority GoK

Policy Principal/Contracting

Authority

Service Provider Dispute

resolution/arbitration (GoK

through Special

Coordination Committee)

Facilitation of MoU Regulation Operation and

Maintenance

Financing Approvals and Supervision Technical support to

Municipality/Municipal

Corporation

Capacity building of

Municipality/Municipal

Corporation and KWA

Monitoring and evaluation

8.2.3. Neighbourhood systems and Community management

Kudumbashree

The State Poverty Eradication Mission (SPEM) of Kerala, also known as Kudumbashree (means prosperity of

the family), is a holistic, participatory, women-oriented poverty reduction programme. GoK implements it with

the active support from GoI and NABARD. SPEM was constituted as an independent society, registered under

the Travancore Cochin Literary Scientific and Charitable Societies Registration Act, of 1995, on November 18,

1998. Unlike in other Indian states, in Kerala the roles and functions of the State Urban Development Agency

(SUDA) to monitor and facilitate GoI’s state-level poverty reduction programme is performed by

Kudumbashree. The society has a time bound mission statement to eradicate absolute poverty in 10 years

through convened community action and facilitating community organisation of the poor.

The Governing Body of the SPEM has 24 members, chaired by the Minister for Local Self Government and the

Secretary to Government, Local Self Government assisting the Chairman in the capacity of the Vice Chairman.

Six GoK Departments represented by their respective secretaries, Directors of Panchayats and Urban Affairs,

other nominated representatives from the District, Collector, one Lady Mayor, one Lady Panchayat President

and other nominees from the State Government constitute the committee. While SPEM is a unit of GoK’s Local

Self Government Department, it is autonomous in its operations as it is registered under the Societies Act.

SPEM/Kudumbashree operates in the State’s three regions of south, central and north; a Director manages

each region. Each District is managed by a mission co-ordinator functioning as the District Head supported by

an Assistant District Mission Co-ordinator. The roles of these officers are strategic and facilitative to ensure

that time bound activities are carried out. They monitor the programme and provide technical backup support

to the corporations, poverty reduction teams and women groups. The project officer in the corporations or

local bodies carries out the actual implementation of poverty eradication programs with support from the

municipal staff in the Health Department.



Kudumbashree programs are designed on a participatory approach. The women members at the grass root

level are encouraged to take up leadership through functional activities like Community Health Volunteers,

Income Generation Activities Volunteers, Infrastructure Volunteers, Secretary and President. These groups

prepare periodical micro plans, which become the base for the Community Development Society (CDS) plan or

antipoverty sub-plan of the local body. Based on the local body’s approval, the CDS societies take up the

sanctioned work. The Kudumbashree project has built a network of the poor women groups from slum areas

through a three-tier system, i.e. Neighbourhood groups, Area Development Society and Community

Development Societies. CoC has 1,763 Neighbourhood Groups and 79 Area Development Societies.

Other community initiatives

There are resident welfare associations in Kochi Corporation, which focus on the problems of its households.

There is a Federation of Residents Association (FRAT) representing these associations. There are also

consumer groups, citizens groups from the city constantly creating a civic conscious for the social and cultural

development of people. Additionally, organisations such as the Kerala Builder’s Forum (KBF) have been active.

8.2.4. Key Issues

Key institutional issues that need to be addressed are summarised below:

1. Institutional multiplicity and inadequate ULB level involvement in long-term planning: Though

urbanisation has spread beyond CoC limits into neighbouring areas, long-term planning is constrained by

the presence of multiple bodies. Since the organisations such as KWA and GCDA continue to be

responsible for implementation of large capital projects, city level master planning, etc., CoC and other

ULBs play a limited role in planning for and implementation of key functions such as water supply and

sanitation systems. While the MoU for inter-agency coordination is a welcome step and is expected to

increase coordination, there is need to back this initiative with greater implementation focus and

formalisation of interactions across agencies. Also there appears to be a need for greater coordination

among KWA, CoC, GCDA and KSPCB in light of pollution concerns to put in place accountability for setting

and implementing appropriate monitoring protocol.

2. Overlapping accountability for sanitation within CoC limits: As in case of many ULBs, responsibility for

sanitation is diffused across multiple agencies. Water supply and sewerage infrastructure is being handled

by the KWA, while some parts of the water and sewerage projects are being developed under KSUDP.

SWM services and Public Toilets are being handled by CoC. There is no regulation and accountability in

place for on-site sanitation. The CSP will provide inputs for better institutional accountability and

addressing service/ organisational gaps pointed here.

3. Lack of institutional accountability for onsite sanitation: Though more than 95% of the city is dependent

on onsite sanitation, there is no formal accountability within CoC for regulation and oversight of onsite

sanitation. Collection and Disposal of septage is completely managed by private service providers and is

unregulated.

4. Unclear Land ownership and titles often tends to constrain decision making at the local levels. There are

issues at two levels: A) Accountability for Land ownership is diffused. While the Revenue Department of

the State Government has the overall oversight and accountability for land, the Local body (which by its

authority to plan land use and levy Property Taxes) also has a role. Very often there could be discrepancies

between the two. B) Secondly, when encroachments happen and this is largely applicable to most low-

income settlements, Municipal bodies are wary to provide infrastructure services in such areas as there is

a concern that provision of services gets construed as a deemed acceptance of ownership and legalise the

encroachment. Often services are not provided till the settlement is regularized and this creates potential

for sanitation becoming a casualty.




8.3.1. Overall accountability

Table 8.5 provides an overall perspective on the possible institutional structure in the short to medium term.

Table 8.5: Overall accountability for sanitation services – projected scenario

Role Community

Toilets

Public

Toilets SWM Onsite sanitation Sewerage Water Supply

Guidance MOUD and CPHEEO

Planning CoC KWA + CoC

Asset Creation/capital

investment CoC Households + CoC KWA + CoC

O&M CoC Households + CoC COC W&S Department

Monitoring (a) CoC; (b) Ward Committees; and (c) independent evaluation

Regulation and tariff

setting CoC

Clarity on land titles CoC with Revenue Department, GoK

The framework attempts to fix accountability for sanitation components with respect to various roles namely,

planning, asset creation, O&M, monitoring and evaluation, regulation and tariff setting and recognises that

CoC has single point accountability for toilet access, SWM, and planning/monitoring of onsite sanitation.

A three-pronged monitoring approach is recommended for oversight of water and sanitation services.

KWA will continue to play a large role in water supply and sewerage service delivery. However, in keeping

with the MoU signed between CoC and KWA, an increased role for CoC is envisaged in these areas.

8.3.2. Actions by GoK

Actions to be initiated by GoK are summarised below:

1. GoK should formulate and disseminate a state-level Sanitation Strategy. In line with the

recommendations of the NUSP, the GoK should formulate a State Sanitation Strategy.

2. GoK should conduct an independent assessment to draw roadmap for transfer of the water supply

function to the Urban Local Bodies as envisaged under 74th

CAA and to take forward the reform

measure initiated through the joint MoU between CoC and KWA.

a. To start with, CoC in consultation with GoK should steer creation of a Coordination Committee

comprising officials from CoC, KWA, and other ULBs to implement the following:

i. Completion of ring-fencing of ULB level water supply accounts of KWA to enable identification

and tracking of assets, identify ULB specific O&M Costs and appropriate mechanisms for

allocation of shared costs.

ii. Initiate, oversee and finalise preparation of Water Supply and Wastewater Management Master

Plans and DPRs in line with the priorities outlined in point 3 below.

iii. Put in place processes for effective O&M and financial sustainability of water and waste-water

service delivery within CoC and other ULBs in the agglomeration.

b. GoK should also initiate preparation of a long-term roadmap for KWA, which could possibly involve

evaluating options including the following:

i. Restructuring KWA as a bulk service provider with the city level network planning and distribution

investment and O&M responsibility vested and transferred to the local bodies

ii. Corporatize regional / city-level assets of KWA as a service provider in all the ULBs through a

formal service agreement with independent regulation of tariffs.



Corporatization and ring-fencing provides a useful transitioning approach in this regard. Box 1 provides a

recent initiative in Orissa to create corporatized entities as a first step towards greater local responsibility.

Box 1 Ring fencing and creation of Corporate Operating Entity – Orissa approach

In Orissa, Water supply and sewerage assets are created and maintained by the Public Health and Engineering Organisation

(PHEO). Devolving of responsibility of Water Supply and Sewerage to ULBS in tune with 74th constitutional amendment

was programmed to be implemented by 2009-10 as per decision of Government of Orissa. As per Government Resolution

circulated in November 2006, the operation and maintenance of water supply systems and collection of water tariff was to

be transferred to ULBs along with personnel on deputation basis in 2009-10 in fulfilment of the provisions of 74th

Constitutional Amendment Act.

After a detailed study, a ring-fenced regional or city-level Corporate Operating Entity (COE) approach as shown below was

recommended. Under this approach, COEs carved out by ring-fencing assets of PHEO and corporatization will provide

services through a performance based contractual relationship with the ULB, thus ensuring accountability of ULBs in

service provision in accordance with JNNURM reform agenda. While Corporatization would provide administrative and

financial autonomy, the proposed contractual relationship with the ULB will ensure consonance with the letter and spirit of

the 74th

Constitutional Amendment Act. Additionally, areas such as introduction of accrual based double entry accounting

system, ring fencing of operations, benchmarking of performance of utilities, financial sustainability, MIS, capacity building

and training etc. will be addressed in a holistic manner. As a first step, a pilot implementation to ring-fence water supply

assets of PHEO Bhubaneswar division and to prepare a budgeting and costing manual has been carried out.

3. GoK should actively support ULBs in implementing local level policy framework through model bye-laws

and guidelines. A range of regulatory interventions are required in the form of guidelines and bye-laws to

have a shared understanding of obligations and responsibilities and to provide statutory basis for

enforcing compliance. A list of byelaws and regulations recommended under the various sanitation

components are summarised below. GoK should facilitate the same through appropriate instruments

including Government Orders, Guidelines and model bye-laws.

Table 8.6 Illustrative list of areas for formulating bye-laws and policy guidelines

Sl. No. Nature of Action Subject

1 Bye-laws Onsite sanitation, Decentralised treatment and septage management

2 Bye-laws Ground water management and Rainwater Harvesting

3 Bye-laws Tariff Policy, User charges regulation, Fixation and Revision

4 Bye-laws Connection and Disconnection policy for water and sewerage connections

5 Bye-laws Citizen Obligations, Penalties for littering and waste dumping.

6 Guidance Manual Public Toilets configuration, sizing and operation

7 Building Regulation Toilet Sizing and specifications as part of Building Code



4. GoK should undertake an independent organisation assessment of CoC and KWA to identify the

hierarchy, number and scale of officers required, identification of gaps vis-à-vis existing sanctioned

positions, detailing of job descriptions and drafting / amendments to service rules in the context of

changes in requirements owing to changes in services (Onsite sanitation, door-to-door collection etc.),

potential for technology led productivity improvements (E-governance, GIS/ GPS) and growth in service

demands (as a result of increase in population in area under jurisdiction). Refer Figure 8.1 for a possible

approach to structuring the water and sanitation organisation.

Figure 8.1 Organisational alignment for sanitation functions - KWA and CoC

* Operating staff titles are indicative and overlap across departments for e.g,, Plumbers are required in water supply, sewerageand toilets and Conservancy workers are engaged in toilet maintenance, drain cleaning and storm drain management

KWA (CoC)

Water Supply

Department In charge

Waste-water Management

Overall Head Supervisory Staff

Common facilities (Treatment, Transmission etc)

Network – Zone 1

Network – Zone 2….

Network – Zone 1

Network – Zone 2….

Waste-water Quality

Sewage Treatment Plant

Operating Staff*

Technicians

Plumbers and Fitters

Meter Readers

Water Quality

Lab Technicians

Onsite sanitation

CoC - Water And Sanitation

Water Supply

Department in charge

Sewerage

Toilets

Solid Waste

Overall Head Functional

responsibilities

Development / Contracting

Inspection and Monitoring

Maintenance

Transportation

Composting Yard

Landfill

Primary Collection

Drain Cleaning

Oversight of Service Providers

Storm water Management Storm Water Drains

Water Bodies

Onsite Sanitation

KWA

MoU / Service agreement framework

Baseline on septic tanks/onsite facilities

Laying Standards and Compliance enforcement



8.3.3. Actions by CoC and KWA

1. CoC should create a separate department for onsite sanitation and septage management. Given that

there is inadequate baseline information and enforcement of standards and guidelines for septic tanks

and soak pits, CoC should create a new department for onsite sanitation and septage management.

2. CoC should strengthen toilet maintenance by designating engineering staff for monitoring maintenance

and repairs of Public Toilets. CoC should designate responsibility of monitoring and reporting on service

levels and upkeep specific in toilets to specific sanitation inspectors and officers to ensure timely redress

of grievances and to facilitate upkeep and periodic maintenance

3. KWA should consider setting up set up a dedicated NRW cell within Water supply to focus on loss

reduction, in view of the weak baseline on water connections and losses. This is on-going activity and is a

long term program which will requires dedicated resources and proper review at every stage. The NRW

cell should consider implement a pilot study in select zones, which can be extended to entire city in a

phased manner based on the outcomes of the pilot study.

4. CoC and KWA should set up Integrated Finance and Accounting departments. At present, Accounts and

Revenue functions are handled separately at CoC, leading to lack of integrated perspective on issues such

as revenue mobilisation, cost recovery and reporting. CoC and KWA should bring together its Revenue and

Accounts department to set up an integrated Finance and Accounts department.

5. CoC and KWA should undertake further automation/computerisation of its complaint handling process.

This should be backed by creating / strengthening linkages between a Back-office organisation that tracks,

captures and respond to citizen complaints and the operating staff reporting under various departments

to ensure that complaints are handled in a seamless manner. In this regard, CoC and KWA should also look

to create processes and IT infrastructure to exchange/share information on customers seamlessly to

enable greater coordination in achieving service penetration and delivery and cost recovery objective Box

9.1 provides a case on a centralised complaint handling organisation used by the Jamshedpur Utilities and

Services Company (JUSCO) that provides urban services in the city of Jamshedpur.

Box 9.1 JUSCO Sahyog Kendra – Centralised complaint management in Jamshedpur

Source: http://www.waterawards.in/2009-winner-profile-jusc.php

JUSCO Sahyog Kendra was an initiative to increase customer satisfaction and improve customer service by introducing a

single point of contact, creating zones, setting standards for service delivery, managing the complaint-registration process

effectively, and capturing customer perception and benchmarking service levels.

Context: Jamshedpur is spread over an area 64 sq. km, and has a population of 0.7 million. The erstwhile Town and Power

Business divisions of Tata Steel had been responsible for its development, and for providing civic and allied services, for

over around for nine decades. In 2003, Tata Steel took the path-breaking initiative of corporatizing municipal services and

creating a unique organization called Jamshedpur Utilities and Services Company Limited (JUSCO). JUSCO was incorporated

as a wholly-owned subsidiary of Tata Steel on August 25, 2003. The major challenge it faced in terms of customer relations

was that the complaint-management redressal system was ineffective because it was manual, decentralize and had no

specific service delivery standards, and it was not possible to collate data for managerial decision making.

Initiative: JUSCO Sahyog Kendra was an initiative towards customer satisfaction to improve customer service. The

objectives behind this initiative were to provide real-time data for decision making, provide analytical support for solving

issues, identify areas of improvement, and create a transparent and effective interface with customers.

Key Features: The Sahyog Kendra laid out explicit service-delivery standards which are time-bound, relevant, accurate,

measurable and specific. A survey was conducted to find the service level expectation against each of the services. Based

on the findings and capability of the service-delivery mechanism, service level guarantees are agreed. Customers now have

a single-point contact. JUSCO also went through an exercise of job prioritization, third party assessment of customer

perception, and benchmarking of service levels.

http://www.waterawards.in/2009-winner-profile-jusc.php



6. CoC strengthen its baseline information on land / property information and de-link ownership of

property from sanitation service provision.

a. In this regard, CoC could leverage its property tax database to capture and update the land ownership

information. Clearly there is a case for greater coordination between CoC and the Revenue

Department of the state. This can be facilitated through facilitating greater information exchange, so

that there is synchrony of information and an active engagement to resolve discrepancies if any. The

following actions are recommended in this regard

b. CoC and KWA should de-link service provision from recognition of ownership through a clarification

and amendment to the municipal act. This is critical to ensure that properties with dubious

ownership records do not end up becoming sanitation hotspots (or) get provided unauthorised

services (water/sewerage connections). While regularization is difficult choice to make and is subject

to other legal and enforcement issues, service provision and user charges for the same should be

payable irrespective of authentic title on the part of the owner/ occupier. A number of states have

passed legislation to this effect in an effort to de-incentivise illegal construction and to improve the

revenue potential of Local Bodies. The Karnataka Municipal Corporations Ordinance, 2008 (excerpt

below) is clear in this respect and allows collection of Property Taxes from unauthorised properties.

‘The Bruhat Bangalore Mahanagara Palike may levy and collect the property tax from all building,

vacant land or both including a building constructed in violation of the provisions of building byelaw or

in an unauthorized layout or in a revenue land or from a building occupied without issuance of

occupancy or completion certificate except the building constructed illegally in Government land, land

belonging to any local body, any statutory body or an organization owned or controlled by the

Government. The property tax collected from such building shall be maintained in a separate register:

Provided that levy and collection of property tax under this sub-section from such building does not

confer any right to regularize violation made, or title, ownership or legal status to such building. Such

buildings shall always be liable for any action for violation of law in accordance with the provisions of

this Act or any other law.’

8.3.4. Regulation and Tariff policy

Regulation of urban services including sanitation is a nascent and evolving area. While there are efforts to

explore and set up state level regulatory frameworks for urban services, which are likely to get perfected in

course of time. For example, Maharashtra has already created the Maharashtra Water Resources Regulatory

Authority to establish a regulatory mechanism for overseeing the relationship between service provider (water

utilities) and user entities and also within a water user entity, in terms of determination, enforcement and

dispute resolution of entitlements and fixation of water charges. However, in view of devolution of

responsibility for sanitation services to ULBs, it is imperative that regulatory clarity is achieved at a city level

which can coherently operate in the context of such evolving state level frameworks. While the need and

contours of a wider Regulatory framework may require further deliberation among CoC, GoK and other

stakeholders beyond the scope of this CSP, we present below a possible set of actions in this regard:

1. CoC and KWA in consultation with GoK and in line with any other reform commitments it may have (as

part of JNNURM and other investment programs) should formulate a comprehensive Cost Recovery and

Tariff policy for sanitation services. This Policy may need to be synchronized with the overall state-level

Sanitation Strategy that is envisaged under the NUSP.

2. CoC’s Standing Committee and the elected Municipal Council should be formally vested with the

responsibility of implementing this policy in order to a) ensure sustainable service delivery while

addressing the concerns of affordability for urban poor and b) support implementation of its reform

commitments under programs like JNNURM. This responsibility should cover the following:



a. Holding consultative interactions with public stakeholders and elicit feedback on citizen satisfaction

with sanitation services.

b. Monitoring and evaluating service level and financial performance, oversee reporting and information

dissemination by CoC and KWA on performance, costs and rationale for tariffs.

c. Implementing tariff fixation and revision measures after a review of information provided by CoC and

KWA in line with cost recovery and tariff policy formulated by CoC.

8.3.5. Monitoring and Evaluation

1. Often monitoring is the weakest link in the sanitation service delivery and even with well-conceived

regulation and guidelines, enforcement is poor and leads to poor service levels. In order to address this

gap, we recommend putting in place a three pronged monitoring mechanism in place.

a. First level - Elected Municipal Council and Watsan Committee: The elected municipal council by

virtue of it being the representative of the public provides the first level of oversight. To provide for

focused attention on water and sanitation, it may be useful for the municipal council to form a sub-

committee to focus on Water and Sanitation issues. This sub-committee can be charged with the

mandate of reviewing and implementing the CSP recommendations along with the CTF and provide

updates to the Municipal Council on the progress from time to time. In addition, the Water and

Sanitation sub-committee should also oversee enforcement of various bye-laws and regulations in

place and shall be responsible for adequate reporting on operating and financial performance on

water and sanitation services.

b. Second level - Public Participation: CoC should engage local stakeholders and encourage public

participation in monitoring and oversight of sanitation services. In this regard, we recommend that

i. CoC should implement the Community Participation Law (required under JNNURM) in spirit to

create statutory ward level committees that can also be entrusted with the responsibility for local

oversight of water and sanitation service delivery.

ii. As the operations of these ward level committees mature, CoC and KWA should actively move to

a ‘bottom-up’ approach to an inclusive and participative budget preparation and financial

allocation for water and sanitation activities.

iii. Such a formal local institutional mechanism could also be utilized for monitoring and oversight of

PPP projects and service providers to whom sanitation services are contractually outsourced.

c. Third level – Independent Evaluation: As in the case of the Service Level Benchmarking exercise, GoK

along with MoUD should carry out independent evaluation of service delivery across various

sanitation components periodically. Such independent evaluation should be focused on outcomes

achieved from initiatives and also on capturing wider perceptions of users of these services. The

results of such independent evaluation (along with the action taken report prepared by CoC and KWA

as a follow up to these results) should be disseminated widely. Implementation of a three pronged

framework on the above lines will enable CoC and KWA to provide for effective monitoring of water

and sanitation services.



9. Capacity building

9.1. Training

The training related recommendations should be read in conjunction with the recommendations under

institutional framework particularly the recommendations on organisation under section 8.3.2. While a

detailed Training Needs Assessment (TNA) is required to ascertain and validate the training requirements, we

outline below key principles relating to undertaking training in general:

1. CoC should set aside a training budget annually as part of its budgetary exercise.

2. CoC should conduct a TNA exercise in conjunction with the manpower needs assessment recommended

as part of the institutional recommendations in order to ascertain in detail the areas of training required.

3. The TNA should be followed by a phased time-bound program to impart training as per the areas and level

of instruction required in collaboration with local academic institutions and GoK. Given that Kochi has a

number of leading educational institutions, GoK and CoC should leverage the same to undertake such

training initiatives. In addition, since Kerala is home to some leading training institutions in governance

and urban services including the Kerala Institute of Local Administration (KILA), the same could be

leveraged for this purpose.

4. The TNA should cover all classes of employees with the recognition that the nature and type of training

requirements could be very different. For instance, an engineer in charge of Distribution Networks may

require training and exposure to conducting a leakage audit study while a plumber in the department may

need to be trained in good practices while providing a ferrule level connection.

Table 9.1 provides an illustrative set of training needs across select sanitation components. The

recommendations of GIZ’s Capacity Enhancement Needs Assessment report (which focuses on training needs

focused on Environment and cover a range of sanitation issues) have been factored, apart from interactions

with CoC officials in drawing up the list of these illustrative training needs.

Table 9.1: Illustrative training needs across select sanitation components

Sanitation Component Senior officials Technicians/Operating Staff/Workers

All Departments Municipal Legislation; powers and duties

Citizen Charter and commitments

Urban Reforms and JNNURM

Service Level Benchmarking

Procurement and PPPs

Information Systems Improvement

Use of Computers and Office applications

Rights and responsibilities

Good Safety, Health and Environment

Practices

Citizen Charter and commitments

Water Supply CPHEEO Manual and norms

Developing a Water Supply DPR

Benefits and approach to shift to 24x7

Approach to conduct a Water Loss Audit

Approach to sizing Discreet Metering areas

MIS generation and SLB reporting

Water Quality Testing methods

Guidelines for providing a ferrule

connection

Installation of Meters/Reading.

Repairing water leakages

Handling pipe breaks

Field Inspections and reporting

Use of equipment and safe work

practices

Sewerage CPHEEO Manual and norms

Developing a Sewerage DPR

Treatment systems including decentralised

options and septage management

Recycling/Reuse and Methane Generation

Onsite sanitation options and mechanisms

Septage management

Water Quality Testing

Guidelines for providing connections

Repairing pipe breaks and choking

Field inspections and reporting

Use of equipment and safe work



Sanitation Component Senior officials Technicians/Operating Staff/Workers

for monitoring compliance

Identification of areas for LSCs and USC

MIS generation and SLB reporting

practices

Solid Waste

Management

Implementing Door-to-Door collection and

source segregation

Waste collection routing

Awareness generation and Community

mobilisation

PPPs and Contracting

Waste recovery and Landfill technologies

Optimal routing of door-to-door

collection

Courteous citizen interaction

Segregation techniques

Safe work practices including use of

accessories, gloves and other safety

equipment

Finance and Accounts Budget preparation and Reporting

Financial Management

Variance Analysis

MIS and Information Management

Audit and Statutory requirements

National Municipal Accounting Manual

and local accounting rules

Accrual Accounting

Accounting software

9.2. Information Management

9.2.1. Household level baseline sanitation information

Updation of baseline information on sanitation indicators at a household level is critical for CoC in planning,

analysis and decision making with respect to sanitation services. A possible approach to capture and update

household level baseline sanitation information periodically is suggested below. This information when

compiled should be recorded in the property tax database, and updation could then be done through a self-

declaration while residents pay their property taxes. Accuracy of information can be ensured through sample

inspection of say 1-2 % households. Inspection backed by hefty fines in case of providing erroneous

information will help ensure information validity. Table 9.2: Possible list of information to be captured during the multi-purpose household survey

Information Head Response

Property Tax Identification Code

Toilet Access Yes/No

Type Toilet within Property/Shared facility

No. of people using the toilet

Primary Water Source



Toilet connected to Septic Tank/Sewer/local treatment system/open drain/others

If Septic Tank, last cleaned on Date

If Sewered, is grey water outlets also connected Yes/No

Covered under SWM Door-to-door collection Yes/No

Practising source segregation Yes/No

9.2.2. Bulk Metering

In order to overcome existing constraints in non-availability of information on water flows, CoC, in association

with the KWA should install bulk meters at all intake and discharge points in the water supply and sewerage

systems including intake points, intermediate storage, water treatment plants, pumping stations, storage

reservoirs and STPs, and implement mechanisms to keep a log of water flows and volume of water intake and



discharged at these locations on a daily basis. This will aid accurate assessment of distribution of water and

waste-water flows at a bulk level.

9.2.3. Reporting on operating and financial performance

A citizen charter to articulate and disseminate service levels has been recommended as part of the

institutional recommendations. In addition, CoC should periodically report actual operating performance on

these service level commitments. Tracking of operating performance and service levels in this manner would

help in improving the information reliability. CoC should track and report progress with respect to cost

recovery and collection efficiency targets on a quarterly basis



10. Awareness generation

10.1. Role of communication in sanitation services

Citizen participation and involvement is crucial to achieving service delivery goals in sanitation. There are two

levels at which communication and citizen engagement in the context of sanitation is challenging:

Firstly, tackling the level of citizen apathy to engage and mobilise their support for the transformation.

In the context of service levels as is the case in Kochi and lack of visible initiatives to change, there is

widespread indifference. This indifference manifests itself in self-reinforcing negative behaviours that

make positive sanitation outcomes even more challenging to achieve. For instance if a road is already

dirty, the tendency of the citizen is to think ‘littering a little bit is not going to matter, after all the road is

already dirty, my not littering is not going to make a difference’.

Secondly, at the level of individual sanitation components, a number of entrenched citizen behaviours

need to be changed. While open defecation is not such a serious problem, littering is a citywide

phenomenon. Therefore at the level of an individual sanitation component, there are a number of

behavioural aspects that need to be focused on through awareness generation and communication

campaigns to effect positive behaviours need to achieve specific sanitation outcomes.

This section presents a possible approach to address awareness generation and achieve behaviour change in a

targeted manner and revolves around four specific themes.

Figure 10.1: Steps to address awareness issues

10.2. Step 1: Mobilising public support

There are three actions that CoC could undertake to mobilise greater public support:

Periodic consultations with CTF: The NUSP envisages a significant role for the City Task Force in both the

formulation and implementation of the CSP. CoC could use the CSP as a rallying point to engage with the

city representatives that form part of the CTF. By structuring periodic consultations using the CSP as a

base, CoC could potentially sow the seeds for wider citizen engagement.

Step 1 • Initiate measures to mobilise greater public participation

Step 2

•Identify sanitation component wise behavioural changes required and focus stakeholders

Step 3

•Develop sanitation communication themes around these behavioural outcomes targeted

Step 4

•Use pilot campaigns to achieve specific behaviour change goals; Leverage ‘peer effect’ of positive outcomes to replicate results widely



Periodic field interactions with community organisations and RWAs: While the CoC has elected

representatives from each ward, in order to enhance interaction; CoC should compile a database of

community organisations and RWAs. Once the list of such organisations ward-wise is compiled, CoC

should organised structured consultations among municipal officials along with elected representatives

with such associations and welfare groups to improve citizen interface. Having municipal officials visit

respective wards and interact with such agencies periodically through a structured open house sessions

would improve the credibility of CoC as a responsive service provider

Operationalize/revitalise Ward Committees and involve them in oversight: CoC should explore if it

revitalise the roles of ward level committees by assigning them a lead role on organising periodic thematic

interactions as suggested above and to assign monitoring roles for initiatives if any undertaken at ward

level. A formal consultative structure in this manner will help in improve effectiveness of awareness and

communication campaigns launched by CoC.

10.3. Step 2: Identify behaviour change goals across different stakeholders

10.3.1. Illustrative behaviour change goals along sanitation components

Table 10.1 provides a snapshot of some illustrative behaviour change objectives of awareness generation

objectives across the various sanitation components given the sanitation context in Kochi

Table 10.1: Illustrative behaviour change objectives

Component Priority Stakeholders Current Behaviour Expected Behaviour

Access to Toilets

Low Income Slum pockets with

visible open defecation

Commercial Areas with high

floating population

Practice Open

Defecation

Practice Open

Urination

Stop Open Defecation

Stop Open urination

Waste Water

All Households without

comprehensive sewage connection

All commercial establishments

without comprehensive sewage

connection

Let waste water in

open drains

Let waste-water in

poorly maintained

septic tank

Connect only Black

water in Sewers; Grey

water in open drains

Stop letting waste

water in open drains

Connect to onsite

systems

Connect to sewerage

network

Solid Waste

Management

Households,

Schools

Commercial Organisations

Litter Waste on road

side

Throw waste in open

drains

Stop Littering

Adopt Source

Segregation

Support Door-to-Door

collection

Water and

Sewerage

Households and Commercial units

without official water and

sewerage connections

Uses an unauthorised

connection

Conserve water

Adopt Rain Harvesting

Regularise connection

General Properties with Arrear payments Does not pay user

charges

Pay user charges on

time



10.4. Step 3: Develop communication themes around behaviour change goals

The above table also provides the set of stakeholders exhibiting the prevailing behaviours and who need to be

targeted with awareness generation and communication programs. Essentially, the critical behaviour changes

required can be narrowed down to the following priority themes.

1. Stop Open Defecation and Urination

2. Stop letting black / grey water in open drains; Dispose waste water safely through onsite/offsite options

3. Stop Littering, support door-to-door collection of waste and adopt source segregation

4. Conserve Water and adopt rainwater harvesting

5. Take an authorised water / sewerage connections

6. Pay User charges for sanitation services

Using Table 10.1 above, a target stakeholder-behaviour change matrix, it is possible to develop a focused set

of communication actions for reaching the target stakeholders. These communication actions/messages need

to be delivered through an appropriate set of communication channels. The following section outlines a

conceptual primer to enable CoC develop appropriate communication actions.

10.4.1. Communication actions and channels – a conceptual discussion

Communication actions need to be planned from the perspectives of the stakeholders should follow from

stakeholder-level behaviour-change objectives and must be specific to each of the stakeholder groups. Figure

10.2 below presents typical communication action themes and possible channels.

Figure 10.2: Communication objectives, actions and channels

Communication actions

Communication actions should effect behavioural change by helping create awareness, reinforce positives and

benefits, and dispel misperceptions among stakeholders. There are three generic communication actions:

1. Information dissemination: At a basic level, communication should help disseminate and share

information on impacts of good sanitation practices. Often, even conveying factual information in a timely

and structured manner itself can create and/or stimulate positive behaviours.

2. Key messages: Achieving a higher degree of behavioural change (for instance, converting someone

practicing open defecation to use a public toilet) and retaining a higher level of support would call for

more persuasive communication. That would include developing and delivering “take-away” messages

that convey the salient benefits of the project to various stakeholders in a sensitive and impactful manner.

3. Facilitate interaction and feedback: Finally, communication actions should facilitate interaction and

feedback. Platforms for such interactions and consultation include meetings, brainstorming sessions,

workshops, public hearings, and web-based feedback.

Communication Actions

•Disseminate Information

•Deliver 'take-away' messages

•Faciliate interaction and feedback

Communication Channels

•Interpersonal channels

•Community channels

•Mass-media channels

•Internet



Communication channels

Channels enable delivery of messages and exchange of ideas and views amongst stakeholders. Table 10.2

provides a summary of possible channels options, their features and limitations.

Table 10.2: Channels of communication

Channel Typical Audience Features Limitations

1. Interpersonal Channels

Personal

consultations

Elected Council,

Opinion leaders

(including politicians)

Interactive, enables formal and informal

communication. Face-to-face

discussions allow frank communication

that brings out issues that may not be

voiced openly.

Cannot be done too often;

hence needs a lot of planning

and preparation

2. Community Channels

Community

channels (street

corner meetings,

open hearings,

focus groups)

Advocacy groups,

Households, Slums,

Women

Participatory, relatively more credible

and lower-cost than mass media;

institutionalises community effort and

sustainability.

Localised. May not be able to

reach a large audience.

3. Mass Media Channels

Television General public, all

stakeholders.

Used for visual experience and

demonstration. Makes issues come alive

and delivers a strong image.

Expensive and more “urban”;

poses the reach vs. cost

dilemma.

Radio Individuals,

Households

Can be more personal, with higher

reach than television, less expensive,

and more localised.

Costly to build reach,

fragmented

Print Educated Citizens,

Opinion leaders

Creating awareness and topicality,

disseminating information, creating a

positive image.

Confined to literates only,

difficult to reproduce, with a

short shelf life, and not always

cost-efficient.

Outdoor/Transit Public at large and

Floating Population

Glance and reminder value and location

specific reach.

Limited exposure time and

durability of message.

4. Internet

Internet and

Websites

Educated audience

with access.

Dynamic, interactive, and allows real time

update.

Reach limited.

1. Interpersonal consultation channels include one-to-one communication, such as between line ministry-

implementation agency, implementation agency-political leaders etc. They cover consultations, one-on-

one interactions and group interactions, structured deliberations through committees and task forces.

2. Community based channels reach a community or a group of people within a geographic area, or based

on common characteristics, such as occupation and includes Community media (local newspapers, radio

stations, bulletin boards), Community activities (health fairs, folk dramas, concerts, rallies, and parades)

and mobilisation (street meetings and consultations). They offer scope for ‘interactivity’

3. Mass media channels are used more to “broadcast” or “disseminate” information and offer limited scope

for interactive communication. Mass media channels help in reaching large audiences within a short time,

and include television, radio, print media and newspapers, outdoor/transit advertising, and direct mail.

Mass media campaigns could be relevant and useful for larger Sanitation campaigns.



4. Internet and web-based communication has emerged as an important channel for communication. Web-

based dissemination of information on sanitation projects signals transparency and provides for a cost-

effective mechanism to reach wider audience. Interactive functionality can support consultative processes

and help elicit feedback and participation. Social networking sites could emerge as an important opinion

mobilising channel for public service delivery in the future. For instance, Delhi traffic police has recently

launched a page on the popular social networking website, Facebook, to engage with citizens and provides

traffic alerts through mobile text messages.

10.5. Step 4: Develop sanitation campaigns around behaviour change goals

Based on the identified set of priority behaviour change objectives (section 10.3) and the conceptual tools

(discussed in section 10.4), CoC should design and coordinate high-intensity sanitation campaigns focused on

specific stakeholders. Given the sanitation context within CoC, three communication and awareness

generation campaigns are suggested for CoC to take up on priority:

1. A sanitation and hygiene awareness campaign in one of the slums with high OD incidence as identified in

the primary surveys on the ills of open defecation and on use and maintenance of toilets. The campaign

should be backed by provision of a community toilet access in the slum and should achieve the objective

of the slum declaring itself open defecation free within 6 months of launch of the campaign.

Table 10.3: Illustrative pilot campaign for sanitation and hygiene awareness

Illustrative Pilot Campaign 1: Sanitation and Hygiene Awareness Campaign

Campaign Objective Make the ‘slum’ declare itself ‘Open Defecation’ free

Possible location - One of the slums with high OD prevalence with about 500 households

Target audience - Slum dwellers with focus on women, children

Current Behaviour - Open Defecation

Desired Behaviour - Use of Public Community Toilet developed by CoC/GCDA

Focus Stakeholders - Children, Women

Focus of Message themes - Aspirational communication – ‘Become an open-defecation free slum’

- Negative Health impacts of open defecation

- Social stigma and negative impacts on dignity and self-esteem

- Awareness on alternative (safe and clean community toilet)

- Need for local ownership and maintenance of the alternative provided

Partners for campaign - Self Help Groups, Elected Ward Member, CoC Sanitation officials, Slum

representatives, Local NGO working in the slum if any.

Communication

channels/Actions

- Personal consultations through SHGs and Local NGO.

- Community channels: street corner meetings, local events such as Health camps

- Pamphlets on negative health impacts of Open defecation

- Free Health care camp for children and orientation on OD

- Signage and instructions outside community toilet to keep facility clean

Sustainability/Monitoring - Periodic interaction between Local Slum Task Force and designated officials of

CoC in Sanitation and Community mobilisation.

2. A 100 % safe wastewater disposal campaign in one of the predominantly residential wards with significant

disposal of wastewater in open drains. Run in collaboration with local resident welfare associations and

street corner meetings along with active reconnaissance by KWA engineers and backed by support from

the CoC Engineering Department, the objective of the campaign should be to get the ward declare itself

100 % safe waste-water disposal ward in six months. This campaign can be taken up in one of the two

selected Wards along with the phased sanitation improvement programme outlined in the section on

wastewater management.



Table 10.4: Illustrative pilot campaign for safe wastewater management

Illustrative Pilot Campaign 1: Safe Wastewater management campaign

Campaign Objective 100% connectivity to sewerage network and elimination of grey water in open drains

Possible Location - Ward with extensive sewerage network and poor connection penetration (about

500 households)

Target audience - Households and commercial establishments in the ward

Current Behaviour - Letting out sullage in open drains.

Desired Behaviour - Connection of grey/black outlets to sewerage network. Eliminate littering

Focus Stakeholders - Women, Children

Focus of Message themes - Aspirational – ‘Become the slum with best sanitation conditions in city’

- Benefits - Positive health impacts; lower healthcare costs; increase in land values

- Awareness - Options for safe disposal including onsite systems

- Cost-benefit – Low costs of connecting to good sanitation vis-à-vis other

household expenditures; positive impacts on children

Partners for campaign - Elected Ward Member, CoC Sanitation officials, RWAs and Opinion Leaders, Local

NGOs

Communication

channels/Actions


- Community channels: street corner meetings, local events such as Health camps

- Brochures and pamphlets

- Use of Social networking page and web based interaction in case of medium-high

income households

- School level awareness campaigns with children on SWM practices.

- Use of Videos of successful case studies

- Open House interactions with Households coordinated with RWA(s)

- Pamphlets on wastewater management options

- House-to-house survey and Technical guidance by CoC + KWA officials

Sustainability/Monitoring - Organising periodic open-house interactions with CoC in the area

- Streamlined complain recording and resolution mechanisms

- Monitoring by Ward level Watsan Committee

3. A 100 % source segregation and door-to-door collection campaign, to be run in coordination with one of

the sanitary supervisors and conservancy staff, this campaign should necessarily be launched with

significant planning at a ward level in terms of infrastructure and manpower for door-to-door collection. A

door-to-door campaign should precede the launch of actual service where municipal officials and

conservancy workers meet households and provide them pamphlets and instructions for source

segregation and use of two-bin system for collection of waste. The campaign should be backed by efficient

service delivery covering timely collection (with guarantee to pick up waste every day at a fixed time) and

provision for registering complaint in case of waste not being collected at doorstep. The objective should

be to get the ward declare itself 100 % litter free in six months.



Table 10.5: Illustrative pilot campaign for litter free ward

Illustrative Pilot Campaign 1: Litter Free Ward Campaign

Campaign Objective Make a Ward Litter free

Possible Location - A ward with high residential population (about 750-1000 households)

Target audience - Households, Commercial establishments, Floating population

Current Behaviour - Dumping waste, littering

Desired Behaviour - Support to source segregation and door-to -door collection initiatives

Focus Stakeholders - Women and Children

Focus of Message themes - Aspirational communication – ‘First fully MSW rules compliant ward in city’

- Benefits - Positive health impacts; lower healthcare costs; increase in land values

- Negative – Fines for dumping

Partners for campaign - Local NGOs, Self Help Groups, Sanitary workers.

Communication

channels/Action


- Community channels: street corner meetings, local events such weekend ward

cleanliness drives in partnerships with schools and colleges

- Videos of successful case studies

- School level communication on good SWM practices

- RWA meetings and forums

Sustainability/Monitoring - Organising periodic open-house interactions with CoC in the area

- Streamlined complain recording and resolution mechanisms

- Monitoring by Ward level Watsan Committee



11. Financial Sustainability


11.1.1. Incomes and Expenditure

As part the mandatory reforms, JNNURM requires cities to move towards modern accounting system based on

double-entry and accrual principles with the objective of better financial management, transparency and self-

reliance. CoC moved from the cash based accounting and adopted the double entry accrual system of

accounting from 1st April 2007. Table 11.1 provides a summary of the income and expenditure statements of

CoC the last three years from 2007-10.

Table 11.1: CoC: Income and Expenditure All amounts in Rs. Lakhs

CoC has maintained a surplus over the last three years. However, total income (CAGR of -1%) has

exhibited a decreasing trend.

Own income as a percentage of Income is up from 59% to 91%, boosted by a steep growth in Tax income,

the share of which has gone up from 44% of revenue to 75% of revenue during this period.

Overall surplus after dipping in FY 2009 has increased to Rs. 31 crore in FY 2010.

Share of O&M expenditure in total has reduced from 22% in 2008 to 17% in 2010 also accompanied by an

absolute decline during this period.

Financial year CAGR

%

% of Revenue

2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 (E) 2007-08 2009-10

INCOME

Own Source Income 5,973 5,971 9,004 23% 59% 91%

Tax Income 4,453 4,843 7,479 30% 44% 75%

Non-Tax Income 1,520 1,127 1,525 0% 15% 15%

Revenue Grants, Contribution & Subsidies 3,942 3,798 743 -57% 39% 7%

Other Income 175 171 179 1% 2% 2%

Total Income 10,089 9,939 9,926 -1% 100% 100%

EXPENDITURE

Establishment expenses 2,702 3,470 3,142 8% 27% 32%

Administrative expenses 391 465 544 18% 4% 5%

O&M 2,239 2,262 1,728 -12% 22% 17%

Interest and Finance payments 75 282 272 90% 1% 3%

Program Expenditure 1,254 1,166 892 -16% 12% 9%

Grants, Contributions and Subsidies 282 208 0 -100% 3% 0%

Depreciation 164 180 196 9% 2% 2%

Others 4 5 1 -48% 0% 0%

Total Expenditure 7,111 8,037 6,776 -2% 70% 68%

Gross Surplus 2,979 1,902 3,151 3% 30% 32%

Source: Income and Expenditure Statements, FY 2007-08, FY 2008-09 and FY 2009-10, CoC. Note: The data for 2009-10 is

from 1st April 2009 to 28th February 2010.



11.2. Key Issues

An analysis of financial sustainability of sanitation services in CoC is severely constrained by the lack of baseline

information on component wise costs incurred on O&M of sanitation services. While CoC could not furnish the

O&M costs and the extent of cost recovery for SWM services, details of cost recovery and collection efficiency

performance of KWA with reference to CoC limits were also not available. Information on cost recovery and

collection efficiency performance was also made available during the course of the Service Level Benchmarking

exercise that was undertaken prior to this exercise.

Thus as a first step, there is an urgent need to put in place mechanisms to track, record and report costs of

service provision under various sanitation indicators on priority. Other issues relating financial sustainability

are summarised below:

1. SWM: User charges are being collected and retained by the service providers under the Kutumbashree

program, there is no flow back of user charges to CoC which is responsible for secondary transportation

and waste processing / disposal obligations. Therefore user charges under the current dispensation clearly

does not cover 100% O&M costs as is being committed as part of local reforms under JNNURM

2. Toilets: Given that there are very few public toilets that are being managed by CoC, it is not surprising that

expenditure on public toilets is negligible (accounting for between 0.02% and 0.05% of total expenditure)

3. Water Supply and Sewerage: While KWA has an extensive water supply network covering 80% of city,

coverage of sewerage is negligible with less than 5% of the area of the city covered with sewerage

network. Further, penetration of connections even within the existing sewerage network is low. As per a

recent report by WSP11

, collection efficiency in water services in Kochi is as low as 13%.

11.3. Goals

Table 11.2 provides tangible service delivery goals to meet SLB norms on cost recovery and collection

efficiency in water supply, sewerage and SWM. Given the poor service levels on these parameters, SLB norms

of 100 % O&M cost recovery can be achieved in the medium term (5 years). Further CoC and KWA should

initiate steps to move towards full cost recovery in the Long term.

Table 11.2: Financial sustainability: Short Medium and Long Term targets

Parameter Unit NORM Targets

3 years 5 years 10 years

Water Supply

Cost Recovery % 100% 70% 100% 100%

Collection Efficiency % 90% 70% 100% 100%

Sewerage

Cost Recovery % 100% 60% 80% 100%

Collection Efficiency % 90% 60% 90% 90%

Solid Waste

Cost recovery % 100% 100% 100%

Collection efficiency % 90% 90% 90%

Source: IMaCS analysis. SLB ISIP report.

11 Cost Recovery in Water Services: Select Experiences in Indian cities. WSP. March 2011



11.4. Summary of indicative investment requirements

A possible 10 year capital investment program and phasing of the same is presented in Table 11.3.

Table 11.3 Capital Investment estimate and possible phasing (Figures in Rs. Lakh)

Capital Investment

Phasing of Investment

TOTAL Short Medium Long

3 years 5 years 10 years

Toilets Public Toilets 2,230

300 2,530

Community Toilets 712

96 808

Sub-Total 2,942 - 396 3,338 Water Supply

Water Loss Audit 300

300

Bulk Metering 100

100

Distribution improvements / consumer metering

5,000 10,400 15,400

Sub-Total 400 5,000 10,400 15,800 Waste-water Management

Sewerage Systems

10,000 20,000 30,000

Storm Drains 5,000 8,000 10,000 23,000

Sub-Total 5,000 18,000 30,000 53,000 ISIP, Project Development and Capacity Building

Household level Sanitation Survey 250

250 Capacity Building

Manpower Needs Assessment Study 200

200

Training Assessment and Budget 200 300 500 1,000 Project Development

Master Plans for Water Supply, Sewerage and Drainage 500

500

DPRs for specific projects arising from the Master Plan 500 500

1,000

Sub-Total 1,650 800 500 2,950

TOTAL 9,992 23,800 41,296 75,088

Based on the actions to be taken in each of the sanitation components including capacity building, we estimate

that the total capital cost required over the next five years is estimated at Rs. 750 crore, of which about Rs.

104 crore is required in the first 3 years and about 237 crore is required between year 4 and 5. Priority

investments in the first 3 years are in Access to Toilets, SWM and Information Systems Improvement

Program. Investments in sewerage improvements and Water supply distribution improvement need to be

preceded by DPR preparation and hence these investments are back-ended. While the detailed cost estimates

of various investments will need to be validated during the course of preparation of the DPRs, this table

provides the normative estimates required to achieve the priority sanitation goals identified earlier.

A large portion of sanitation investment requirements are in water, sewerage and drainage improvements.

While, a detailed analysis of financials is constrained by lack of disaggregated financial baseline both of CoC

and KWA, it does appear that CoC with a reasonably good revenue surplus can potentially meet a large part of

its commitments with respect to access to toilets and SWM, provided it can improve and sustain its collection

efficiency. However, given the financial constraints of KWA, it appears that investments in case of water supply

and sewerage may require significant support from the state. The same holds true for investments in canal and

drainage rehabilitation and development.



11.4.1. Capital investments and Government schemes

With sanitation services not even recovering O&M costs in full at present, a significant part of the capital

investment needs have to be met from Government sources and grant funding. While PPPs can potentially

facilitate efficiency gains and service delivery related objectives, in the above scenario, implementing a full

investment-led PPP is likely to be challenging.

CoC would therefore require significant support from GoI and GoK in financing its investment requirements for

sanitation and should therefore actively pursue project development to access capital grant funding under GoI

programs like JNNURM and the Rajiv Awas Yojana (RAY). In addition, it should focus on leveraging component

level support that is being made available under the 13th

Finance Commission for SWM.

Further, given the higher priority that needs to be accorded to sanitation, the Government of Kerala should

consider backing its State Sanitation Strategy (recommended earlier under chapter 8) with a funding scheme

to support sanitation projects in ULBs in the state.

11.4.2. PPPs and cost recovery driven financing

Component wise actions and initiatives with respect to cost recovery and amenability to PPPs and other

innovative financing mechanisms are discussed below:

Access to Toilets

In general, pay per use approaches and advertising streams could potentially enable full cost recovery for

Public Toilets in high density traffic locations. If managed well, CoC should be able to recovery the O&M cost of

provision of all shared toilets (public + community toilets) and recovery part of its capital costs through

leveraging this potential. In this regard, it is often noticed that

a. Pay and use public toilets in high density commercial areas have potential to recover full cost if

advertising potential is leveraged and hence PPPs are a potentially viable option for public toilets.

CoC could consider unbundling advertising rights and toilet maintenance as separate contracts. This

could enable CoC to maximize its revenue potential from such toilet locations and have greater

oversight on monitoring maintenance.

b. Community toilets are likely to require subsidization and could possibly recover O&M cost. Since a

pay-per-use model could deter usage, a monthly flat fee through issue of toilet use cards may be a

better alternative for Community Toilets. CoC could consider using Self Help Groups or delegate

maintenance to local community while providing oversight to ensure asset upkeep and repairs.

Water Supply

Tariff setting philosophy is a critical element in determining the range of PPP interventions possible in the

water sector. For instance, if the tariff philosophy is to recover only the O&M costs in full, implementation of

projects using PPP models involving investment commitment (such as BOT) from the private operator would

require investment servicing financing to be met from resources of ULBs other than user charges (municipal

revenue surplus from other revenue streams such as property taxes and Grants and devolution income from

GoMP). PPP models including management contracts / service contracts (without an investment commitment

from private operators) are feasible, even within the realms of a 100% O&M cost recovery focus. KWA could

consider leveraging private sector capacities for improving system efficiency including focus on NRW reduction

and Performance based contracts (which were discussed earlier under Box 4.1).

Waste-water management

From an economic standpoint, water and wastewater tend to be viewed differently. Though water is a private

good, it tends to have both private/public good characteristics. On one hand, it is always possible to

disconnect/ not connect the consumer (private good), although economic/ social cost and difficulties of the

same can be high, making exclusion difficult (public good). On the other, wastewater collection, treatment and



sludge disposal are purely public goods as no one can be excluded from pollution. PPPs in Sewerage and waste

water management have been relatively fewer in India. Firstly, sewerage coverage is limited. Secondly, user

charges and connection charges for sewerage are still in its infancy (though KWA has a framework for

connection deposits and user charges, cost recovery levels have been poor)

In this regard, it is instructive to look at the experience of Alandur city where the STP was implemented

through a PPP arrangement. (Refer case study below) and the project successfully leveraged a combination of

private participation, public deposits and user charges. The project presents a potentially replicable model for

extending sewerage services in large urban centres in an efficient manner. Recently, a PPP model structured

with fixed plus variable payments was developed for its sewerage project by Kolhapur Municipal Corporation.

Box 11.1 Alandur sewerage project

The Alandur sewerage project initiated in 1996, is the first such project in India using a PPP framework (BOT format) and

presents a unique case in the area of public-private partnership in the urban sanitation sector. Alandur municipality falls

under the Kanchipuram district and has a population of approximately 1.25 Lakh, with one-fourth of them living in slums.

Alandur has developed mainly as a residential suburb of Chennai.

The proposed sewerage system was to be developed for the targeted population of about 3 Lakh persons and has the

following components: A sewerage network consisting of the main sewer line, branch sewer line and manholes;

Construction of a sewage pumping station; A sewage treatment plant; and Low cost sanitation

The work of the project was carried out in two phases. The first phase (initial two and half year period) involved

development of 50 per cent of the branch sewers, main sewers, pump house including installation of machinery, pumping

main and one 12 mld capacity sewage treatment plant with the remaining part of the sewer system developed in Phase II.

The construction of underground sewerage system was done through an EPC Contract and the sewerage treatment plant

was constructed on a BOT basis. The operation and maintenance of the sewerage system including sewer lines, pump

houses, pumping plants, will be carried out by the municipality. However, the BOT contractor will operate and maintain the

sewage treatment plant during the lease period of 14 years and hand over the STP to the municipality at the end of the

lease period. The project was awarded to the IVRCL Infrastructure & Projects Ltd. In joint venture with Balcke- Durr and

Wabag technologies Ltd. based at Hyderabad in February 2000 and the agreement was signed in March 2000. Phase I of

the project has been completed. Phase II is under progress and is expected to be completed this year.

The project was estimated to cost Rs 35 crore. The collection and pumping system were financed by debt of Rs20 crore and

grant of Rs3 crore. Tamil Nadu Urban Infrastructure Development Corporation (TUFIDCO) financed 50% of project cost

through loans and grants. GoTN provided bridge financing in the sewer account during the life of the project, after

providing for O&M expenses, debt servicing and contribution to sinking fund. GoTN would pay an amount of Rs 30 per

month/ sewer connection to balance the revenue account budget of sewerage. The project mobilised one-time deposits

through connection charges from citizens. Public awareness and support was sought through an extensive communication

campaign. More than 15,000 households have contributed Rs 5,000 per household representing one third of the project

cost.

A notable feature is the tariff structure, developed on full cost recovery with cross subsidies for the poor. The

municipality collects maintenance charges fixed at Rs 150 per month per connection from domestic users, Rs 450 per

month per connection from commercial users and Rs 750 per month from industrial users. While the project faced

challenges, including delays in operator selection for O&M, miscommunication on separate upfront payment and

connection fee etc. The municipality also had to reduce maintenance charges. However, it demonstrates scope for

implementing sanitation solutions through PPP and offers useful lessons in this regard.

Decentralised systems

In most cases, the costs of decentralised systems including capital and O&M costs are generally borne by the

users. This is also because decentralised and onsite systems have often been used as a ‘coping mechanism’ in

the absence of active ULB level provision of waste-water management services and ULBs have not looked

beyond centralised sewerage system for waste water management.

It may further be useful for CoC and Government of Kerala to provide support to decentralised solutions and

some of the options could include the following:



CoC may need to consider providing capital support for creation of decentralised solutions in areas that

are currently unserved.

At present the levels of user charges and property taxes are very low. However, when CoC graduates to

100% O&M cost recovery and to at least partial capital cost recovery, then decentralised options could be

incentivised by providing discounts to residential /commercial properties on say property tax if the

property has installed and is maintaining a well-functioning decentralised treatment system.

Similarly, the Government of Kerala could consider providing tax breaks on waste-water treatment

equipment and thereby helping reduce the overall cost-to-user.

Solid Waste Management

As discussed in detail under section 7, SWM is inherently amenable to use of PPP options (particularly in waste

processing and landfill) through a combination of user charges, waste recovery and tipping fees. Levy of User

charges /or fees and can be an equitable means of funding SWM services, if properly administered. With a

large number of poor households, it may be worthwhile to have an equitable tariff policy, by cross subsidizing

poorer households through a slab based flat user charge per month based on property size. Further a higher

user fee can be prescribed for larger waste generators, such as offices, commercial establishments, and

markets. This approach is in practice in some cities in India like Coimbatore and Shimla.


These recommendations should be read along with recommendations on improving financial sustainability at a

component level that have been detailed under chapters 3-7.

1. CoC and KWA should track costs of service provision and implement processes to disseminate

information on costs of provision of all sanitation services. To start with CoC and KWA should map the

costs of service provision for all sanitation services (CoC in case of Toilet access, Storm drains and SWM

and KWA in case of water supply and sewerage) and implement accounting/costing systems to capture

the information to enable compilation and analysis of costs along the above framework. In this regard, we

recommend the following actions:

a. Map the value chain for each of the sanitation components namely water supply, sewerage and SWM

for the city and the prevailing cost centres within the water value chain.

b. Incorporate the framework in the budgeting process for the various sanitation components

c. Track and compile information on costs along the framework described and use the information in

tariff setting based on the principles and the recommendations on tariff setting given below.

d. Implement reforms relating to accrual accounting and asset accounting (including depreciation

accounting) in the water supply within the next five years to enable having a true and fair picture of

the overall financial health of the water supply system.

e. Progressively move towards organisational accountability for budgeting, managing and rationalising

costs on a continuous basis.

2. CoC and KWA in consultation with GoK should formulate and implement a progressive Tariff / User

charges policy for all sanitation services. Under JNNURM, CoC and KWA are expected to achieve 100%

O&M cost recovery and 90% collection efficiency for all sanitation services. Component specific

recommendations pertaining to user charges are also discussed in chapters 3-7 earlier. The tariff policy

should be formulated taking into account the following considerations:

a. Linkage to service levels: Even though O&M costs tend to increase year after year, it is often difficult

to convince households to absorb these tariff increases unless a base level of service levels

commitments are defined, articulated and met. User charges must therefore be progressively linked

to service level improvements.



b. Extent of Cost recovery: At present, Reform under JNNURM currently mandates recovery of O&M

costs as a minimum. It is critical to recognise the need to move towards full cost recovery in the

medium-to-long term to enable sustainable financing of creation and maintenance of water

infrastructure.

c. Addressing affordability considerations: Provision of universal access of water supply and addressing

the needs of urban poor is a key consideration for tariff reform. This needs to be addressed through a

combination of a minimum access commitment and by exploiting possibilities for differential pricing

including ‘ability to bear’ principle for high volume users and cross subsidisation. Keeping tariffs

universally low is a regressive policy and tends to disproportionately benefit the relatively rich.

3. KWA should undertake the following measures to improve cost recovery levels.

a. Enforce meter reading and volumetric tariffs effectively;

b. Implement a user charge framework for sewerage connections. The sewerage tariffs could be charged

as a function of water tariffs.

c. Align user charges in sanitation services with cost recovery targets enunciated in CoC/KWA Tariff

Policy.

4. KWA should implement measures to improve coverage and penetration of house level water supply and

sewerage connections. Factors underlying low penetration of water and sewerage include: a) Connection

deposits being considered a deterrent, b) Procedural difficulties in getting a connection, c) Illegal

properties and inability to seek / obtain a legal connection and d) Lack of access and unhappiness with

service levels. Improving coverage would require tackling each of these issues. Our recommendations for

improving coverage flow from these issues identified and are detailed below:

a. Consider an instalment based option spread over 1-2 years for recovery of connection deposits of

water supply and sewerage connections. A number of ULBs have introduced this in the recent past

with a reasonable degree of success in improving penetration of connections.

b. Initiate/enforce the following actions to streamline the process of providing water and sewerage

connections and handling complaints to make it consumer friendly:

i. Commit and articulate service levels and timelines with respect to provision of

connection/handling complaints and disseminate the procedure widely.

iv. Initiate steps to make the process of applying for connections and filing complaints user-friendly

including allowing filing of applications/complaints online and reporting of application status /

redressal online and on telephone.

v. Incentivise adherence to committed timelines for provision of a connection by a partial / full

waiver of connection deposit in case of delays beyond the committed timelines.

vi. Track and report status of connections sought / complaints addressed on a monthly basis and set

targets to improve performance with respect to these.

vii. Further tracking and reporting this information along with the names of operating personnel

entrusted with the task, incentivises effective performance monitoring and accountability and

will minimise chances of harassment of consumers if any.

viii. De-link provision of connections from the legality of the property / construction and develop a

connection policy for provision of access to water supply and sewerage.

5. KWA and CoC should initiate specific measures to improve collection efficiency including the following:

a. Provide integrated billing and multiple payment options to customers including through a) payment

through banks b) additional facilitation / e-governance counters, c) mobile vans and door-to-door

collection drives and d) online payment options.



b. Use a combination of rebates (for early payment) and penalties (for late payment) and create

awareness regarding these options to incentivise payment on time

c. Prepare and disseminate list of user charge defaulters online and across media. When the Municipal

Council is elected, the Top 20 default cases in each ward should be brought to notice of individual

Council members and support of the Council Members and Residents’ Welfare Associations should be

sought to resolve these cases.

d. Apart from the existing penal and enforcement provisions, CoC/WA should also as part of their

statute require clearance of user charge dues when citizens require access to other urban services

(issue of birth certificate etc.)

e. Initiate a focused one-time drive and settlement scheme to clear arrears in a focused manner.

CoC/KWA should also report details of litigation cases and the actions taken on them annually for

public dissemination.

f. A clear Accounting policy regarding provisions and writing off of bad debts should be implemented to

clean up the Arrears account.



SECTION IV CSP SUMMARY AND ACTION PLAN



12. CSP Summary: Vision Goals and Action Plan

12.1. Revisiting NUSP vision and objectives

The vision for urban sanitation in India as enunciated in the NUSP is given below:

All Indian cities and towns become totally sanitized, healthy and liveable and ensure and sustain good public

health and environmental outcomes for all their citizens with a special focus on hygienic and affordable

sanitation facilities for the urban poor and women.

The NUSP defines sanitation as safe management of human excreta (including its safe confinement treatment,

disposal and associated hygiene-related practices). It however, recognises the need to that integral solutions

need to take account of other elements of environmental sanitation, i.e. SWM; generation of industrial and

other specialized/hazardous wastes; drainage; as also the management of drinking water supply. A totally

Sanitized City will be one that has achieved the outputs or milestones specified in the National Urban

Sanitation policy, the salient features of which are as follows:

Cities must be open defecation free

Must eliminate the practice of manual scavenging and provide adequate personnel protection equipment

that addresses the safety of sanitation workers.

Municipal wastewater and storm water drainage must be safely managed

Recycle and reuse of treated wastewater for non-potable applications wherever possible.

Solid Waste collected and disposed off fully and safely

Services to the Poor and Systems for Sustaining Results

Improved Public Health Outcomes and Environmental Standards


Component wise vision and targets have been arrived at keeping the NUSP goals and are summarised below.

The timeframe for meeting SLB norms specified by MoUD has been arrived at based on a) criticality vis-à-vis

NUSP objectives b) prevailing service levels and c) nature of actions required to achieve norm.

Table 12.1: Sanitation Components Vision and Targets

ACCESS TO TOILETS

Eliminate Open Defecation through provision of equitable and efficient access to public and community toilet access and

by making all citizens sanitation-conscious through sustained awareness effort

Parameter Unit NORM BASELINE Timeframe to achieve Norms*

S M L

Open Defecation

% of population practising OD % 0% 0.4% √

No. of open urination spots Nos. 0 ~ 10 √

No. of open defecation spots Nos. 0 ~ 10 √

Toilet Coverage

Access to Public Conveniences (PC) Households/PC 100 ~ 500 √

Access to Community Toilets (CT) Slum Households/CT 15 N.A √



WATER SUPPLY

Achieve Water Security through provision of equitable and efficient access to continuous piped potable quality water

supply in a financially environmentally sustainable manner

Parameter Unit NORM BASELINE Timeframe to achieve SLB norms

Short Medium Long

Coverage % 100% 83% √

Per Capita Supply LPCD 135 90 √

Non-Revenue Water* % 20% 60% √

Metered connections % 100% 100% √

Continuity Hours 24.00 2-4 √


Quality of Supply* % 100% 58% √


Collection Efficiency % 90% 22% √

WASTE WATER MANAGEMENT

Capture and Treat all black and grey water to prescribed standards; Adopt recycling to conserve fresh water resources

Parameter Unit NORM BASELINE Timeframe to achieve norm

Short Medium Long

Sewerage Coverage

% of area with piped network % 100% 5% √

% HH with individual connections % 100% ~3% √

WW Collection Efficiency % 100% NA √

WW Treatment Adequacy % 100% NA √

Quality of WW Treatment % 100% NA √

Reuse and Recycling % 20% NA √



Collection Efficiency % 90% NA √

STORM WATER MANAGEMENT

Prevent flooding through city wide provision of storm drains with linkages with area drains and water bodies


Short Medium Long

Coverage % 100% 41% √

Incidence of Water Logging Nos. Zero N.A √

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Become and remain litter free through implementation of sustainable waste management practices


Short Medium Long

HH coverage % 100% 100% √

Waste Collection Efficiency % 100% 97% √

Source Segregation % 100% 86% √

MSW recovery % 80% 80% √

Scientific disposal % 100% - √

Cost recovery % 100% N.A √

Cost Collection efficiency % 100% N.A √

Complaints redress % 100% N.A √



12.3. Component wise action plan

12.3.1. Access to Toilets

Table 12.2 provides an action plan for Toilets’ Access.

Table 12.2 Access to Toilets: Action Plan


S M L

1. Prepare and Implement a city wide Toilet Development/Rehabilitation Plan √

i. Prepare a DPR to identify locations, configuration and sizing of Public/Community Toilets CoC √

ii. Implement Community Toilets, starting with identified locations with high OD prevalence CoC √

iii. Provide Public Toilets starting with identified areas having high floating population CoC √

iv. Progressively increase Public Toilet access to meet a city wide standard (say 1 every 500 m) CoC √ √

2. Implement a comprehensive inspection/monitoring protocol for Toilet monitoring √

i. Render existing toilets usable through designated accountability among sanitation officials CoC √

ii. Engage local stakeholders in maintenance, monitoring and oversight of shared toilets CoC √

iii. Undertake periodic Third Party Evaluation Audit of facilities and disseminate findings CoC √

3. Strengthen statutory basis and capacity through formulation of bye-laws and guidelines CoC / GoK √

i. Incorporate Toilet Sizing and specifications as part of Building regulations. CoC / GoK √

ii. Incorporate fines for open defecation and urination in Sanitation bye-laws. CoC / GoK √

iii. Prepare a Guidance Manual on development and maintenance of public toilets CoC / GoK √

4. Drive behaviour change through awareness campaigns and branding initiatives CoC √

i. Initiate a Slum level sanitation campaign to eliminate open defecation CoC √

ii. Initiate a Trader-support campaign in commercial areas to eliminate open urination CoC √

iii. Initiate a school campaign to impart positive sanitation behaviours CoC √

iv. Standardize branding (logos, painting, signage) for Public Toilets and Community Toilets CoC √

5. Initiate actions to improving financial sustainability √

i. Prepare a dedicated Toilet Budget annually CoC √

ii. Explore appropriate outsourcing models for Public Toilets CoC √

iii. Adopt contractual safeguards while outsourcing toilet development and maintenance. CoC √

iv. Encourage adoption of toilets through Corporate Social Responsibility initiatives CoC √

12.3.2. Water Supply

Table 12.3 provides an action plan for Water Supply.

Table 12.3 Water Supply: Action Plan


S M L

1. Strengthen Baseline information on water supply (and sanitation indices) CoC/KWA √

i. Conduct a Household Sanitation Survey to capture baseline sanitation information CoC/KWA √ √

ii. Install Bulk Meters at Intake points, Treatment Plants, Storage and Pumping points KWA √ √

iii. Put in place an institutional accountability for functioning /reading of water meters KWA √ √

2. Set up a coordination committee to implement the institutional framework envisaged

under KWA-CoC MoU; Shift to a Service Agreement framework in the medium-long term CoC/KWA/GoK √ √ √

3. Develop a Water Supply Master Plan for CoC and Urban agglomeration; prepare DPRs to

implement a phased investment program to achieve SLB norms CoC/KWA/GoK √ √ √

4. Track costs of service provisioning in CoC area; Formulate a Water Tariff Policy and set

mechanisms for tariff fixation /revision CoC/KWA √ √

5. Formulate and enforce Bye-laws and policy instruments for a) Ground water conservation/

Rainwater Harvesting, b) Tariff Policy, c) Connection Policy and d) Citizen charter CoC/KWA √

6. Implement a water quality monitoring protocol for piped supply and ground water CoC/KWA √

7. Implement measures to improve coverage and collection efficiency. CoC/KWA √



12.3.3. Waste Water Management

Table 12.4 provides an action plan for Wastewater management

Table 12.4 Wastewater and Storm Water Management: Action Plan

ACTIONS WHOM TIMEFRAME

S M L


design/construction ; Strengthen project monitoring and oversight on these projects CoC/KWA

√

2. Implement mechanisms and processes for Onsite sanitation CoC/KWA √

i. Create a dedicated onsite sanitation department within CoC CoC √

ii. Implement guidelines and bye-laws on onsite sanitation and septage management. CoC/KWA √

iii. Empanel service providers and regulate tariffs for desludging / cleaning septic tanks CoC/KWA √

iv. Conduct a feasibility study to create facilities to receive and treat septage CoC/KWA √

3. Conduct a feasibility study for a shallow bore concept in a pilot area; Scale-up the

project if pilot yields favourable results. CoC/KWA

√ √ √

4. Review the Sewerage Master Plan and prepare DPRs for implementing a phased

investment program for waste-water management in Kochi Urban Agglomeration CoC/KWA

√ √

5. Establish a waste-water quality monitoring protocol in coordination with KSPCB;

Conduct a feasibility study to evaluate reasons for low incoming BOD levels at STP CoC/KWA √

6. Earmark budgets for capital/O&M costs; clarify tariff policy and cost recovery objectives CoC/KWA √

i. Initiate the following actions to encourage waste-water recycling and re-use

ii. Mandate recycling in commercial establishments and large townships

7. Evaluate feasibility for catering to industrial water demand from recycled sewage

8. Prepare a Master Plan for Drainage for Kochi urban agglomeration. CoC √

9. Prepare DPRs to implement a phased investment program to develop storm drains. CoC √ √

10. Clarify accountability and earmark budgets for O&M of drain systems. GoK √

12.3.4. Solid Waste Management

Table 12.5 provides an action plan for SWM

Table 12.5 SWM: Action Plan


S M L

1. Strengthen on-going efforts on door-to-door collection to effectively implement source

segregation and eliminate road side littering and dumping of waste in drains CoC √

i. Widen Kutumbashree initiative to effectively cover the entire city CoC √

ii. Encourage wider adoption of local processing efforts CoC √

iii. Designate waste transfer locations and improve linkages with secondary transportation CoC √

2. Conduct a feasibility study to evaluate options for processing and landfill; build on findings

to prepare/implement a DPR on the solution(s) identified in the feasibility study. CoC √ √

3. Initiate following actions to clarify and achieve cost recovery objectives. CoC √

i. CoC should implement a system to comprehensively track costs of SWM service provision CoC √

ii. Rationalise user charges under kutumbashree to achieve cost recovery objectives CoC √ √

iii. Explore the use of PPPs in waste recovery and landfill CoC √ √

4. Initiate actions to improve accountability, oversight and public participation CoC √ √

i. Improve coordination among health and engineering departments and carve out a

separate SWM department to facilitate better accountability in the medium term CoC √ √

ii. Initiate a training initiative on modern waste management practices CoC √

iii. Engage local stakeholders in monitoring and oversight of SWM activities CoC √

iv. Introduce by-laws to conform to MSW rules and to introduce user charges, articulate

citizen duties, ban on plastic below 40 microns and fines for littering CoC √

v. Complement door-to-door collection and source segregation with awareness campaigns CoC √



12.4. Actions on Cross-cutting aspects

12.4.1. Institutional actions

Actions by GoK

1. GoK should formulate and disseminate a state-level Sanitation Strategy.

2. GoK should conduct an independent assessment to draw roadmap for transfer of the water supply

function to the Urban Local Bodies as envisaged under the 74th

CAA and to take forward to reform

measure initiated through the joint MoU between CoC and KWA.

3. GoK should actively support ULBs in implementing local level policy framework through model bye-laws

and guidelines. For the purpose of an integrated view on these recommendations, the list of byelaws and

regulations recommended under the various sanitation components are summarised below.

Table 12.6 Illustrative list of areas for formulating bye-laws and policy guidelines

Sl. No. Nature of Action Subject

1 Bye-laws Onsite sanitation, Decentralised treatment and septage management

2 Bye-laws Ground water management and Rainwater Harvesting

3 Bye-laws Tariff Policy, User charges regulation, Fixation and Revision

4 Bye-laws Connection and Disconnection policy for water and sewerage connections

5 Bye-laws Citizen Obligations, Penalties for littering and waste dumping.

6 Guidance Manual Public Toilets configuration, sizing and operation

7 Building Regulation Toilet Sizing and specifications as part of Building Code

4. GoK should undertake an independent organisation assessment of CoC and KWA to identify the hierarchy,

number and scale of officers required, identification of gaps vis-à-vis existing sanctioned positions,

detailing of job descriptions and drafting / amendments to service rules in the context of changes in

requirements owing to changes in services (Onsite sanitation, door-to-door collection etc.), potential for

technology led productivity improvements (E-governance, GIS/ GPS) and growth in service demands

(growth in services as a result of increase in population in area under jurisdiction). This exercise should

also facilitate greater alignment of organisation in line with sanitation service delivery requirements.

Actions by CoC and KWA

1. CoC should create a separate department for onsite sanitation and septage management.

2. CoC should strengthen toilet maintenance by designating engineering staff for monitoring maintenance

and repairs of Public Toilets.

3. In view of the weak baseline on water connections and losses, KWA should consider setting up set up a

dedicated NRW cell within Water supply to focus on loss reduction.

4. CoC and KWA should set up Integrated Finance and Accounting departments by bringing together its

Revenue and Accounts departments to facilitate coordinated handling of functions

5. CoC and KWA should undertake further automation/computerisation of its complaint handling process

and this should be backed by creating / strengthening linkages between a Back-office organisation that

tracks, captures and respond to citizen complaints and the operating staff reporting under various

departments to ensure that complaints are handled in a seamless manner.



12.4.2. List of further studies and DPRs

Table 12.7 provides a list of additional studies and DPRs identified as part of the CSP along with the nature of

study and prioritisation in terms of short, medium and long term requirement.

Table 12.7 List of DPRs and additional studies

Sl. No. Nature of study ACTIONS By TIMEFRAME

S M L

Access to Toilets

1 Feasibility Study Feasibility and location selection for Public and Community Toilet

Development CoC √

2 DPR Development of Public Toilets and Community Toilets in priority

locations, based on identified priorities from the feasibility study CoC √ √

Water Supply

3 Master Plan Comprehensive Water Supply Master Plan for Kochi Agglomeration KWA √

4 DPRs DPRs for Distribution Network rehabilitation and development in

areas not covered under on-going KSUDP / KWA projects KWA √ √

Waste Water Management

5 Feasibility study Feasibility for alternate options for waste-water management

including shallow bore and interceptor tank approach KWA/CoC √

6 DPRs For Sewerage projects based on Sewerage Master Plan and outcome

of above Feasibility study KWA/CoC √ √

7 Master Plan Drainage Master Plan CoC √

8 DPRs Drainage DPRs (based on phasing / prioritisation from Master Plan) CoC √ √

Cross cutting aspects

8 Baseline

Information Baseline Household Sanitation Information Survey CoC / KWS √

9 Institutional study Manpower assessment and Organisation structuring of CoC CoC/GoK √

10 Institutional study Road map for KWA in the context of 74th

CAA KWA / GoK √

11 Capacity Building Training Needs Assessment for CoC and KWA CoC/GoK √

12.5. Summary of Investment needs

The summary of a possible 5 year capital investment program and phasing of the same (based on sanitation

goals and actions) is presented below.

Table 12.8 Capital Investment estimate and possible phasing (Figures in Rs. Lakh)

Capital Investment (Rs. Lakh) Phasing of Investment

TOTAL Short Medium Long

Access to Public and Community Toilets 2,942 - 396 3,338

Water Supply 400 5,000 10,400 15,800

Waste water management 5,000 18,000 30,000 53,000

ISIP, Project Development and Capacity Building 1,650 800 500 2,950

TOTAL 9,992 23,800 41,296 75,088


Access to Toilets receives highest priority in view of poor baseline and higher impact potential. Investments in

sewerage, water supply and storm drains are phased largely in the latter half of the investment program.



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