volume 2, issue 1 of tropical plant research

www.tropicalplantresearch.com 1 Received: 12 October 2014 Published online: 28 February 2015

ISSN (E): 2349 – 1183

ISSN (P): 2349 – 9265

2(1): 01–04, 2015

Research article

Impact of lopping on tree species of tropical Indian forests

Gitamani Dutta and Ashalata Devi*

Department of Environmental Science, Tezpur University, Tezpur, Sonitpur, Assam, India

*Corresponding Author: [email protected] [Accepted: 08 January 2015]

Abstract: The study was carried out in Hojai reserve forest of Nagaon district of Assam, a good

example of tropical moist deciduous forest of Northeast India. For this study fifty 10×10 m size

quadrates were laid down and recorded the number and girth size of cut stumps within the

quadrates. Cut stump of Syzygium cumini, Shorea robusta, Holarrhena antidysenterica, Trewia

nudiflora, Terminalia belerica, Cassia fistula, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Lagerstroemia

flosreginae, Careya arborea, Dillenia scabrella, Zizyphus jujuba and Pterospermum acerifolium

were recorded from the study site. Among these 12 largely exploited tree species highest cut

stumps were found in Syzygium cumini (26%) and Shorea robusta (19%). Both the species can use

as a timber and other purpose. The highest cut stump was recorded in 10–30 cm girth class. It

indicates that the species were exploiting not only for the timber but also for firewood and some

other household purpose.

Keywords: Trees - Anthropogenic disturbances - Cut stump - Regeneration.

[Cite as: Dutta G & Devi A (2015) Impact of lopping on tree species of tropical Indian forests. Tropical Plant

Research 2(1): 1–4]

INTRODUCTION

In India protected area includes national park, animal sanctuary, biosphere reserve, reserve forest etc

designated by IUCN. In reserve forest rights to activities like hunting and grazing allow to communities living

on the fringes of forests who partially or wholly depend upon the forest resources or products for their

livelihood unlike national park or biosphere reserve. Reserved forests have their own “Conservation values”

(derived from species richness, floristic and faunal endemism, and uniqueness of ecosystem), sometimes that are

equivalent to or higher than the areas designated as National Parks and Sanctuaries (Ramesh et al. 1997). In

India, habitat destruction, over exploitation, environmental pollution and anthropogenic pressure are the major

disturbances to forest ecosystems. Disturbance induced by human being differ with response to the people

inhabitant in and around the protected areas and their livelihood status and economic conditions. The

conservation of biodiversity and human use of tropical forest resources in developing countries are in conflict

with each other (Singh 1998). It is important to see how natural communities in forest stand and their structural

attributes are affected by anthropogenic disturbances (Mishra et al. 2004). The degree of disturbance were

quantify from lopping status by many worker (Kanzaki & Kyoji 1986, Rao et al. 1990, Pandey & Shukla 2003).

The objective of the present study is to find out the highly exploited tree species through lopping and their

natural regeneration status.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Study area

The study was conducted in tropical forest of Assam namely Hojai Reserve Forest (HRF) situated within the

Hojai sub-division, towards the South of Nagaon district of Assam, India. The Hojai Reserve Forest is situated

between the geographical limit of longitude 92º49'30"–92º53'0" E and latitude 25º55'0"–25º58'0" N (Fig. 1).

The area of this forest is 948 ha at an elevation of 76 m above msl. Topography of Hojai Reserve Forest is flat

ground. The forest is surrounded with settlement except the southeast corner. There is one forest village

(Kurkut) and one taungya village (Nandapur) located in and around the Hojai Reserve Forest. The forest is

being affected by firewood collection, artificial forest fire and grazing. Champion & Seth (1968) classified Hojai

Dutta & Devi (2015) 2(1): 01–04

.

www.tropicalplantresearch.com 2

Reserve Forest as a Kamrup sal forest (3C/C2d(iv)) under the tropical moist deciduous type of forest. The

dominated tree species of the forest is Shorea robusta. Along with Shorea robusta, species of Albizia and

Lagerstroemia covers the top canopy of the forest.

Figure 1. Map of Hojai reserve forest, Assam, India.

Sampling

The study was carried out during 2009–2010. Fifty quadrates of 10×10 m size were laid down in study site.

Tree individuals and cut stumps encountered within the studied quadrat were counted and girth sizes were

recorded during the sampling. Girth of tree individuals were measured at 1.3 m height from the ground surface.

Depending on height of cut stumps, girth of cut stumps was measured above the ground surface or at 1.3 m.

Girth ≥30 cm of tree individuals were considered as an adult, <30 to >10 cm were considered as a sapling

and ≤10 cm at the base were considered as a seedling. The regeneration status of exploited species was

determined based on population size of seedlings, saplings and adults (modified from Khan 1987, Shankar 2001,

Khumbongmayum et al. 2006). Thereby the forest was considered to be in good regenerating state, if seedling >

sapling > adults; fairly regenerating state, if seedlings > or ≤ saplings ≤ adults or seedling ≤sapling > adult;

poorly regenerating state, if the species survives only in sapling stage, but no seedlings (saplings may be <, > or

= adults). If a species present only in adult form, it was considered as not regenerating species. Species

considered as newly regenerating if the species had no adults but present only in seedlings or saplings stage.

RESULTS

Cut stump of Syzygium cumini (26%), Shorea robusta (19%), Holarrhena antidysenterica (13%), Trewia

nudiflora (10%), Terminalia belerica (7%), Cassia fistula (7%), Lagerstroemia parviflora (3%), Lagerstroemia

flosreginae (3%), Careya arborea (3%), Dillenia scabrella (3%), Zizyphus jujuba (3%) and Pterospermum

acerifolium (3%) were recorded (Fig. 2). In the study sites sapling and adult tree species was the main targeted

individual for exploitation. The maximum cut stumps were recorded in adult stage compared with the seedling

and sapling stage. The highest cut stumps was recorded (12 cut stumps ha-1) for Syzygium cumini in sapling

stage followed by Shorea robusta (10 cut stumps ha-1) in adult stage (Table 1).

Dutta & Devi (2015) 2(1): 01–04

.


Figure 2. A & B, Photographs showing cut stumps in the study site.

Table 1. Tree species showing living individual density and cut stump density in each seedling, sapling and adult stage.

S.N. Species

Seedling (ha-1

) Sapling (ha-1

) Adult (ha-1

)

Living

individuals

Cut

stumps

Living

individuals

Cut

stumps

Living

individuals

Cut

stumps

1. Syzygium cumini 142 0 38 12 4 4

2. Shorea robusta 3396 0 384 2 164 10

3. Holarrhena antidysenterica 1058 0 22 6 2 2

4. Trewia nudiflora 8 8 2 0 0 6

5. Terminalia belerica 54 0 2 0 4 4

6. Cassia fistula 66 0 10 2 2 2

7. Lagerstroemia parviflora 278 0 6 0 2 2

8. Lagerstroemia flosreginae 206 0 8 0 4 2

9. Careya arborea 454 0 30 0 12 2

10. Dillenia scabrella 72 0 8 0 0 2

11. Zizyphus jujuba 230 0 20 2 0 0

12. Pterospermum acerifolium 88 0 6 0 0 2

Except Terminalia belerica other exploited species like Syzygium cumini, Shorea robusta, Holarrhena

antidysenterica, Trewia nudiflora, Cassia fistula, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Lagerstroemia flosreginae, Careya

arborea, Dillenia scabrella, Zizyphus jujuba and Pterospermum acerifolium were recorded in good regenerating

condition in natural habitat. Terminalia belerica was recorded in fairly regenerating condition.

DISCUSSION

Presence of cut stumps indicate the larger intervention of local people to meet various purposes of their

requirements such as for timber, medicine, food, fodder, fuel wood, building material, etc and as a result of

which the Hojai reserve forest is under the threat of lopping, a major anthropogenic pressure (Dutta & Devi

2013). Among the lopped species Syzygium cumini, Zizyphus jujuba are fruit yielding plant. Holarrhena

antidysenterica, Terminalia belerica have some medicinal property and Holarrhena antidysenterica is

considered as a good drug for the diarrhoea by the local inhabitants. Shorea robusta is a good timber yielding

plant, so the government attempted to manage sal forest for commercial timber production in order to increase

revenue (Gautam & Devoe 2006). Because of the commercial value, it is found as a second highest lopped

species during the study followed by Syzygium cumini. Syzygium cumini preferred as a fodder by local people

might one of the reasons for heavy lopping of this species was also observed by Pradhan et al. (2007) and

Sapkota et al. (2009). Adult tree individuals are the main target for illegal lopping. Illegal lopping is considered

as one of the major disturbance factor in forest stand and is associated with saplings and adult tree individuals

(Sapkota et al. 2009).

All the lopped species may tolerate the disturbances, so the natural regeneration of these species took place

adequately but affects the density of tree individuals. Felling of tree also create a gap inside the forest create

Dutta & Devi (2015) 2(1): 01–04

.


suitable microsites for species, which may be another reason for highest number of seedling density in the study

sites. The combined effect of increased light intensity, increased soil temperature, and reduced competition

increases seedling recruitment and establishment in canopy gaps compared to closed canopies (Sapkota et al.

2009).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We sincerely acknowledge the D.F.O of Nagaon South Forest Division for permitting us to work in Hojai

reserve forest. We are extremely grateful to Mr. Dilip Dutta for his constant support during field visit. Thanks

are also due to the forest guards accompanying us during field visits. The first author is a recipient of UGC

fellowship and hence it is duly acknowledged.

REFERENCES

Champion HG & Seth SK (1968) A revised survey of forest types of India. Natraj Publishers, Dehradun, India.

Dhar U, Rawal RS & Samant SS (1997) Structural diversity and representativeness of forest vegetation in a

protected area of Kumaun Himalaya, India: Implications for conservation. Biodiversity and Conservation 6:

1045–1062.

Dutta G & Devi A (2013) Plant diversity, population structure and regeneration status in disturbed tropical

forest of Assam, northeast India. Journal of Forestry Research 24: 715–720.

Gautam KH & Devoe NN (2006) Ecological and anthropogenic niches of sal (Shorea robusta Gaertn. f.) forest

and prospects for multiple-product forest management- a review. Forestry 79: 81–101.

Mishra BP, Tripathi OP, Tripathi RS & Pandey HN (2004) Effect of anthropogenic disturbance on plant

diversity and community structure of a sacred grove in Meghalaya, northeast India. Biodiversity and

Conservation 13: 421–436.

Pandey SK & Shukla RP (2003) Plant diversity in managed sal (Shorea robusta Gaertn.) forests of Gorakhpur,

India: species composition, regeneration and conservation. Biodiversity and Conservation 12: 2295–2319.

Pradhan NMB, Wegge P & Moe SR (2007) How does a re- colonizing population of Asian elephants affect the

forest habitat? Journal of Zoology 273: 183–191.

Ramesh BR, Menon S & Bawa KS (1997) A vegetation based approach to biodiversity gap analysis in the

Agastyamalai region, Western Ghats, India. Ambio 26: 529–536.

Rao P, Barik SK, Pandey HN & Tripath RS (1990) Community composition and tree population structure in a

sub-tropical broad-leaved forest along a disturbance gradient. Vegetatio 88: 151–162.

Sapkota IP, Tigabu M & Oden PC (2009) Spatial distribution, advanced regeneration and stand structure of

Nepalese Sal (Shores robusta) forests subject to disturbances of different intensities. Forest Ecology and

Management 257: 1966–1975.

Singh SP (1998) Chronic disturbance, a principal cause of environmental degradation in developing countries.

Environmental Conservation 25: 1–2.

www.tropicalplantresearch.com 5 Received: 10 November 2014 Published online: 28 February 2015

ISSN (E): 2349 – 1183

ISSN (P): 2349 – 9265

2(1): 05–09, 2015

Research article

Utilization of vegetable waste for biomass production of some

wild edible mushroom cultures

Smita Behera and Nibha Gupta*

Plant pathology and Microbiology division, Regional Plant Resource Centre, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India

*Corresponding Author: [email protected] [Accepted: 26 January 2015]

Abstract: A preliminary experiment was carried out to analyse the growth performance of six

wild edible mushroom cultures using some chemosynthetic media and vegetable media in static

culture condition. The chemosynthetic media used were Tien and Kirk medium, Mushroom

complete medium, Yeast malt extract medium, Glucose yeast extract peptone medium, Malt

extract broth medium and Sabouraud dextrose broth medium whereas vegetable peels, Drumstick

peel medium, Potato peel medium, Carrot peel medium, Bottle gourd peel medium, Litchi peel

medium, Papaya peel medium, Pointed gourd peel medium, Chopped grass medium, Little gourd

peel medium, Pumpkin peel medium and Rich gourd peel medium were utilized for the

preparation of media as well. Overall, Mushroom complete medium showed growth promoting

activity as far as all mushroom culture concerned. However, Papaya peel, Drumstick peel, Carrot

peel and Bottle gourd peel medium also exhibited as a good source of media for growth

enhancement in case of Russula, Lentinus and Pleurotus sp. Present study exhibited the usefulness

of vegetable peels and may be explored further for the cost effective technology for the biomass

production.

Keywords: Macro fungi - Mushroom - Vegetables - Biomass.

[Cite as: Behera S & Gupta N (2015) Utilization of vegetable waste for biomass production of some wild edible

mushroom cultures. Tropical Plant Research 2(1): 5–9]

INTRODUCTION

Mushroom fruit bodies are well known food items since ancient times and became important as nutraceutical

and pharmaceutical agent now due to the capability of producing many useful secondary metabolites, high

protien content with essential amino acids, vitamins, minerals and exopolysaccharides (Adebayo-Tayo et al.

2011). Though, mushrooms are demonstrated as potential source of many bioactive compounds, large scale

production is the major constraints in order to fulfill the huge requirement of bioactive materials. However,

mushroom fungal mycelium are the best source to be utilized for production of extracellular and / or

intracellular bioactive compounds useful for formulation of nutraceutical and pharmaceuticals (Chang 2007).

Many fungi and their mycelium biomass are reported as good source of food, protein supplement, lipid source

and many more metabolites (Jong & Birgmingham 1993, Maziero et al. 1995, Moore & Chiu 2001). Similarly,

several mushroom fungi have also been exhibited a good source of protein, carbohydrate and other secondary

metabolites (Maziero et al. 1999, Caglarlrmak 2007). Recently it has been observed that submerged cultivation

of mushroom mycelium in defined medium may also perform as good as mushroom fruit bodies (Yang & Liau

1998, Vieira et al. 2008, Joshi et al. 2013, Hamedi et al. 2007). Submerged cultivation methods are useful in

mass scale production of many industrial compounds as well as advantages over the constraints of space and

contamination. Many mushroom fungi are ligno-cellulolytic due to extracellular enzymes that can degrade the

lignocelluloses into the favorable substrates (Howard et al. 2003). Complex sources of nutrients are not often

used in large scale production of fungi. In addition, complex media helps in growth abundance may be due to

unknown growth elicitor/compounds are present or slow rate of carbon and nitrogen metabolism (Crognale et al.

2003).

Keeping view the importance of waste material and their influences, a screening study has been planned to

grow mushroom (wild) mycelium in different kind of kitchen waste and compared with synthetic media in order

Behera & Gupta (2015) 2(1): 05–09

.


to obtain a good biomass as many wild mushroom are very difficult to grow in laboratory conditions though

they are proved to be a good source of useful bioactive compounds.


Six wild edible mushroom cultures namely Russula lepida, Russula brevipes, Russula nigricans, Pleurotus

sajor-caju, Lentinus tuberregium and Calocybe indica were used for the study of biomass production in

different medium. All strains were maintained on Malt extract agar slants and the slants were incubated at 28°C

for 7 days and then stored at 4°C for about 2 weeks. All stock fungi cultures were then transferred and

maintained on Malt extract agar (MEA) plate by periodical sub culturing every one month. Both slants and

plates were incubated at ambient temperature which ranged from 25–30°C for 5–7 days and then preserved at

4°C in refrigerator. Seventeen media namely chemosynthetic media (Tien and Kirk medium, Yeast malt extract

medium, Mushroom complete medium, Glucose yeast extract peptone medium, Malt extract broth medium and

Sabouraud dextrose broth medium) and vegetable media (Drumstick peel medium, Chopped grass medium,

Carrot peel medium, Bottle gourd peel medium, Potato peel medium, Litchi peel medium, Papaya peel medium,

Pointed gourd peel medium, Little gourd peel medium, Pumpkin peel medium and Rich gourd peel medium)

were used for present study.

The seed culture of each organism (Russula lepida, Russula brevipes, Russula nigricans, Pleurotus sajor-

caju, Lentinus tuberregium and Calocybe indica) was prepared by punching out 0.5 cm2 of the agar-plate culture

and transferred into tissue culture bottles.

For studying the effect of different medium on the mycelial biomass, 50 ml of each synthetic medium were

dispensed in tissue culture bottles (pH maintained at 6.0), along with the basal medium (chopped plant products

were distributed in particular amount in each tissue culture bottles) having 50 ml of distilled water, pH adjusted

to 5.6 and sterilized at 121°C for 15 minutes, cooled down, then inoculated with the seed culture. All cultures

were maintained at 30°C, for 14 days of incubation period. The mycelial biomass produced in each treatment

was harvested by filtration to separate the culture broth and the fungal biomass was washed several times with

distilled water, then air dried at room temperature until constant weight and represented as dry cell mass (DCM).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Fungi are endowed with the properties of organic waste decomposition in order to extract useful nutrient for

their growth and development (Essien et al. 2005). In similar way, several studies have been carried out on the

utilization of lingo-cellulolytic activities of fungi for the degradation of complex substrate into fermentable

substrate ultimately that result into production of bioactive materials (Howard et al. 2003). To this effect, a

study has been planned to compare the effect of vegetable waste materials with chemosynthetic media on

growth of some mushroom culture under static culture condition.

Results depicted in table 1 regarding the growth of three species of Russula showed good growth of fungal

culture in both the media types. However, R. lepida and R. nigricans exhibited comparatives good growth in

Mushroom complete medium. R. lepida performed well in vegetable peel media prepared by Papaya and

Pumpkin peels and data is very well comparable to the biomass of this fungi obtained in other synthetic media.

Surprisingly, R. brevipes produced more biomass (0.615±0.02 g) in Papaya peel medium followed by

Mushroom complete medium (0.349±0.05 g) and Glucose yeast extract peptone medium (0.392±0.09 g).

Russula nigricans performed good in Papaya (0.244±0.02 g) and Little gourd medium (0.32±0.01 g) besides the

Glucose yeast extract peptone medium (0.346±0.06 g), Tien and Kirk medium (0.257±0.03 g).

Growth performance of Pleurotus sajor-caju, Calocybe indica and Lentinus tuberregium has been presented

in table 2. Pleurotus sajor-caju performed well in Glucose yeast extract peptone medium and Malt extract broth

medium. However, good biomass was obtained in Potato peel medium also as compared to other

chemosynthetic media. Lentinus tuberregium preferred Carrot peel medium and Bottle gourd peel medium

besides Mushroom complete medium (0.506±0.04 g) and Glucose yeast extract peptone medium (0.362±0.21

g). Though Calocybe indica showed growth in vegetable media, chemosynthetic media were proved to be best

for biomass production.

Overall, a good biomass of all mushroom cultures was also obtained in the media prepared by using kitchen

waste i.e. vegetable peels and very well comparable to their growth performance occurred in chemosynthetic

media used. The study presented a preliminary series of different media for the biomass production of

Behera & Gupta (2015) 2(1): 05–09

.


Table 1. Biomass production of Russula spp. under different liquid media.

S.N. Medium Biomass production (g)

R. lepida R. brevipes R. nigricans

1 Tien and Kirk medium 0.365±0.05 0.302±0.05 0.257±0.03

2 Mushroom complete medium 0.585±0.08 0.349±0.05 0.205±0.09

3 Yeast malt extract medium 0.399±0.004 0.257±0.05 0.176±0.01

4 Glucose yeast extract peptone medium 0.402±0.01 0.392±0.09 0.346±0.06

5 Malt extract broth medium 0.368±0.03 0.158±0.04 0.186±0.03

6 Sabouraud dextrose broth medium 0.416±0.01 0.169±0.04 0.164±0.02

7 Drumstick peel medium 0.066±0.003 0.122±0.07 0.160±0.05

8 Potato peel medium 0.115±0.02 0.046±0.01 0.156±0.03

9 Carrot peel medium 0.185±0.025 0.128±0.02 0.189±0.02

10 Chopped grass medium 0.1±0.01 0.065±0.01 0.073±0.02

11 Bottle gourd peel medium 0.135±0.003 0.077±0.02 0.137±0.02

12 Litchi peel medium 0.149±0.13 0.144±0.01 0.164±0.001

13 Papaya peel medium 0.417±0.0 0.615±0.02 0.244±0.02

14 Pointed gourd peel medium 0.032±0.002 0.055±0.01 0.042±0.01

15 Little gourd peel medium 0.044±0.01 0.029±0.06 0.32±0.01

16 Pumpkin peel medium 0.343±0.071 0.071±0.004 0.034±0.02

17 Rich gourd peel medium 0.103±0.011 0.047±0.013 0.066±0.02

Note: Where ± is average and standard deviation for three replicates.

mushroom cultures. Synthetic media is cost effective as presented in table 3. Malt extract broth medium costed

Rs. 6.77 for 50 ml broth medium prepared followed by Sabouraud dextrose broth medium (Rs.5.118) whereas

preparation of other chemosynthetic media required expenditure of less than Rs. 3.00 for 50 ml broth media in

order to get biomass production. However, a good biomass of mushroom culture was obtained with no cost as

the kitchen waste of vegetable peels was used.

Table 2. Biomass produced by Pleurotus sajor-caju, Lentinus tuberregium and Calocybe indica under different liquid media.

S.N. Medium Biomass production (g)

P. sajorcaju L. tuberregium C. indica

1 Tien and Kirk medium 0.295±0.14 0.244±0.08 0.22±0.03

2 Mushroom complete medium 0.261±0.33 0.506±0.04 0.262±0.13

3 Yeast malt extract medium 0.28±0.05 0.186±0.05 0.197±0.0

4 Glucose yeast extract peptone medium 0.460±0.20 0.362±0.21 0.217±0.18

5 Malt extract broth medium 0.388±0.19 0.11±0.02 0.22±0.02

6 Sabouraud dextrose broth medium 0.24±0.09 0.212±0.06 0.278±0.04

7 Drumstick peel medium 0.087±0.02 0.141±0.06 0.083±0.03

8 Potato peel medium 0.254±0.02 0.297±0.15 0.138±0.01

9 Carrot peel medium 0.156±0.02 0.407±0.15 0.15±0.01

10 Chopped grass medium 0.037±0.002 0.058±0.03 0.062±0.013

11 Bottle gourd peel medium 0.109±0.012 0.487±0.22 0.11±0.003

Note: Where ± is average and standard deviation for three replicates

Behera & Gupta (2015) 2(1): 05–09

.


Table 3. Expenditure occurred in preparation of 50 ml of chemosynthetic media.

S.N. Medium used Expenditure per 50 ml of medium (In rupees)

1 Tien and Kirk medium 1.26

2 Mushroom complete medium 0.84

3 Yeast malt extract medium 2.16

4 Glucose yeast extract peptone medium 1.85

5 Malt extract broth medium 6.77

6 Sabouraud dextrose broth medium 5.118

Since mushrooms are good source of bioactive compounds of anticancer, antifungal and anti-diabetic in

nature, the mycelia may be used for the large scale production of the compounds as mushrooms are seasonal. To

make the bioactive production technology cost effective, present study may be useful in order to obtain more

biomass ultimately to have bioactive compounds in hand. Further standardization regarding quantification of

substrate as nutritional source for biomass production and its cost economics is required to reach more

constructive conclusion

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The financial support from Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt. of India (Project No. 22-24/2010

CS.I) is gratefully acknowledged. Authors are thankful to office in charge AICRP- mushroom for providing

mushroom cultures (Pleurotus sajor-caju, Lentinus tuberregium and Calocybe indica).

REFERENCES

Adebayo-Tayo BC, Jonathan SG, Popoola OO & Egbomuche RC (2011) Optimization of growth conditions for

myelial yield and exopolysaccharide production by Pleurotus ostreatus cultivated in Nigera. African Journal

of Microbiology Research 5: 2130–2138.

Caglarlrmak N (2007) Analytical, Nutritional & Clinical methods.The nutrient of exotic mushrooms (Lentinus

edodes and Pleurotus species) and an estimated approach to the volatile compounds. Food Chemistry

105:1188–1194.

Chang ST (2007) Mushroom cultivation using the "ZERI" principle: potential for application in Brazil.

Micologia Aplicada International 19: 33–34.

Crognale S, Federici F &Petruccioli M (2003) β-Glucan production by Botryospaeria rhodina on undiluted

olive- mill wastewater. Biotechnology Letters 25: 2013–2015.

Essien JP, Akpan EJ & Essien EP (2005) Studies on mould and biomass production using waste banana peels.

Bioresource Technology 96: 1451–1456.

Hamedi A, Vahid H & Ghanati F (2007) Optimization of medium composition for production of mycelia

biomass and exopolysaccharide by Agaricus blazei Murill DPPH 131 using response surface methodology.

Biotecnology 6: 456–464.

Howard RL, Abotsi E, Jansen Van Rensburg EL& Howard S (2003) Lignocellulose biotechnology: issue of

bioconversion & enzyme production. African Journal of Biotechnology 2: 602–619.

Joshi M, Patel H & Gupte S (2013) Nutrient improvement for simultaneous production of exopolysaccharide

and mycelia biomass production of submerged cultivation of Schizophyllum commune AGMJ-1 using

statistical optimization. Biotechnology 3: 307-318.

Jong SC & Birgmingham JM (1993) Mushroom as a source of natural flavor and aroma compounds. In: Chang

ST, Buswell JA & Chiu W (eds) Mushroom Biology & Mushroom products. The Chinese University press,

Hong Kong, pp. 345–366.

Maziero R, Cavazzoni V & Bononi VRC (1999) Screening of basidiomycetes for the production of

exopolysaccharide and biomass in submerged culture. Revista de Microbiologia 30: 77–84.

Maziero R, Adami A, Cavazzoni V & Bononi VL (1995) Exopolysaccharide and biomass production in

submerged culture by edible mushrooms. Mushroom Science 14: 887–892.

Moore D & Chiu SW (2001) Fungal products as food. In: Pointing SB & Hyde KD (eds) Bioexploitation of

filamentous fungi. Fungal Diversity press, Hong Kong, pp. 223–251.

Behera & Gupta (2015) 2(1): 05–09

.


Vieira GRT, Liebl M, Tayares LBB, Paulert R & Junior AS (2008). Submerged culture conditions for the

production of mycelial biomass and antimicrobial metabolites by Polyporus tricholoma mont. Brazilian

Journal of Microbiology 39: 561–568.

Yang FC & Liau CB (1998) The influence of environmental conditions on polysaccharide formation by

Ganoderma lucidum in submerged cultures. Process Biochemistry 33: 547–553.

www.tropicalplantresearch.com 10 Received: 17 November 2014 Published online: 28 February 2015

ISSN (E): 2349 – 1183

ISSN (P): 2349 – 9265

2(1): 10–16, 2015

Research article

A study of genetic diversity in Oryza rhizomatis D.A. Vaughan

accessions using AFLP markers and morphological traits

G. Rajkumar1,2

*, O. V. D. S. J. Weerasena2 and K. K. S. Fernando

3

1Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, University of Jaffna, Sri Lanka 2Institute of Biochemistry Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, University of Colombo, Sri Lanka

3Agricultural Biotechnology Centre, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Peredeniya, Sri Lanka

*Corresponding Author: [email protected] & [email protected] [Accepted: 03 February 2015]

Abstract: Oryza rhizomatis is a wild rice species endemic to Sri Lanka and is reported to have

tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses prevailing in the dry zone of the country. Several

morphological differences have been observed in O. rhizomatis grown under different agro-

ecological conditions of Sri Lanka. Therefore, these rice species (accessions) may have genetic

differences to consider them as ‘ecotypes’. Morphological and genetic diversity of O.rhizomatis

accessions collected from different locations were carried out to observe genetic differences

among them. Scattered diagram of PCoA of O. rhizomatis accessions, based on morphological

data showed that there were no significant differences among them. According to molecular

analysis by AFLP, all the accessions were genetically similar and Jaccard genetic similarity

coefficient varied with a very narrow range between the accessions (0.915 to 1.000). According to

the results, the O. rhizomatis accessions tested did not show significant morphological and genetic

differences. In this study representative samples from different locations were grown in the green

house, exposing them to the same environmental conditions. This may have contributed to results

obtained with no observable morphological differences. Further studies have to be carried out with

insitu collections from different locations when extreme weather conditions are prevailing to see

the morphological characters are changed as an adaptation and to assess any genetic diversity.

Keywords: AFLP - Oryza rhizomatis - Polymorphism - PCoA.

[Cite as: Rajkumar G, Weerasena OVDSJ and Fernando KKS (2015) A study of genetic diversity in Oryza

rhizomatis D.A. Vaughan accessions using AFLP markers and morphological traits. Tropical Plant Research

2(1): 10–16]

INTRODUCTION

Oryza rhizomatis is an endemic wild rice species of Sri Lanka and is reported to have tolerance to biotic and

abiotic stresses. O. rhizomatis plants are grown under different agro-ecological conditions of the island. This

wild rice species studied is growing under different agro-ecological conditions of the island, especially drought,

high temperature (Hambantoda, Anuradhapura), and high salinity areas (Puttalam and Ampara). O. rhizomatis

species may have morphological, biochemical, anatomical etc. adaptations for their survival in the particular

environmental conditions.

Sri Lankan researchers have found several morphological differences among accessions of O. rhizomatis

species collected from different locations of Sri Lanka. There are no documentary evidences to support these

eco-morphological differences. Therefore morphological and molecular comparisons of O. rhizomatis

accessions collected from different locations were carried out by using forty five Morphological Descriptors

(qualitative and quantitative) and Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP) analysis of DNA followed

by cluster analysis.


Morphological studies of Oryza rhizomatis accessions

Seeds from seven Oryza rhizomatis accessions which have been collected from different locations of Sri

Lanka (Table 1). Seeds were planted in equal diameter pots filled with soil collected from paddy field with five

Rajkumar et al. (2015) 2(1): 10–16

.


replications for each accession, watered daily and grown under greenhouse conditions at the Plant Genetic

Resources Centre, Gannoruwa, Peredeniya.

Table 1. List of Oryza rhizomatis accessions and their locations used in this study.

Accession Location

WR-AC-85 Inginimitiya (Kurunegala)

WR-AC-20 Anuradhapura

WR-AC-08 Illakattuwa (Puttalam)

WR-AC-51 Tabbowa (Puttalam)

WR-AC-49 Kalladiya (Puttalam)

WR-AC-50 Samagipura (Puttalam)

WR-AC-28 Thambiyiwa (Anuradhapura)

WR-AC-03 Aukana (Anuradhapura)

Note: WR-AC – Wild Rice Accession.

Forty five morphological descriptors (both qualitative and quantitative) were used for characterization with

vegetative and seed parameters of primary importance. Evaluations were performed as described for rice plant

by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) using the scale established for each descriptor and data were

recorded. Mean values for different morphological traits and standard errors were calculated from mean values

of each accession by SPSS version 14 software (SPSS, Inc., Chicago IL). Principal components analysis was

performed using MVSP 3.1 (Kovach 1998).

AFLP analysis of Oryza rhizomatis accessions collected from different locations

Extraction of DNA

Genomic DNA was extracted from rice leaves using CTAB based method as described by Chen et al.

(1999). The extracted DNA was quantified by Agarose gel electrophoresis. Then concentrations of all DNA

samples were adjusted to 300 ngµl-1.

AFLP analysis

AFLP analysis was performed as described by Vos et al. (1995). Briefly; DNA from each sample was

digested with EcoR1 and 5 units of Mse1 enzymes. The digestion sample was incubated at 37oC for 3.5 hours.

To the double digested DNA, EcoR1 adapter (10 pmolµl-1), Mse1 adapter (10 pmolµl-1), 5U of T4 DNA ligase

(New England Biolabs, USA), 10 mM ATP (GE Healthcare Life Sciences, UK), and 1X RL buffer were added

and incubated overnight (~16 h) at 37oC in a water bath. Then 3.0 µl of ligated samples were run on 1.5%

agarose gel and visualized under the UV transilluminator to check the ligation.

After the ligation of adapters, 2 µl of digested/ligated DNA were preamplified in 25µl of reaction containing

20 pmol of each preamplification primers,0.5 mM dNTPs, 1U of Taq DNA polymerase (Genscript USA), 1X

PCR buffer containing 1.5mM MgCl2 (Genscript USA) and sterile water. The PCR amplification was performed

for 30 cycles of denaturation at 94oC for 30 sec, annealing at 56oC for 30 sec, extension at 72oC for 60 sec in

thermal cycler (Eppendorf ® Master cycler gradient). Then 3.0 µl of selective amplified samples were run on

1.5% agarose gel and visualized under the UV transilluminator to check the amplification. The preamplification

product was diluted 20 times with sterile distilled water and used as a template for selective amplification.

The selective amplification reaction was conducted in final volume of 20 µl containing diluted

preamplification product, fluorescently labeled EcoR1 primer, Mse1 primer, dNTPs, Taq DNA polymerase,

PCR buffer. Then PCR amplification was carried out. The amplified samples were purified by ethanol

precipitation followed by washing with 70% ethanol. The dried pellets were re-suspended in water and mixed

with ET550-ROX size and deionized formamide. Then the samples were denatured at 95oC for 2 minutes and

analyzed by capillary electrophoresis on automated MegaBACE 1000 DNA sequencer. AFLP fragment analysis

was performed with Genetic Profiler software.

Data analysis

Peaks in the electropherogram were analyzed and compared by using MegaBACE Genetic Profiler software.

Jaccard’s similarity coefficients (Jaccard 1901) were calculated using binary data and similarity coefficient

matrix was generated to assess the genetic resemblances among varieties. Then the similarity matrix was used

Rajkumar et al. (2015) 2(1): 10–16

.


for cluster analysis by Unweighed Pair Group Method with Arithmetic mean (UPGMA) method and the

dendrogram was generated. The confidence of the UPGMA clusters were assessed by Mantel test (Mantel 1967)

to calculate the cophenetic correlation coefficient (r). Principal Component Analysis (PCoA) was performed to

find out possible relations that could not be visualized in cluster analysis.

RESULTS

Morphological studies of Oryza rhizomatis accessions

Eight accessions of O. rhizomatis species collected from different location of Sri Lanka were differentiated

using thirty nine morphological traits. Significant variation was not observed for fourteen qualitative

parameters; ligule colour, collar colour, auricle colour, internode colour, culm strength, secondary branching,

panicle exsertion, panicle shattering, panicle threshability, awing, apiculus colour, stigma colour, lemma and

Table 2. Means and standard errors for the quantitative traits for eight accessions of Oryza rhizomatis.

Descriptor ( Quantitative traits) Mean ± SE

Seedling height(mm) 62.90±1.843

Leaf blade length(mm) 34.02±1.382

Leaf blade length width (cm) 0.985±0.0321

Ligule length (mm) 2.960±0.0814

Days to heading 62.00±0.737

Culm length (cm) 62.63±0.894

Culm number 4.90±0.178

Culm diameter (mm) 4.68±0.145

Panicle Length (cm) 22.783±0.2773

100 grain weight (g) 1.250±0.0268

Grain length (mm) 6.212±0.1562

Grain width (mm) 2.190±0.0395

Maturity (days) 110.37±1.296

Table 3. Scales, means and standard errors for the qualitative traits for eight accessions of Oryza rhizomatis.

Descriptor (qualitative traits) Scale Mean ± SE

leaf blade pubescence 1-3 (1=glabrous, 3=intermediate) 1.87±0.096

leaf blade colour 1-7 (1=pale green, 7=purple) 2.25±0.106

Basal leaf sheath colour 1-4 (1=green, 4=purple) 1.75±0. 069

leaf angle 1-4 (1=erect, 4=descending) 2.12±0.053

flag leaf angle 1-4 (1=erect, 4=descending) 3.38±0. .265

Ligule colour 0-3 (1=absent, 3=purple) 1.00±0.000

Ligule shape 0-3 (1=absent, 3=turnate) 1.62±0. 078

Collar colour 1-3 (1=pale green, 3=purple) 1.00±0.000

Auricle colour 1-3 (1=absent, 3=purple) 1.00±0.000

Culm angle 1-8 (1=erect, 8=procumbent) 4.50±0..340

Internode colour 1-4 (1=green, 4=purple) 1.00±0.000

Culm strength 1-9 (1=strong, 9=very weak) 1.00±0.000

Panicle type 1-9 (1=compact, 9=open) 7.50±0.310

Secondary branching 0-3 (0=absent, 3=clustering) 1.00±0.000

Panicle exsertion 1-8 (1=well exserted 8=enclosed) 1.00±0.000

Panicle axis 1-2 (1=straight, 2=droopy) 1.38±.078

Panicle shaterring 1-5 (1=very low, 5=high) 1.00±0.000

Panicle threshability 1-3 (1=difficult, 3=easy) 1.00±0.000

Apiculus colour 1-7 (1=whitet, 7=purple apex) 3.00±0.000

Stigma colour 1-4 (1=white, 5=purple) 3.00±0.000

Lemma and Palea colour 0=10 (0=straw, 10=white) 9.00±0.000

Lemma and Palea pubescence 1-5 (1=glabrous, 5=long hairs) 3.38±0.078

Sterile lemma colour 1-4 (1=straw, 4=purple) 1.75±0.208

Sterile lemma length (mm) 1-9 (1=short, 9=asymmetrical) 2.670±0.0723

Spikelet sterility 1-9 (1=highly fertile, 9=completely sterile) 3.75±0.155

Seed coat colour 1-7 (1=white, 7=purple) 4.00±0.000

Rajkumar et al. (2015) 2(1): 10–16

.


palea colour and seed coat colour. Other qualitative traits also showed less variation among the accessions: Leaf

blade pubescence varied from glabrous to intermediate. Leaf blade colour varied from pale green to dark green.

Similarly quantitative traits showed little variations among the accessions. Means and standard errors for the

quantitative traits are listed in table 2. Means, standard errors, scales for each qualitative traits are listed in table

3. There were no significant differences as evident from standard error (SE).

Multivariate Principal Coordinate Analysis (PCoA) of the morphological data indicated that the first, second

and third components accounted for 53.461, 18.442 and 13.810% of the variance among accessions,

respectively. Thus, the first three components explained 85.713% of variance.

Both qualitative and quantitative characters were considered and PCoA was performed. The scattered

diagram of PCoA of eight O. rhizomatis accessions with five replicates based on morphological data obtained is

showed in figure 1.The most important parameters separating accessions in the first component were grain

length (r =-0.758) and sterile lemma length (r = -0.654) and were negatively correlated with the first component.

Culm length, culm diameter, and hundred grain weight were also negatively correlated with the first component,

while other traits were positively correlated with the first component.

Figure 1. Two dimensional PCoA plot of relationships among Oryza rhizomatis accessions based on

thirty nine morphological parameters. Ovale indicate the well- defined group.

Grain width had the highest correlation with the second component (r = 0.805) while the other traits:

Seedling height, leaf blade length, and width, Culm length, panicle Length, grain length were also positively

correlated. Other quantitative characters showed negative correlation with the second components. Replicates of

accession W08 and W50 were grouped together (indicated in oval). But replicates of other accessions did not

group together. All replicates were scattered randomly.

AFLP analysis of Oryza rhizomatis accessions collected from different locations

Polymorphism

Six pairs of primers generated a total of 93 fragments. Of these only 13 fragments were polymorphic

(13.9%) and 80 (86.1%) were monomorphic. The fragments ranged in size from 30 to 550 base pairs. The

number of amplified products generated by individual pair of primer ranged from 13 (E-AA ×M-G) to 18 (E-AT

× M-G) with an average of 15.5 fragments per pair of primers.

Genetic relationship by cluster analysis

All fragments (93) scored were used for genetic diversity studies. The results obtained by the Jaccard’s

similarity coefficients showed that the genetic similarity varied with a narrow range from 0.915 to 1.000 (Table

4). The accession R-AC-28 and R-AC-49, R-AC-08 and R-AC-20 showed the lowest genetic similarity (0.915)

while the accessions R-AC-08 and R-AC-50 showed the highest genetic similarity (1.000). Similarity matrix

Rajkumar et al. (2015) 2(1): 10–16

.


generated for all O. rhizomatis accessions showed less genetic variation among the accessions. The genetic

similarity 0.930 was used to establish a cut off value for cluster generation. At this cut off value in UPGMA

analysis separated O. rhizomatis accessions into two main clusters (Fig. 2) I and II. Cluster I contained 3

accessions while cluster II enclosed 5 accessions.

Table 4. Similarity matrix based on Gower general similarity coefficient for Oryza rhizomatis accessions. R-AC-50 R-AC-49 R-AC-28 R-AC-85 R-AC-20 R-AC-51 R-AC-08 R-AC-03

R-AC-50 1.000

R-AC-49 0.957 1.000

R-AC-28 0.957 0.915 1.000

R-AC-85 0.936 0.936 0.936 1.000

R-AC-20 0.915 0.915 0.936 0.936 1.000

R-AC-51 0.968 0.947 0.968 0.947 0.926 1.000

R-AC-08 1.000 0.957 0.957 0.936 0.915 0.968 1.000

R-AC-03 0.936 0.936 0.979 0.936 0.957 0.947 0.936 1.000

Figure 2. UPGMA dendrogram showing genetic similarity among Oryza rhizomatis accessions based on Jaccard’s

similarity coefficient.

The cluster I again subdivided into two as IA and IB at the similarity coefficient of 0.928. Cluster IA

encloses only one accession R-AC-20 and cluster IB encloses two accessions R-AC-03 and R-AC-28. Cluster II

subdivided into two clusters IIA and IIB at the similarity coefficient 0.934. Cluster IIA encloses only one

accession R-AC-85 while cluster IIB subdivided into two clusters at the similarity coefficient 0.952. Accessions

R-AC-08 and R-AC-50 originated from the same node and having highest genetic similarity (1.000).

Principal Coordinate Analysis (PCoA) of 8 O. rhizomatis accessions based on AFLP data obtained from the

similarity matrix constructed by Gower general coefficient is showed in figure 3. The distribution of groups

produced by PCoA analysis confirmed the clustering pattern of the UPGMA analysis. The accession R-AC 50

and R-AC-08 were found at the same position in the scatter diagram as both having 1.000 similarity coefficients.

DISCUSSION

Oryza rhizomatis plants are grown under different agro-ecological conditions of the island. This wild rice

species has got adapted to climatic conditions prevailing in the Hambantota, Kurunegala, Puttalam,

Anuradhapura, Monaragala, and Ampara districts of Sri Lanka (Liyanage 2010). Sri Lankan researchers have

found several morphological differences among accessions of O. rhizomatis species collected from different

locations of Sri Lanka. There are no documentary evidences to support these eco-morphological differences.

Rajkumar et al. (2015) 2(1): 10–16

.


Figure 3. Scatter diagram of first three principal cordinates (PCo1, PCo2 and PCo3) of Oryza rhizomatis accessions.

This wild rice species studied is growing under different agro-ecological conditions of the island, especially

drought, high temperature (Hambantoda, Anuradhapura), and high salinity areas (Puttalam and Ampara). O.

rhizomatis species may have morphological, biochemical, anatomical etc adaptations for their survival in the

particular environmental conditions. However, according to our results, there are no prominent morphological

differences observed among the accessions collected from different locations of Sri Lanka. Scattered diagram

(Fig. 1) of PCoA of eight O. rhizomatis accessions developed based on morphological data showed that there

are no significant differences among the accessions. However, accession number 50 and 08 were grouped

together indicating the closeness of these two accessions (indicated as oval in the figure 1). While replicates of

other accessions were scattered among them indicating their morphological dissimilarity. Therefore it is not

possible to arrive of a firm conclusion that the accessions collected from different locations are morphologically

similar. Further studies have to be carried out using collections from different locations when extreme weather

conditions are prevailing to see the consistency of morphological characters.

According to the molecular analysis all the accessions were genetically similar because Jaccard genetic

similarity coefficient varies with a very narrow range from 0.915 to 1.000 between the accessions (Table 4). R-

AC-08 and R-AC-50 showed the highest genetic similarity (1.000). These two accessions were originated from

the same node of the UPGMA dendrogram (Fig. 2) and placed in the same position in the scattered diagram

(Fig. 3). Similarly the replicates of these two accessions were grouped together in the scattered diagram

generated for morphological analysis (Fig. 1). These results indicate that those two accessions were

morphologically and genetically similar. These two accessions were collected from the same area, Puttalam.

However some other two accessions collected from the Puttalam area (AC-51 and AC-49) did not group

together with previous (AC-08 and AC-50) in the scattered diagram of morphological analysis (Fig. 1). Results

of AFLP analysis of these four accessions AC-08, AC-50, AC-51 and AC-49 were clustered together in cluster

IIB in the UPGMA dendrogram (Fig. 2) constructed for the molecular analysis and indicated that all four are

genetically similar. It is suggested to repeat the analysis with more replicates from each location to confirm the

results.

CONCLUSION

The morphological differences of the accessions collected from different locations (Liyanage, Personal

communication) may be due to climatic differences prevailed at the time of collections. In this study

representative samples from different locations were grown under greenhouse conditions, common for all the

accessions. This may have contributed to results with no observable morphological differences. Further studies

Rajkumar et al. (2015) 2(1): 10–16

.


have to be carried out with in situ collections from different locations when extreme weather conditions are

prevailing to see the morphological characters are changed as an adaptation and to assess any genetic diversity.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors greatly appreciate the financial support given by the National Research Council of Sri Lanka

(Grant No. 05-61).

REFERENCES

Chen DH & Ronald PC (1999) A Rapid Minipreparation Method Suitable for AFLP and PCR Applications.

Plant Molecular Biology Reporter 17:53–57.

Jaccard P (1901) Étude comparative de la distribuition floraledans une portion des Alpes et des Jura. Bulletin de

la Societe vaudoise des sciences naturelles 37:547–579.

Kovach WL (1998) MVSP - A Multivariate Statistical Package for Windows, ver. 3.1. Kovach Computing

Services, Pentraeth, Wales, U.K.

Liyanage ASU (2010) Eco-geographic survey of crop wild relatives, Plant Genetic Resources Centre,

Gannoruwa, Peredeniya, Sri Lanka.

Mantel NA (1967) The detection of disease clustering and a generalized regression approach. Cancer Research

27:209–220.

Vos P, Hogers R, Bleeker M, Reijans M, van de Lee T, Hornes M, Frijters A, Pot J, Peleman J & Kuiper M

(1995) AFLP: a new technique for DNA fingerprinting. Nuclic Acids Research 23:4407–4414.

www.tropicalplantresearch.com 17 Received: 03 December 2014 Published online: 28 February 2015

ISSN (E): 2349 – 1183

ISSN (P): 2349 – 9265

2(1): 17–22, 2015

Research article

Phosphate solubilising bacteria (Bacillus polymyxa) - An

effective approach to mitigate drought in tomato

(Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.)

P. V. Shintu and K. M. Jayaram*

Division of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, Department of Botany, University of Calicut, Kerala, India

*Corresponding Author: [email protected] [Accepted: 17 February 2015]

Abstract: The main aim of the present investigation is to evaluate the effect of priming of seeds of

tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) with phosphate solubilising bacteria (PSB) during drought

stress condition. The use of phosphate solubilising bacteria as inoculants is found to be

simultaneously increasing the Phosphorus uptake by the plant and crop yield. As the farmers in the

state of Kerala are severely fed up with the water stress condition prevailing in the summer season,

the present attempt may become miniature step to stretch a helping hand to them. In the study, the

seeds of tomato (L. esculentum) cv. Anakha were subjected to priming treatment with 0.5 % and

1% phosphate solubilising bacteria. The parameters like germination percentage, root length, shoot

length, relative water content, amount of chlorophyll, protein, proline and yield were studied.

Inoculation with phosphate solubilising bacteria showed remarkable variation in both

physiological and biochemical parameters of tomato plants. Among the two concentrations tested,

0.5% phosphate solubilising bacteria was found to be effective in mitigating the effect of water

stress, stimulating early flowering and also in increasing yield.

Keywords: Bacillus polymyxa - Germination - Chlorophyll - Protein - Proline.

[Cite as: Shintu PV & Jayaram KM (2015) Phosphate solubilising bacteria (Bacillus polymyxa) - An effective

approach to mitigate drought in tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.). Tropical Plant Research 2(1): 17–22]

INTRODUCTION

Water limitation is one of the most important factors to reduce agricultural crop production, which is related

to global climate changes; especially drought and heat stress (Ciais et al. 2005). Drought (water stress) is the

major problem in agriculture and the ability to withstand such stress is of immense economic importance.

Water stress leads to substantial variation in morphology, anatomy, physiology and biochemistry of plants,

which ultimately reflected on yield potentials (Kramer 1969). These physiological and biochemical changes are

appears to be the result of accumulation of compatible solutes and specific proteins that can be rapidly induced

by osmotic stress (Shao et al. 2005). Water stress either short or prolonged, adversely affect photosynthesis and

other metabolic activities of plants and ultimately the growth and productivity of plants.

Phosphobacterium is one among the soil microorganism, which plays an important role in improving the

chemical and physical nature of soil, adding organic matter, solubilising the insoluble phosphate, increasing

availability and utilization of growth and yield (Ravikumar et al. 2010). Most of the Indian soils are deficient in

available form of phosphorus and its requirement is met by the addition of phosphatic fertilizers but the use

efficiency of applied phosphorus rarely exceeds 30% due to its fixation as Fe and Al phosphates in acid soil and

Ca and Mg phosphates in alkaline soils. In this context, phosphate solubilising microorganisms efficiently take

part in the utilization of unavailable native phosphates as well as phosphates (Lagreid et al. 1999). Various

studies showed that priming of seeds with various chemicals or even water can enable the plants to improve the

health and hence such plants may become resistant to water stress (Chivasa et al. 2000, Harris et al. 2004).

Considering these facts the authors made an attempt to study the effect of priming tomato seeds with phosphorus

solubilising bacteria that represents an important ecological adaptation to resist the plants from water stress.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Shintu & Jayaram (2015) 2(1): 17–22

.


For the present study, seeds of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) cv. Anakha were procured from the

Regional Agricultural Research Station, Palakkad, Kerala. Healthy seeds were selected and were divided in to 2

sets. First set of seeds was non-inoculated (unprimed) and considered as control and the other set was

inoculated/primed with 0.5% and 1% phosphate solubilising bacterium (Bacillus polymyxa) procured from

Agrobiotech Research Centre, Kottayam, Kerala. All the treated as well as untreated control seeds were sown in

garden pots filled with garden mixture. After 21 days of vegetative growth both the experimental and control

plants were divided into two sets each of which one each was subjected to water stress treatment for 3 days and

the other sets were regularly irrigated. After 3days water stress treatment the plants were irrigated regularly as in

the other case.

The following parameters were studied by using standard procedures: Germination percentage, root length,

shoot length, relative water content (RWC) (Bars & Weatherly 1962), chlorophyll (Arnon 1949), protein (Lowry

et al. 1951), proline (Bates et al. 1973) and number of fruits per plant. All the data were collected as detailed

below: on the previous day of commencement of water stress treatment (0th day), 1st day (24 hrs after water

stress), 2nd day (48 hrs after water stress), 3rd day (72 hrs after water stress) and 24 hrs after re-irrigation (1st day

of recovery) and 48 hrs after re-irrigation (2nd day of recovery).

RESULTS

There was significant changes in both physiological and

biochemical parameters caused by phosphobacterium and water

deficit, which was more pronounced in plants without bacterium

inoculation.

Germination percentage

Seeds treated with 0.5% PSB showed highest rate of germination

percentage (93.3%), compared to untreated control seeds (81.11%),

(Fig 1).

Root length and shoot length

The root length and shoot length of untreated control plants increased gradually during the study (Table 1).

But this increase was negligible as compared to the 0.5% and 1% PSB treated unstressed plants. Among

treatments, 0.5% PSB treated plants showed a rapid increase in both root and shoot length. However the plants

treated with 1% PSB showed a gradual increase but not as much as 0.5% PSB. Whereas, stressed plants showed

a considerable decrease in root and shoot length. Among this stress conditions, plants treated with 0.5% PSB

showed a significant increase in root and shoot length. It was amazing to note that during re-irrigation the

treated plants showed high rate of recovery.

Table 1. Effect of PSB on root length and shoot length (cm) of Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.)

Treatment & Plant part 0th

day 1st day 2

nd day 3

rd day 1

strec. 2

ndrec.

CC Root 6.3±0.51 7.4±0.92 7.9±0.28 9.6±0.80 9.7±0.58 10.8±0.69

Shoot 18.5±0.29 22.5±0.52 23.9±0.69 24.4±0.11 24.6±0.40 27.0±0.34

CS Root 6.3±0.51 6.3±0.46 7.1±0.51 7.5±0.34 7.8±0.20 9.3±0.56

Shoot 18.5±0.29 18.7±0.23 19.1±0.87 21.1±0.46 22.0±0.52 24.4±0.17

0.5C Root 7.4±0.81 8.6±0.79 9.6±0.40 10.9±0.11 11.1±0.75 13.7±0.23

Shoot 20.4±0.62 22.6±0.40 27.1±0.34 28.8±0.75 31.1±0.29 31.3±0.98

0.5S Root 7.4±0.81 6.8±0.40 6.8±0.69 7.6±0.59 9.5±0.69 10.2±0.46

Shoot 20.4±0.62 21.0±0.75 21.9±0.52 24.2±0.92 24.6±0.58 28.1±0.40

1C Root 6.23±0.23 6.8±0.40 8.6±0.46 9.9±0.98 10.4±0.92 12.1±0.52

Shoot 18.9±0.69 22.2±0.44 26.0±0.46 27.1±0.17 28.1±0.12 26.3±0.64

1S Root 6.23±0.23 6.6±0.39 7.2±0.87 7.3±0.75 8.9±0.64 9.4±0.35

Shoot 18.9±0.69 19.1±0.52 19.6±0.23 22.6±0.69 23.9±0.92 26.2±0.81

Note: Control (CC), stress in control (CS), control of 0.5% treatment (0.5C), stress of 0.5% treatment (0.5S), control of 1%

treatment (1C), stress of 1% treatment (1S).

0th day- Without stress; 1st day- 1st day of stress; 2nd day- 2nd day of stress; 3rd day- 3rd day of stress; 1strec.- 1st day of

recovery; 2ndrec- 2nd day of recovery.

Figure 1. Effect of PSB on germination percentage in Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.).

Shintu & Jayaram (2015) 2(1): 17–22

.


Relative water content (RWC)

The plants under water stress showed a decrease in RWC during 1st and 2nd day of stress and the values

remain unchanged on the 3rd day of stress but in the untreated control plants it was more or less same (Fig. 2A).

Plants treated with 0.5% PSB showed a slight increase in RWC and more or less same level was retained

throughout the period of study; these plants when exposed to water stress exhibited a negligible decrease in

RWC. Identical pattern of results were obtained in plants treated with 1% PSB that exposed to water stress.

Figure 2. Effect of PSB on Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) leaves: A, Relative water content (%); B, chlorophyll content

(mg g-1). [CC- Control; CS- Stress in control; 0.5C- Control of 0.5% treatment; 0.5S- Stress in 0.5% treatment; 1C- Control

of 1% treatment;1S- Stress in 1% treatment]

Chlorophyll

PSB treated unstressed plants exhibited high rate of chlorophyll content compared to control plants (Fig. 2B)

and it was prominent in 0.5% PSB treatment. Whereas all the stressed plants showed a decreased level of

chlorophyll content in both PSB treated and untreated conditions. During re-irrigation the chlorophyll content

was found increased in PSB treated plants compared to unstressed control plants.

Protein

High rate of protein content was observed in 1% PSB treated plants compared to 0.5% PSB treated and

control plants (Fig. 3A). A low rate of protein content was noticed in stressed control plants but was increased

during the re-irrigation period. Whereas the water stressed plants of both 0.5% and 1% PSB treatment showed a

negligible loss of protein content.

Figure 3. Effect of PSB on Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) leaves: A, Protein content (mg g-1); B, Proline content

(μg g-1). [CC- Control; CS- Stress in control; 0.5C- Control of 0.5% treatment; 0.5S- Stress in 0.5% treatment; 1C- Control

of 1% treatment;1S- Stress in 1% treatment]

Proline

It was interesting to note that both PSB treated plants showed high rate of proline content during the stress as

compared to the untreated control of which 0.5% PSB treated plants exhibited highest rate. The PSB treated

water stressed tomato plants and untreated control plants exhibited a decrease in the rate of increase in proline

content during re-irrigation (Fig. 3B).

Shintu & Jayaram (2015) 2(1): 17–22

.


Yield

Significant variation in the total number of fruits was found in the study. Tomato seeds treated with PSB

along with water stress showed maximum number of fruits compared to their respective control plants. But the

fresh weight of fruits was lesser in stressed plants (Fig. 4). Among the treatments, the seeds primed with 0.5%

PSB showed maximum yield compared to the other treatment and control.

Figure 4. Effect of PSB on yield of Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.). [CC- Control; CS- Stress in control; 0.5C-

Control of 0.5% treatment; 0.5S- Stress in 0.5% treatment; 1C- Control of 1% treatment;1S- Stress in 1% treatment]

DISCUSSION

Tomato seeds primed or inoculated with phosphobacterium showed an increased percentage of germination

(Fig. 1). Studies conducted by Demir & Mavi (2004) observed a delay in the emergence of radical of unprimed

water melon seeds by 4 days compared to primed seeds. Similar type of results was obtained in osmopriming of

lentil seeds (Ghassemi-Golezani et al. 2008). According to those authors priming was helpful in reducing the

risk of poor stand establishment under drought and permit more uniform growth under drought on saline soils.

Studies conducted by Marulanda et al. (2007) revealed that inoculation of lavender plants with native

beneficial microorganisms might increase drought tolerance of plants growing in arid or semiarid areas. These

micro-organisms seem to have advanced mechanisms to cope up with drought stress. During priming, seeds are

partially hydrated so that pre-germinative metabolic activities proceed, while radicle protrusion is prevented,

then are dried back to the original moisture level (McDonald 2000). Kaya et al. (2006) worked on germination

of sunflower under drought and salt stress reported that hydro-priming improved both rate of germination and

mean germination time. In the present study also, the germination percentage was shown to be maximum in

PSB inoculated seeds and it is presumed that phosphobacterium has a pivotal role in inducing germination by

improved pre-germinative metabolic activities.

The root and shoot length of tomato plants were high in PSB inoculated plants as compared to the control

(Table 1). Similar results were obtained in other crops where seeds treated with Pseudomonas fluorescens have

increased the growth of host plants (Barka et al. 2000, Niranjan et al. 2003). It was also reported that seed

priming with Pseudomonas affected root length, root and shoot dry weight and plant height, significantly (Jalal

et al. 2014). From this we can presume that PSB also have some role in promoting the plant growth.

A gradual decrease in RWC in response to water deficit was observed in the present study (Fig. 2A), which

is in corroboration with the observations of Jing & Huang (2002). According to those authors the inoculated

plants under stress exhibited less decrease in RWC compared to non-inoculated plants under stress condition.

This can be explained by the fact that phosphorous may help in root elongation and the roots of PSB primed

plants may absorb more soil phosphorus which could be in a non-available form during water stress.

It was surprising to note that the plants treated with PSB and subjected to water stress showed high rate of

chlorophyll content than the untreated control plants (Fig. 2B). Similar results were obtained in Fenugreek

plants in which highest amount of total chlorophyll were recorded in PSB treated ones (Singh & Singh 2010).

The higher rate of persistence of chlorophyll content in plants under stress and treated with PSB may be

attributed to decreased chlorophyll degradation and increased chlorophyll synthesis, as reported by Jayakumar

& Thangaraj (1998). According to them, the application of plant growth regulators to groundnut resulted in high

Shintu & Jayaram (2015) 2(1): 17–22

.


chlorophyll content without the modification of leaf anatomy and delayed chlorophyll degradation. From our

present study, it is evident that the effect of PSB is beneficial to the non-degradation of chlorophyll pigment and

that may be the reason of high chlorophyll content in PSB treated plants. The increase in the photosynthetic rate

obviously elevate the plant growth and there by the productivity of plants.

In the present study also PSB may cause to enhance the availability of insoluble phosphorus which

ultimately intensifies the accumulation of protein (Fig. 3A). Evidence is increasing in favor of a relationship

between the accumulation of drought induced proteins and physiological adaptations to water limitation

(Riccardi et al. 1998). Radian (1984) suggested that high phosphorus caused stomatal opening and facilitate

plant to accumulate more protein in inoculated plants compared to non-inoculated one.

Since the first report on proline accumulation in wilting perennial rye grass (Kemble & Mac Pherson 1954),

numerous studies have shown that the proline content in higher plants increases under different environmental

stresses. The primary response of drought stress is osmotic adjustment through proline accumulation was well

established in many plants (Raymond & Smirnoff 2002). From our study, it was clear that PSB treated plant

under stress showed excessive proline content to cope up with the drought condition. The rise in the proline

content in the present study may be due to the positive response of PSB on water stress.

In addition to the favorable effect on growth of crop plants, bio-priming is also known to increase the yield

during drought (Casanovas et al. 2003). In the present study also, maximum yield was observed in 0.5% PSB

treated and water stressed plants (Fig. 4). So it is presumed that the increase in grain yield in PSB treated plants

exposed to water stress may be due to the positive impact of PSB on the other physiological and biochemical

parameters studied. So it can be concluded that phosphate solubilising bacterium helped tomato plants to

improve its water status, and thereby tolerate water stress to a certain extend.

CONCLUSION

The present study revealed that PSB have an important role in increasing the yield as well as in

counteracting the effect of drought stress. The plants raised from 0.5% PSB treatment showed remarkable

results in physiological and biochemical parameters, which were followed by 1% PSB treatment, compared to

control plants. So, it can be concluded that priming of tomato seeds with 0.5% PSB can be recommended for

the farming community cultivating tomato plants, as a means to fight against drought stress.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are gratefully acknowledged to the Head, Department of Botany, University of Calicut, for

providing necessary facilities in order to complete the work in time.

REFERENCES

Arnon D T (1949) Copper enzymes in isolated chloroplasts poly phenol oxidase in Beta vulgaris. Plant

Physiology 24: 1–15.

Barka E A, Belarbi A, Hachet C, Nowak J & Audran J C (2000) Enhancement of in vitro growth and

resistance to gray mold of Vitis vinifera co-cultured with plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria. FEMS

Microbiology Letters 186: 91–95.

Bars H D & Weatherly P E (1962) A re-examination of relative turgidity technique for estimating water deficits

in leaves. Australian Journal of Biological Science 15: 413–428.

Bates L, Waldren R P & Teare I D ( 1973) Rapid determination of free proline for water stress studies. Plant

Soil 39: 205–207.

Casanovas E M, Barassi C A, Andrade F H & Sueldo R J (2003) Azospirillum inoculated maize plants response

to irrigation resistance imposed during flowering. Cereal Research Communication 31: 395–402.

Chivasa W, Harris D, Chiduza C, Mashingaidze A B & Nyamudeza P (2000) Determination of optimum on

farm seed priming time for maize (Zea mays L.) and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) for use to improve stand

establishment in semi arid agriculture. Tanzanian Journal of Agricultural Science 3: 103–112.

Ciais P M, Reichstein N, Viovy A & Granier (2005) Europe-wide reduction in primary productivity caused by

the heat and drought in 2003. Nature 472: 529–533.

Demir I & Mavi K (2004) The effect of priming on seedling emergence of differentially matured watermelon

(Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum and Nakai) seeds. Scientia Horticulturae 102: 467–473.

Shintu & Jayaram (2015) 2(1): 17–22

.


Ghassemi-Golezani K, Aliloo A A, Valizadeh M & Moghaddam M (2008) Effects of hydro and osmo-priming

on seed germination and field emergence of lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.). Notulae Botanicae Horti

Agrobotanici Cluj-Napoca 36 (1): 29–33.

Harris D, Rashid A, Ali S & Hollington P A (2004) ‘On from’ seed priming with maize in Pakistan. Proceedings

of 8th Asian regional maize workshop: New technologies for the new millennium held at Bangkok, Thailand,

Cimmyt, Mexico, pp. 316–321.

Jalal Jalilian1 Razieh Khalilzadeh & Edris Khanpaye (2014) Improving of barley seedling growth by seed

priming under water deficit stress. Journal of Stress Physiology & Biochemistry 10: 125–134.

Jayakumar P & Thangaraj M (1998) Physiological and biochemical effects of Mepiquat chloride in ground nut

(Arachis hypogea). Madras Agricultural Journal 85: 23–26.

Jiang Y & Hung B (2002) Protein alterations in tall fescue in response to drought stress and abscissic acid. Crop

Science 42: 202–207.

Kaya M D, Okcu G, Atak M, Cikili Y & Kolsarici O (2006) Seed treatments to overcome salt and drought stress

during germination in sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.). Europian Journal of Agronomy 24: 291–295.

Kemble A R & Mac Pherson H T (1954) Liberation of amino acids in perennial ray grass during wilting.

Biochemical Journal 58: 46–59.

Kramer P J (1969) Plant and soil water relationships- A modern synthesis, Mc Graw Hill Book Co. Newyork,

pp. 482.

Lagreid M, Bockman O C & Kaarstad O (1999) Agricultural fertilizers and the environment. CABI Publishing.

Oxon, UK, pp: 294

Lowry O H, Rosenbrough R J, Farr A L & Randall R J (1951) Protein measurement with Folin phenol reagent.

The Journal of Biological Chemistry193: 265–275.

Marulanda A, Porcel R, Barea JM & Azco´n R (2007) Drought tolerance and antioxidant activities in lavender

plants colonized by native drought-tolerant or drought-sensitive Glomus species. Microbial Ecology 54:

543–552.

McDonald M B, Black M & Bewley J D (2000) Seed Technology and Its Biological Basis. Sheffield Academic

Press. Sheffield. UK, pp: 287–325.

Niranjan Raj S, Chaluvaraju G, Amruthesh K N, Shetty H S, Reddy M S & Kloepper J W (2003) Induction of

growth promotion and resistance against downy mildew on pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) by

rhizobacteria. Plant Disease 87: 380–384.

Radian J W (1984) Stomatal response to water stress and abscissic acid in phosphorus-deficient cotton plants.

Plant physiology 76: 392–394.

Ravikumar S, Shanthy S, Kalairasi A & Sumaya S (2010) Effect of halophytic phosphobacteria on Avicenia

officinalis seedlings. Annual Biology Research 1: 254–260.

Raymond M J & Smirnoff N (2002) Proline metabolism and transport in maize seedlings at low water potential.

Annual Botany 89: 813–823.

Riccardi F, Gazeau P & Vienne D (1998) Protein changes in response to progressive water deficit in maize,

quantitative variation and polypeptide identification. Plant Physiology 117: 1253–1263.

Shao H B, Liang Z S, Shao M A, Sun S M & Hu Z M (2005) Investigation on dynamic changes of

photosynthetic charecteristics of 10 wheat (Triticum aestivum) genotypes during two vegetative-growth

stages at water deficits. Biointerfaces 47:132–139.

Singh, D & Singh N B (2010) Water stress tolerance in Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) inoculated

with Bacillus polymyxa, a phosphate solubilizing bacterium. Journal of Indian Botanical Society 89: 86–91.

www.tropicalplantresearch.com 23 Received: 13 December 2014 Published online: 28 February 2015

ISSN (E): 2349 – 1183

ISSN (P): 2349 – 9265

2(1): 23–29, 2015

Research article

Vegetative and reproductive anatomy of Vigna radiata L.

Amir Siahpoosh1, Mahboobeh Ghasemi

2*, Ahmad Majd

3, Hamid Rajabi

Memari4 and Taher Nejadsattari

5

1Medicinal Plant and Natural Products Research Center, Ahvaz Jundishapour University of

Medical Sciences, Ahvaz. Iran 2Department of Agriculture, Ramhormoz Branch, Islamic Azad University, Ramhormoz, Iran

3Factually & Department of Biological Science, Islamic Azad University, North branch, Tehran, Iran.

4Agronomy and Plant Breeding department, Shahid Chamran University, Ahvaz, Iran

5Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Tehran Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad

University, Tehran, Iran

*Corresponding Author: [email protected] [Accepted: 16 February 2015]

Abstract: In this study, anatomical features of the stem, petiole, leaf and flower of Vigna radiata

L. (ML2017 Genotype) belonging to Fabaceae family (Subfamily Papilionoideae) were examined.

Basic structure of a dicotyledonous plant is showed in stem and petiole. Their transverse section

consists of: epidermal and collenchyma layers, cortical layer (parenchyma cells and pericyclic

fiber) and stele (vascular bundles, secretory cells and pith); however there are differences in shape

and position of vascular bundles. In the stem, this bundles located on a continuous ring but in the

petiole are cutting and divided into two large adaxial and three abaxial bundles forming main

folaire trace, above which lie laterally a pair of secondary bundles. In the leaf is important the

number of mesophyll palisadic and spongy layers, stomatal type (paracytic) and stomatal density

(48.3%). The secretory cells are in the stem, petiole and leaf. The flower structure is pantamerous

with 5 sepals, 5 petals (standard, wings and keel) androecium is of diadelphous and gynocium one

carpel and ovary one locule with marginal placentation. In general anatomical charecteristics are

very important and could be used in diagnostic key of taxa at all taxonomic levels.

Keywords: Anatomy - Stem - Petiole - Leaf - Flower - Vigna radiata - Fabaceae.

[Cite as: Siahpoosh A, Ghasemi M, Majd A, Rajabi Memari H & Nejadsattari T (2015) Vegetative and

reproductive anatomy of Vigna radiata L. Tropical Plant Research 2(1): 23–29]

INTRODUCTION

The green gram, Vigna radiata L. of Fabaceae family (subfamily Papilionoideae) is one of important pulse

crops in Iran, India, China, Japan, American and Vietnam. It is a protein rich staple food. It contains about 25

percent protein. It supplies protein requirement of vegetarian population of the country. This is consumed in the

form of split pulse as well as whole pulse, which is an important source of human food and animal feed, Green

gram also plays an important role in substaining soil fertility by improving soil physical properties and fixing

atmospheric nitrogen (Mbagwu & Endeoga 2006, Singh et al. 1997). The economic importance Vigna species

exhibits a good grow successfully in extreme environments such as high temperature, low rain fall and pore

soils with few economic inputs (White 1983). Some anatomical and morphological features of the subfamily

Papilionoideae were reported by Webster & Cardina (2004). The variations in polar unit symmetry and

differences in wall sculpture of pollen grains have been used by many authors in the delimitation of various taxa

(Agwu & Uwakwe 1992, El-Ghamery 2003). Metcalfe & Chalk (1950) mentioned that the stems of Lathyrus

and Vicia faba (Fabaceae) have special features. Aim of the work was to provide details stem,petiole, leaf and

flower anatomical of Vigna radiata L. (ML2017 Genotype) for the first time and give a comprehensive

anatomical description of it aerial parts.


The plant samples were collected from Ramhormoz Eslamic Azad University research field (IRAN). The for

cross sections, 2 cm slices from stem, petiole and leaf were chosen and softened in a mixture of

Siahpoosh et al. (2015) 2(1): 23–29

.


glycerine/ethanol 70% (0.5:0.5) for one week. Cross sections were made with using commercial razor blades.

The sections were stained with methyl blue (0.5 g methyl blue + 1000 cc H2O) and carmine (4 g KAl (So4) +

100 cc H2O + 1 g carmine and boiled for 20 min) and mounted on the slides using Canada balsam. Then they

were photographed with a digital photo-camera attached to light microscope at 10-40X magnifications.

Anatomical characters, which were selected, included outline shape of the cross section, the shape of epidermal

cells, surface trichomes, the number of collenchyma layers, the cambium of vascular bundles, the number of

pericyclic fiber layers, the shape of parenchymatous cells in pith, stomatal type, mesophyll position, stomatal

density, the number of petiole vascular bundles, petiole shape, the secretory cells (Fahn 1990, Hasan &

Heneidak 2006, Mehrabian et al. 2007).

For microtomicsections, flowers collected fixed in absolute FAA (2 cc Formalin 37% + 17 cc ethanol 96% +

0.6–1.0 cc Acetic acid) washed with fresh water, then they were dehydrated in ethanol series with ulterior

toluene infiltration and embedding in paraffin wax. Sections were cut at 8–12 mm with a rotary microtome. The

slides were stained in oozine-hematoxilin and mounted in Canada balsam for light microscopy observation. The

flower and anther parts were observed. Pollen grain morphology is showed with SEM, for this work pollen

grains stabilized on aluminium stoks and coated with a thin layer of gold using coating equipments. Then, they

were studied using Scanning Electron Microscope at central laboratory of Ahwaz Shahid Chamran University.

RESULTS

Stem anatomy

Stem anatomical features of the examined sample at the age of six weeks based on transverse sections of

stem are shown in figure 1. The stem transverse section is ribbed. The epidermis layer consists of a single row

of rectangular cells that covered with thin cuticle. The buliform cells are in this layer. These cells are big and

vacuolar. There are single cell trichomes on some of epidermal cells. The circular collenchyma cellsin the row

four is located very close to the epidermis. The cortex consists of parenchymatous oval cells with thin walls.

The pericyclic cells show their transformation into fibers and one layer of fibrous strands are developed. The

stele consists of collateral vascular bundles arranged in a ring that separated from one another by interfascicular

cambium. In per bundle are intrafascicular cambium layers six among of xylem and phloem. Xylem is

composed of protoxylem toward the plant center and metaxylem to the side of plant apical. The secretory cells

are located very close to the phloem that these cells have Glocusidas material. The bundles are relatively

different in size and number. There are six large bundles located opposite ridges. There is also large pith in the

stem center and consists of polygonal parenchymatous cells which tend to decrease in size towards the periphery

small triangular intercellular spaces are visible.

Figure 1. Stem transverse section of Vigna radiata L., ML2017 genotype(objective( X10, X40). [p: Pith, sec: Secretory cell,

ep: Epidermis, pc: Cortex parenchyma, t: Trichome, f: Pericyclic fiber, bf: Buliform, co: Collenchyma, ca: Cambium, ph:

Phloem, pxy: Protoxylem, mxy: Metaxylem]

Petiole anatomy

Transverse section taken from the petiole of sample showed the following features (Fig. 2). The petiole has

irregular shape and consists of: The epidermal cells is also uniseriate with rectangular shaped cells and covered

Siahpoosh et al. (2015) 2(1): 23–29

.


with simple, unicellular and unbranched trichomes. One layer of circular collenchyma cells is located under the

epidermis. The cortex consists of orbicular parenchymatous cells. The stele is clearly divided into large two

adaxial bundles and smaller three abaxial bundles forming main trace, above which lie laterally a pair of

secondary bundles. Pericyclic fibers two layer are present as a separate layer above the phloem of each bundle

of the main folaire trace only (adaxial and abaxial bundles) while each secondary bundle has its own separate

fiber cap. Petiole vascular bundles is collateral type such as stem. The secretory cells is close of phloem. The

pith is composed of polygonal parenchymatous cells with intercellular space.

Figure 2. Petiole transverse section (objective X10, X40). [T: Trichome, p: Pith, ep: Epidermis, f: Fiber, svb: Secondary

vascular bundles, ph: Phloem, pf: Pericyclic fiber, mxy: Metaxylem, pc: Cortex parenchyma, co: Collenchyma, ca:

Cambium, pxy: Protoxylem]

Leaf anatomy

The upper and lower leaf epidermis layers are composed of uniseriate with rectungicular cells and buliform.

In this layer are stomata that consists of guard cells typically kidney-shaped and ostiole and are located on the

same level relative to the epidermal cells. The type of stomata observed is paracytic (Rubiaceae) and they occur

on the surface of both sides being more abundant on the lower surface. The epidermal cells shape is angular

polygonal. Stomatal density is 48.3 percent. The mesophyll is heterogenous and is composed of four layers of

palisade cells and three layers of spongy cells. The midrib is well developed. The xylem and phloem are

collateral; the xylem (one arches) is towards the upper side, while the phloems on the lower side. In the

secondary rib are spiral vessels.

Figure 3. Leaf transverse section (objective X10, X40): A, Midrib; B, Blade; C, Paracytic stomata. [xy: Xylem, ph: Phloem,

ca: Cambium, pac: Palisadic cell, bfc: Buliform cell, st: Stomata, spiv: Spiral vessel, ep: Epidermis, spc: Spongy cell, Sc:

Subsidary cell, Gc: Guard cell, So: Stomataostiole, Ec: Epidemis cell]

Floral bud anatomy

Floral bud transverse section of Vigna radiata L. (ML2017 Genotype) plant is shown in figure 4. It is clear

that sepals of calyxs are united and consists of two epidermal layers and 3–4 layers of ground tissue in between.

The corolla is papilionaceous with one posterior (the standard or vexillur), two lateral petals (the wings) and two

lower united anterior petals (the keel). The stamens are ten; each stamen consists of a two-lobed tetrasporangiate

C

Siahpoosh et al. (2015) 2(1): 23–29

.


anther born on the filament, a thin stalk with a single vascular bundle. The androecium is diadelphous, since the

posterior stamen is free and other nine stamens are with united filaments from the base to nearly more than half

of their length while the anthers are free. The stamens form an open tube enclosing the long ovary. The

gynocium is composed of single carpel and the ovary is one locule. Placentation is marginal.

Figure 4. Transverse section (objective X10, X40): A, Flower; B, Anther. [F: Filament, A: Anther, Ov: Ovary, O: Ovule, St:

Secretory tapetum, Se: Sepal, S: Standard, W: Wing, K: Keel, te: Temporary, t: Tapetum, Ps: Pollen sac, ep: Epidermis, en:

Endothesium, p: Pollen grain]

Anther anatomy

Microscopic observation showed that anther consists of four compartments or locule, i.e. anthers were

tetrasporangiate (Fig. 4A). The young and mature anther wall, which laid under the single-layered epidermis,

consisted of three layers: endothecium, temporary layer and tapetum (Fig. 4B). The epidermis was present

throughout anther development. However, the temporary layer and tapetum degenerated before or during miosis

leaving only the endothecium and the epidermis (Fig. 5A). The endothecium developed fibrous thickening on

the radial and inner tangential walls when microspore development was at the uninucelate stage and enabled the

mature anthers to dehisce and the pollen to be dispersed. Anther dehiscence started from the broken septum. The

broken wall resulted in an opening through which the pollen grains were released.

Figure 5. A, Anther dehiscence section (objective X40); B, Pollen grain morphology (Zone Mag 1.08KX). [Pg: pollen grain,

Fe: Fibrous endothesium]

Pollen grain morphology

Pollen grain is circular shaped, tricolpate, surface has regulated pattern and surface shows reticulum (Fig.

5B).

Siahpoosh et al. (2015) 2(1): 23–29

.


DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

In this study were investigated stem, petiole, leaf and flower anatomy. The studies proved many valuable

results. There are many unicellular trichomes in our samples stem and petiole transverse section. Trichomes are

hair-like appendages that develop from cells of the aerial epidermis and are produced by most plant species

(Werker 2000). Trichomes can serve protection against damage from herbivores (Levin 1973, Traw & Dawson

2002). The morphology and density of leaf trichomes vary considerably among plant species, and may also vary

among populations and within individual plants. The structure of trichomes can range from unicellular to multi-

cellular, and the trichomes can be straight, spiral, hooked, branched, or un-branched (Southwood 1986, Werker

2000). trichomes may also increase resistance to abiotic stress. They may increase tolerance to drought by

reducing absorbance of solar radiation (Ehrlinger 1984, Choinski & Wise 1999, Benz & Martin 2006). In our

plant were observed pericyclic fibrous, circular collenchyma cells and intrafascicular cambium. These tissues

are in many member Fabaceae families (Fahn 1990, Nassar et al. 2010). Devadas & Brck (1972) and Ataslar

(2004) reported that vascular bundles form a continuous ring. Our results are agreement in this about vascular

bundles which are located on one ring. Petiole anatomy characteristic are showed many results. In our plant

petiole transverse section is vascular bundles in different parts (adaxial, abaxial and secondary bundles in above

of petiole). The number and size of these bundles are different. Shaheen (2006), who reported variations in the

number of secondary vascular bundles in the petioles of some Mimosoid species and was used as a

distinguishing character among the taxa. There are pericyclic fibre, collenchyma cells and cambium in our plant

petiole structure. Öznur et al. (2011) examined and compared the petiole of 7 taxa belonging to the Lamiaceae

family. They observed some differences in the petiole shape, arrangement and number of vascular, trichome

types and the presence of collenchyma. The number of collenchyma layers and position, which is of taxonomic

importance (Shaheen 2007). The our sample leaf anatomy is showed that epidermis cells shape is rectangular

polygonal whereas in Lathyrus aphaca was characterized by epidermal cells with wavy configuration on both

adaxial and abaxial surfaces, in Vicia faba the epidermal cells on adaxial leaf surface were smooth, longitudinal

and linear in shape while cells with wavy outline were found on abaxial surface. Melilotus indica could be

delimited by highly undulating epidermal cells on adaxial surface and cells with slight undulations abaxially.

Trifolium alexandrianum stays apart by possessing epidermal cells with polygonal configuration. Idu et al.

(2000) described the epidermal morphology and the structure and development of stomata in 10 species of

Fabaceae. According to them the epidermal cells varied from irregular to straight-walled and in some taxa

sinuous patterns were observed. In our sample palisadic layers number is more than spongy cells. The structure

and ontogeny of the stomata has been studied in 26 species of Rubiaceae by Bahadur et al. (2008) in relation to

the irorganographic distribution. The stomata are mostly paracytic on the leaves. In our plant also stomatal type

is paracytic and distribution stomata is on both sides of the leaf. This position is also observed in some species

of Acacia (Shaheen 1995).

Stomatal density is also important. In general, the anatomical features observed on the leaves are consistent

with those of Metcalf & Chalk (1950) and Philipson (1963) for the description of leaf anatomy of Leguminosae

(Fabaceae). However stomatal diversity is useful at all levels of taxonomic hierarchy. The secretory cells are in

stem, petiole and leaf of our examined sample. According to Baran & Ozdemir (2006) secretory cells in the

phloem in the structure of leaves, stem and petiole taxonomic information in grouping the different plant taxa.

Flower

The Vigna radiata L. (ML2017 genotype) has papilionoied corolla. Our findings are in agreement with

Tucker (1987) findings that reported most Fabaceae flowers are papilinoid-type. The anther characteristics of

our sample are those typical of a legume flower. In the early stage of anther wall development, the hypodermal

cells divided periclinally to form the primary parietal and primary sporogenous cells. The sporogenous cells

divided and differentiated into abundant microspore mother cells (microsporocytes) giving rise to a large

number of pollen grains (Barth 1990). Meanwhile, the primary parietal cells divided periclinally to form and

inner secondary parietal cells underwent further division resulting in the endothecium and on temporary layer.

The inner secondary parietal cells developed into the secretory tapetum, the food rich layer of cells (Prakash

1987). In general anatomical charecteristics are very important and this features could be used in diagnostic key

of taxa at all taxonomic levels.

Siahpoosh et al. (2015) 2(1): 23–29

.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are acknowledged to Dr. Mohmmadian and Mrs. & Mr. Behdarvand from the Laboratory of

Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Shahid Chamran University, Ahvaz, Iran for their assistance.

REFERENCES

Agwu COC & Uwakwe GO (1992) Melissopalynological study of Abia and Imo States (Nigeria) honey.

Nigerian Journal of Botany 5: 85–91.

Ataslar E (2004) Morphological and anatomical investigations on the Saponari akotschyi Bioss.

(Caryophyllaceae). Turkish Journal of Botany 28: 193–199.

Bahadur B, Rajagopal T & Ramayya N (2008) Studies on the structural and developmental variation and

distribution of stomata in the Rubiaceae. Botanical Journal of the Linnen Society 64(3): 295–310.

Baran P & Özdemir C (2006) The morphological and anatomical characters of Salvia Napıfolia Jacq. in Turkey.

Bangladesh Journal Botanical 35(1): 77–84.

Barth G (1990) Cut flower potential of Sturt’s Desert Pea. Australian Horticulture 88:48–53.

Benz BW & Martin CE (2006) Foliar trichomes, boundary layers, and gas exchange in the species of epiphytic

Tillandsia (Bromeliaceae). Journal Plant Physiology 163:648–656.

Choinski JS &Wise RR (1999) Leaf growth and development in relation to gas exchange in Quercus

marilandica Muenchh. Journal Plant Physiology154:302–309.

Devadas C & Brck CB (1972) Comparative morphology of the primary vascular systems in some species of

Rosace and Leguminosae. American Journal of Botany 59: 557–567.

Ehrlinger J (1984) Ecology and physiology of leaf pubescence in North American desert plants. In: Rodriguez

E, Healey PL, Mehta I (eds) Biology and chemistry of plant trichomes. Plenum Press, New York, USA.

Pp.113–132.

El-Ghamery AA (2003) Storage seed protein electrophoretic patterns and spermoderm organizations and their

implications on the species relationships in the genus Crotalaria L. (Leguminosae). Egyptian Journal of

Biotechnology 14: 142–163.

Fahn A (1990) Plant anatomy. 4th

edition. Pergamon Press. New York. USA.

Hassan AE & Heneidak S (2006) Stem anatomy and nodal vasculature of some Egyptian Vicia species

(Fabaceae). Pakistan Journal of Biological Science 9: 2556–2563.

Idu M, Olorunfemi DI & Omonhinmin AC (2000) Systematics value of stomata in some Nigerian hardwood

species of Fabaceae. Plant Biosystems Journal 134: 53–60.

Levin DA (1973) The role of trichomes in plant defense. The Quarterly Review of Biology 48: 3–15.

Mbagwu FN & Edeoga HO (2006) Palynological Studies on Some Nigerian Species of Vigna savi. Journal of

Biological Science 6(6): 1122–1125.

Mehrabian AR, Azizian D, Zarre SH & Podlech D (2007) Petiole Anatomy in Astragalus Sect. Incani DC.

(Fabaceae) in Iran. Iranian Journal of Botany 13: 138–145.

Metcalfe CR & Chalk L (1950) Anatomy of Dicotyledons. Clarendon Press, Oxford. Nassar RMA, Ahmed YM & Boghdady MS (2010) Botanical Studies on Phaseolus vulgaris L. I-Morphology of

Vegetative and Reproductive Growth. International Journal of Botany 6 (3): 207–217.

Öznur EA, Özyurt MS & Gülcan S (2011).Petiole Anatomy of Some Lamiaceae Taxa. Pakistan Journal of

Botany 43(3): 1437–1443.

Philipson WR (1963) Vascular patterns in dicotyledons. Botanical Review Press New York 29: 382–404.

Prakash N (1987) Embryology of the Leguminosae. In: Stirton CH (ed) Advances in Legume Systematics. Royal

Botanic Gardens. Kew, UK. pp. 241–278.

Shaheen AM (1995). Morphological and cytogenetical variations in the ecological population of Acacia Mill in

Egypt, Ph. D. Thesis. South Valley University, Aswan Faculty of Science, Egypt.

Shaheen AM (2006) The value of vascular supply of the petiole trace characteristics in the systematic of some

species of subfamily: Mimosoideae-Leguminosae. Assiut University Journal of Bot 35: 193–213.

Shaheen ASM (2007) Characteristics of the Stem-Leaf Transitional Zone in Some Species of Caesalpinioideae

(Leguminosae). Turkish Journal of Botany 31: 297–310.

Singh BB, Mohan Raj DR & Dashiell KE (1997) Advances in cowpea research. IITA- JIRCAS, Ibadan,

Nigeria.

Siahpoosh et al. (2015) 2(1): 23–29

.


South wood SR (1986) Plant surfaces and insects - an overview. In: Juniper B, Southwood SR (eds) Insects and

the plant surface. Arnold, London, pp. 1–22.

Traw BM, Dawson TE (2002) Reduced performance of two specialist herbivores (Lepidoptera: Pieridae,

Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) on new leaves of damaged black mustard plants. Environmental Entomology

31: 714–722.

Tucker SC (1987) Floral initiation and development in legumes. In: Stirton CH (ed) Advances in Legume

Systematics Part 3. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, UK, pp.183–239.

Webster TM & Cardina J (2004) A review of the biology and ecology of Florida beggerweed (Desmodium

ortuosum) Weed Science 52: 186–200.

Werker E (2000) Trichome diversity and development. Advances Botanical Research 31: 1–35.

White F (1983) The Vegetation of Africa. UNESCO, Paris, pp. 1–356.

www.tropicalplantresearch.com 30 Received: 28 December 2014 Published online: 30 April 2015

ISSN (E): 2349 – 1183

ISSN (P): 2349 – 9265

2(1): 30–35, 2015

Research article

Plant diversity assessment of Sariska tiger reserve in Aravallis

with emphasis on minor forest products

Anil Kumar Dular

Department of Environmental Science

Maharaja Ganga Singh University, N.H 15, Jaisalmer Road, Bikaner, Rajasthan, India

*Corresponding Author: [email protected] [Accepted: 17 March 2015]

Abstract: The Sariska tiger reserve in Aravallis has its own importance and specific

characteristics endowed with unique biodiversity. In the present study an attempt has been made to

ascertain the current status of plant species which provides minor forest products or non-timber

forest products which is used for the sustenance of livelihood of local peoples inside and outside

the reserve. Attention is focused on one of the important reserve forest Rajasthan with pace of their

endemism and facing number of challenges. Minor forest product are the part of traditional forest

management, but new demands on forest are leading communities to seek more formal monitoring

processes to guide the allocation and management of their shrinking biological resources. Present

study emphasize on the assessment and management of plant diversity in perspective of a

sustainable harvest of minor forest product of the limited area of the forest. The sustainable harvest

of minor forest products requires a bit more than blind faith in the productive capacity of tropical

plants. The controlled exploitation of minor forest product holds great potential as a method for

integrating the use and conservation of tropical forest.

Keywords: Biodiversity - Aravallis - Sariska tiger reserve - Minor forest product (MFPs)

[Cite as: Dular AK (2015) Plantdiversity assessment of Sariska tiger reserve in Aravallis with emphasis on

minor forest products. Tropical Plant Research 2(1): 30–35]

INTRODUCTION

The biodiversity assessment is an essential tool to display the different ecological characteristics that can

make sustainable harvesting and ecological impact of forest utilization on the floristic composition of the forest.

According to the Champion & Seth (1968) the forest of Aravalli region falls under the broad category of Tropical

Dry forests. Sariska Tiger reserve (74°14ˈ – 76° 34ˈ N and 25° 5ˈ – 27° 3ˈ E) is situated in the Aravalli hill range

(Fig. 1) and lies in the semi-arid part of Rajasthan (Rodgers & Panwar 1988). It became a wild life sanctuary in

1955 and Tiger reserve in 1982. According to Department of Forest, Government of Rajasthan the total area of

the Sariska Tiger Reserve is 866.0 km-2, of which 302.2 km-2 is buffer zone and 497.8 km-2 is core zone. Sariska

core zone is comprised of three isolated; pockets: Core-I (273.8 km-2), II (126.5 km-2.) and III (97.5 km-2). The

status of the Core I has been notified as a National park in 1982. Sariska is undulating to hilly and has numerous

narrow valleys. Kiraska and Kankwari plateau and two large lakes Mansarovar and Somsagar. Silisad lake is

situated just along the north eastern boundary of the reserve. The altitude of Sariska varies from 540 to 777 m

asl. The vegetation of Sariska correspond to Northern tropical dry deciduous forests (sub group 5 B; 5/E I and

5/E2) and Northern tropical thorn forest (Sub Group 6 B) (Champion & Seth, 1968). The forest being scattered

and sparse over a large area on various geological and soil formation and vary greatly in composition. Sariska is

very rich in biodiversity with wide spectrum of flora and ample of wild life. The main economically valuable

species are Dhok (Anogeissus pendula Edgew.), Salar (Boswellia serrata), Khair (Acacia catechu), Bamboos

(Dendrocalamus strictus), Dhak (Butea monosperma), Kair (Capparis decidua), Ber (Ziziphus mauritiana) with

having lot of ground flora comprised of shrubs, herbs, grasses and sedges etc. Several studies so far conducted

in Aravallis like Nair & Nathawath (1957), Dennis et al. (1977), Sharma (1978, 1983), Parmar (1985), Rogers

(1988, 1990, 1991), Khan (1995) which supported checklist of plant diversity in this natural reserve with their

Dular (2015) 2(1): 30–35

.


economic uses at local. Samant & Dhar (1997), Joshi (2000), Gamble (1884), Ghate (1939), Legris & Meher

(1982) valuated this biodiversity in form of non-timber forest products or minor forest products as the source of

income for the livelihood a long time before. A total number of 403 indigenous and naturalized plant species

belonging to 271 genera under 86 families can be observed in Sariska Tiger Reserve. This also includes four

species of Pteridophytes belonging to three genera and three families, and a species of Gymnosperm. Table 1

includes the number of families, genera and species, under Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons, Pteridophytes and

Gymnosperm. Except for Poaceae (56 species) and Cyperaceae (17 species) the Monocotyledons are poorly

represented. The remaining 16 species of Monocotyledons belong to 10 different families Dular (2004).

Figure 1. Study site: Sariska Tiger reserve, Rajasthan, India.

Table 1. Shows current status of vegetation in Sariska Tiger Reserve.

Families Genera Species

Monocotyledons 13 59 90

Dicotyledons 69 208 308

Total Angiosperm 82 267 398

Pteridophytes 3 3 4

Gymnosperm 1 1 1

Total 86 271 403

The main objective of this study is to give a concise overview of the ecology and exploitation of minor forest

products in term that can be easily understood by non-specialists. This study is useful for green business and

other commercial purposes who are indulge in exploitation of non-timber tropical forest products. The

controlled exploitation of minor forest products has great potential as a method for integrating the use and

conservation of tropical forests. This study attempts to narrow the gap between the potential and the reality of

this land-use practice. It is also required that minor forest products as a source of livelihood for the indigenous

peoples, the exploitation of the minor forest products have a measurable impact on the structure and the

dynamics of the tropical plants population.

Dular (2015) 2(1): 30–35

.



Personal observations were taken in the field by visiting the study area and its different landforms. Plant

samples (leaf, flower etc.) were brought to Indira Gandhi Centre for Human Ecology, Environmental and

Population Studies, herbarium sheets for important species were prepared and help and cooperation was sought

from the Herbarium of Department of Botany, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur for finding out their feasibility of

uses as non-timber forest products. Interview has been taken for counter check of their utility by local dwellers

inside or outside the reserve. The inventorisation of such species and their parts utilize checked by literature

(Dular 2004). During the study potential useful sources include both published and unpublished grey literature

about the region and species of interest. Review of plant specimens at departmental herbarium provide

information on the distribution, habitat, flowering and fruiting phenology of different species of non- timber

product use.

RESULTS

Analysis of interview schedule has revealed that there is large number of plant species with economic value

termed as minor forest products. Plant species are utilized for variety of purposes. Table 2 includes a list of

twenty nine plants species which are providing edible fruits. Table 3 includes twenty one plant species utilized

as fodder. Table 4 includes name of fourteen plant species yielding gum, resins, tannins and dyestuff. Table 5

includes name of fifteen plant species which are providing some other minor forest produce.

Table 2. Includes the list of plant species which are providing edible fruits in Sariska Tiger Reserve.

S.No. Name of the species Families Local name

1. Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. Mimosaceae Rijua

2. Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. Rutaceae Bel

3. Alangium salvifolium (L.f.) Wang. Alangiaceae Ankol

4. Annona squamosa L. Annonaceae Sitaphal

5. Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Meliaceae Neem

6. Carissa spinarum L. Apocynaceae Karamda

7. Capparis decidua (Forsk.) Edgew. Capparaceae Kair

8. Cordia gharaf (Forsk.) Ehrenb. Ehretiaceae Gondi

9. Cordia dichotoma Forsk. Ehretiaceae Lasoora

10. Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb. Ebenaceae Timbru

11. Feronia limonia (L.) Swingle Rutaceae Kutbel

12. Grewia asiatica L. Malvaceae Phalsa

13. Grewia tenax (Forsk.) Fiori Malvaceae Chabeni

14. Holarrhena pubescens Wall. ex Dc. Apocynaceae -

15. Holoptelea integrifolia (Roxb.) Planch. Ulmaceae Kanju

16. Madhuca longifolia (Koenig ex L.) Macbre. Sapotaceae Mahva

17. Mangifera indica L. Anacardiaceae Aam

18. Mimusops hexandra (Roxb.) Dubard Sapotaceae Khirni

19. Moringa oleifera Lam. Moringaceae Sainjana

20. Pandanus odorifer (Forssk.) Kuntze Pandanaceae Kavedo

21. Phyllanthus emblica L. Phyllanthaceae Ambla

22. Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce Mimosaceae Khejari

23. Rhus mysorensis G. Don Anacardiaceae Dasni

24. Sapindus emarginatus Vahl Sapindaceae Ritha

25. Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels Myrtaceae Jamun

26. Tamarindus indica L. Caesalpiniaceae Imli

27. Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Combretaceae Bahera

28. Ziziphus nummularia (Burm. f.) Wight & Arn. Rhamnaceae Bordi

29. Ziziphus xylopyrus (Retz.) Willd. Rhamnaceae Ghat Bor

Dular (2015) 2(1): 30–35

.


Table 4. Includes the list of plant species yielding gum, resins, tannin and dye stuff in Sariska Tiger Reserve.

S.No. Name of the species Families Local name Use

1. Acacia catechu (L.f.) Willd. Mimosaceae Khair Exudate

2. Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. Mimosaceae Rijva Exudate

3. Acacia nilotica (L.) Del. Mimosaceae Babul Exudate

4. Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC.) Wall. ex

Guillem. & Perr

Combretaceae Dhavdo Exudate

5. Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Meliaceae Neem Exudate

6. Boswellia serrata Roxb. ex Colebr. Burseraceae Salar Exudate

7. Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. Paplionaceae Palar Petals as dye stuff

8. Cassia auriculata L. Caesalpiniaceae Anwal Bark

9. Commiphora wightii (Arnott.) Bhandari Burseraceae Guggal Exudate

10. Garuga pinnata Roxb. Burseraceae Ghogar Leaf gall

11. Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth Mimosaceae Jungal jalebi Leaf gall

12. Sterculia uren Roxb. Malvaceae Kadayo Leaf gall

13. Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Combretaceae Bahera Leaf gall

14. Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. Rhamnaceae Bor Wood

Table 3. Includes the list of plant species utilized as fodder in Sariska Tiger Reserve.

S.No. Name of the species Families Local name Purpose

1. Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. Mimosaceae Rijva Green leaf twigs

2. Acacia nilotica (L.) Del. Mimosaceae Babul Green leaf twigs

3. Acacia senegal (L.) Willd. Mimosaceae Kumta Green leaf twigs

4. Ailanthus excelsa Roxb. Simaroubaceae Ardu Green leaf twigs

5. Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC.) Wall. ex

Guillem. & Perr

Combretaceae Dhavdo Green leaf twigs

6. Boswellia serrata Roxb. ex Colebr. Burseraceae Salar Green leaf twigs

7. Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. Paplionaceae Palas Dried leaves

8. Capparis decidua (Forsk.) Edgew. Combretaceae Kair Green leaf twigs

9. Capparis sepiaria L. Combretaceae Kanthari Green leaf twigs

10. Delonix elata (L.) Gamble. Caesalpiniaceae Sanderso Green leaf twigs

11. Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn. Leguminosae Goyakhair Green leaf twigs

12. Ehretia laevis Roxb. Ehretiaceae - Green leaf twigs

13. Firmiana simplex (L.) W.Wight Malvaceae Kadayo Green leaf twigs

14. Grewia flavescens Juss. Tilaceae - Green leaf twigs

15. Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth. Mimosaceae Jungle Jalebi Green leaf twigs

16. Prosopis chilensis (Molina) Stuntz Mimosaceae - Green leaf twigs

17. Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce Mimosaceae Khejari Green leaf twigs

18. Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz Lythraceae Dalia Green leaf twigs

19. Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. Rhamnaceae Bordi Green leaf twigs

20. Ziziphus nummularia (Burm. f.) Wight & Arn. Rhamnaceae Pala Dried leaves

21. Ziziphus xylopyrus (Retz.) Willd. Rhamnaceae Ghatbor Green leaf twigs

Dular (2015) 2(1): 30–35

.


Table 5. Includes the list of plant species providing some minor forest produce in Sariska Tiger Reserve.

S.No. Name of the species Families Vernacular

name Economic value

1. Acacia catechu (L.f.) Willd. Mimosoceae Kair Katha

2. Acacia nilotica (L.) Del. Mimosoceae Bawal Katha

3. Ailanthus excelsa Roxb. Simaroubaceae Ardu Gum, match stick

4. Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile Zygophyllaceae Hingot Soap making

5. Bombax ceiba L. Malvaceae Seemal Match stick

6. Cassia fistula L. Caesalpiniaceae Amaltas Pulp of pod

7. Dendrocalamus strictus (Roxb.) Nees. Poaceae Bans Basket, hut making

8. Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr. Anacardiaceae Madhol Match stick

9. Madhuca longifolia (Koenig ex L.) Macbr. Saptoaceae Madhuvo Crude liquor

10. Mangifera indica L. Anacardiaceae Aam Fruits (seed oil)

11. Melia azedarach L. Meliaceae Bakain Leaves used to make

plates and saucers

12. Phyllanthus emblica L. Phyllanthaceae Aonla Fruit pulp in soap

making

13. Sapindus emarginatus Vahl Sapindaceae Areetha Fruit/Fuit shell for

soap making

14. Terminalia belerica Roxb. Combretaceae Bahera Bark, fruit

15. Wrightia arborea (Dennst.) Mabb. Apocynaceae Dudhi Dyes from leaves blue

dye from seeds

CONCLUSION

In this study emphasis was laid on the floral diversity with their uses as minor forest products or non-forest

timber product for the subsistence of local dwellers inside and outside the Sariska Tiger Reserve. The study

revealed that the loss biodiversity of the study area due to anthropogenic activities leads in scarcity of such

minor forest products, which is basis of livelihood of local peoples. Due to the human interference in reserve

will lead to deterioration of so many species which have great importance to generate economy for local

peoples, and uses of such minor products relieve biotic stress on reserve so far.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Author has deep sense of gratitude to his supervisor Director Indira Gandhi centre for Human Ecology and

Population studies, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur for their able guidance during the research tenure and also

thankful to Dept. of forest, Government of Rajasthan and field director to Sariska and other staff members.

REFERENCES

Champion HG & Seth SK (1968) A revised survey of the forest type of India. Government of India Press, Delhi.

Dennis TJ, Billore KV & Mishra KP (1997) Pharmacognostic study on gum-oleo-resin of Boswellia serrata

Roxb. ex Colebr. Reprint Bulletin 1(3): 353–360.

Dular AK (2004) Study of Biodiversity of Sariska Tiger Reserve in Aravallis with particular emphasis on

Anthropogenic activities and Conservation measures, Ph. D. Thesis. University of Rajasthan, Jaipur, India.

Gamble J S (1884) A Short account of the forests of Northern Forest Circle, Madras Presidency. Indian Forester

10: 543–553.

Ghate N S (1939) Forests of Godavari district. Indian Forester 65: 760–764.

Joshi HC, Arya SC & Samant SS (2000) Diversity, distribution and indigenous uses of plant species in Pindari

area of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve-II. Indian Journal of Forestry 24(4): 514–536.

Khan TI (1995) Tropical deforestation and its consequences with reference to biodiversity in India. The

International Journal of Environmental Education and Information 14(1): 31–44.

Dular (2015) 2(1): 30–35

.


Legris P & Meher-Homji VM (1982) The Eastern Ghats: Vegetation and Bioclimatic aspects. In: Proceedings

of National seminar on research, development and environment in Eastern Ghats, ed. Anon, pp. 1–18.

Waltair, India: Andhra University.

Nair NC & Nathawat GS (1957) Vegetation of Harshnath, Aravalli hills. The Journal of the Bombay Natural

History Society 54(2).

Parmar PJ (1985). A contribution to the flora of Sariska Tiger Reserve, Alwar District Rajasthan. Bulletin

Botanical Survey India 27(1-4): 29–40.

Rodgers WA & Panwar HS (1988) Planning a wildlife protected area network in India Vol. I & II Wildlife

Institute of India, Dehradun.

Rodgers WA (1990) A preliminary ecological survey of Algual spring, Sariska Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan.

Journal of Bombay Natural History Society 87(2): 201–210.

Rodgers WA (1991) A preliminary ecological survey of Algual spring, Sariska Tiger Reserve Rajasthan.

International Journal of Sustainable Development 7: 201–209.

Samant SS & Dhar U (1997) Diversity endemism and economic potential of wild edible plants of Indian

Himalaya. International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology 4: 179–191.

Sharma S (1978) Studies in floral composition of Jaipur District, Rajasthan. Indian Forester 104(1): 41–49.

Sharma S (1983) A contribution to the Botany of Ranthambore Tiger Reserve National park. Department of

Environment, Government of India, New Delhi.

www.tropicalplantresearch.com 36 Received: 11 January 2015 Published online: 30 April 2015

ISSN (E): 2349 – 1183

ISSN (P): 2349 – 9265

2(1): 36–46, 2015

Research article

Diversity and tree population structure of tropical dry evergreen

forests in Sivagangai district of Tamil Nadu, India

SM. Sundarapandian* and S. Subbiah

Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, School of life sciences,

Pondicherry University, Pondicherry, India

*Corresponding Author: [email protected] [Accepted: 10 April 2015]

Abstract: Vegetation structure and species composition were studied in the four selected

undocumented sacred groves (tropical dry evergreen forest patches) in the Karaikudi taluk of

Sivagangai district of Tamil Nadu, India. A total of 106 plant species were recorded in all the

sacred groves. The number of species and diversity indices of trees and understory (which includes

tree seedlings and saplings, climbers and shrubs) community showed greater values in site III

(Thiruparkkadal Chellayae Amman Kovil sacred grove) compared to other study sites. In contrast,

a reverse trend was observed in the case of herbaceous community. Albizia amara was the

dominant tree species in site I (Vidathudaiyar kovil sacred grove) and site IV (Aakkamudaiyar

kovil sacred grove) followed by Acacia leucophloea. In site II, (Koodaiyakkaruppar kovil sacred

grove), Drypetes sepiaria was the dominant tree species. Ficus benghalensis is the dominant

species in site III. The understory community was dominated by Acacia leucophloea in sites I, II

and III, whereas in site IV, Randia spinosa was dominant. Tephrosia purpurea was the dominant

species in the herbaceous community in site I while in site II, grasses were dominant. Leucas

aspera was the dominant species in the herbaceous community of site III and site IV. These sacred

groves still possess a sizable proportion of the region’s characteristic flora. They also have rich

cultural tradition associated with them. These sacred groves should be protected to conserve the

regional flora adjacent to human habitats as well as to sink carbon during global warming.

Keywords: Sacred groves - Plant diversity - Traditional practices - Tropical forest - Floristic

composition

[Cite as: Sundarapandian SM & Subbiah S (2015) Diversity and tree population structure of tropical dry

evergreen forests in Sivagangai district of Tamil Nadu, India. Tropical Plant Research 2(1): 36–46]

INTRODUCTION

The growing threat of biodiversity loss in the world receives more attention from ecologists and

conservationists who seek effective ways to conserve biodiversity. One of the approaches that have received

great attention in the recent past is the role of traditional, cultural practices and beliefs in protecting and

managing biodiversity (Byers et al. 2001, Infield 2001, Fabricius 2004, Berkes & Davidson 2006, Garnett et al.

2007, Gao et al. 2013, Kandari et al. 2014, Tamalene et al. 2014, Daye & Healey 2015). Sacred groves are

small or large patches of natural virgin vegetation protected or conserved by the indigenous community or local

people. The sacred groves are reported to have both social functions and ecological services not only in India

but throughout the world (Jim 2003, Bhagwat & Rutte 2006, Wassie et al. 2010, Hu et al. 2011, Tamalene et al.

2014, Daye & Healey 2015, Shrestha et al. 2015). Generally, most of the groves represent the vegetation in its

climax stage of that area. These groves are the store houses or shelter of many rare and endemic flora and fauna

and a veritable gene pool (Mgumia & Oba 2003, Khan et al. 2008, Swain et al. 2008, Rawat et al. 2011, Kibet

2011). The values of the sacred groves are manifold: aesthetic, ecological, economic and socio-cultural.

Despite being at various stages of decline and degradation, sacred groves still have one or more of these values.

The sacred groves have been preserved and maintained for several decades or even centuries all over the

world (Ramakrishnan et al. 1998) and particularly in wide variety of habitats in 33 countries (Bhagwat & Rutte

Sundarapandian & Subbiah (2015) 2(1): 36–46

.


2006). Approximately 13720 sacred groves have been documented from all over India so far and experts

estimate that the actual number could be much higher in the range of 100000-150000 (Malhotra et al. 2007,

Pandey 2010). A list of 528 sacred groves of Tamil Nadu with their location, area and deities in each district

was prepared by Amirthalingam (1998). The sacred groves selected in the present study are not in the above-

mentioned list. No published documentation is available on plant biodiversity and socio-cultural aspects of these

sacred groves. In recent years, significance of biodiversity maintenance, management and socio cultural

perspectives of sacred groves have been widely discussed (Mgumia & Oba 2003, Soury et al. 2007, Salick et al.

2007, Hu et al. 2011, Wassie et al. 2010) particularly in Africa and Asia (Wadley & Colfer 2004, Chun & Tak

2009, Luo et al. 2009, Yuan & Liu 2009, Page et al. 2010, Gao et al. 2013, Khandari et al. 2014, Shrestha et al.

2015). Vegetation analysis of sacred groves in many parts of India has been carried out by many workers (Khan

et al. 2008, Page et al. 2010, Agnihotri et al. 2010, Rawat et al. 2011; Singh et al. 2011, Kumar et al. 2011,

Parthasarathy et al. 2012, Ray et al. 2014, Bawri et al. 2015). Tree diversity in the sacred groves of Tamil Nadu

has been studied by Parthasarathy & Karthikeyan (1997), Swamy et al. (1998), Swamy et al. (2003), Kumar

(2006) and Sukumaran & Jeeva (2008). The objective of the present study was to generate data on the

vegetation structure and plant species diversity of four undocumented and unexplored sacred groves found in

Karaikudi taluk, Sivagangai District of Tamil Nadu.


Study Area

Four tropical dry evergreen forests (sacred groves) selected for the present study are in the Sakkottai Union,

Karaikudi taluk of Sivagangai district of Tamil Nadu. Vidathudaiyar kovil sacred grove (Site I; N 10°057´85ʺ

E78°49´466ʺ) is near Puliankudiiruppu and Mullangkadu villages. The total area of the sacred grove is 10 ha. A

well-built temple is present on one side of the sacred grove around which about 20 m area has been cleared.

However, more than 9 ha are covered by natural vegetation. The sacred grove is maintained by family trustee of

Kattayan, Pottukkathan and Kovilpattiyan groups. The main deity in the sacred grove is Vidathudaiyar.

Koodaiyakkaruppar kovil sacred grove (Site II; N 10°13´546ʺ E78°87´260ʺ) is near Puliankudiiruppu. The total

area of the sacred grove is 22 ha. It is a catchment area for the adjacent water reservoir. Koodaiyakkaruppar is

the main deity of this sacred grove. Thiruparkkadal Chellayae Amman Kovil sacred grove (Site III;

N10°13´486ʺ E78°87´654ʺ) has an area of 2.5 ha. The sacred grove is maintained by family trustee of

Chinnavidaththan groups. The main deity in this sacred grove is Chellayae Amman. Aakkamudaiyar kovil

sacred grove (Site IV; N10°11´196ʺ E78°90´836ʺ) in Peerkkalaikadu village has an area of 2.7 ha. The

sacredness is associated with a small pond in the grove. The grove is maintained by family trustee of

Puliayankaruppan and Kuttiyan groups. The main deity in this grove is Aakkamudaiyar.

Climate

The average annual rainfall was 2043 mm. Maximum rainfall occurred during October to December.

Average maximum and minimum temperatures were 40°C and 26°C during summer and 29°C and 22°C in

winter. Soil is of sandy loam type in sites I to III, but in site IV, it is more clayey. Based on Champion and Seth

(1968) classification, the vegetation of these sacred groves comes under tropical dry evergreen forests.

Sampling

One hectare plot was sampled for density, frequency and basal area measurement of trees [individuals with

>30 cm girth at breast height]. Twenty quadrats (5x5 m2) were laid to enumerate shrubs and lianas (climbers of

all sizes) whose base inside the quadrats. The same number of quadrats (1x1 m2) was laid down randomly

within the plot to study the herbs at each site. Vegetation analysis was done during the month of October and

November 2010, which is the rainy season, during which herbaceous growth is maximum. Important value

index was calculated as the summation of relative density, relative basal area and relative frequency. The plant

samples were identified in the field with the help of Gamble’s (1925) and Matthew’s (1988) floras and

confirmed with BSI, Coimbatore. The diversity indices were calculated using PAST software.

RESULTS

A total of 106 species were recorded from the four selected sacred groves in Sivagangai district of Tamil

Nadu. The number of species was greater in sites III and IV compared to other study sites (Table 1). Understory


.


population showed greater number of species in study site III followed by site IV and site I. However,

herbaceous community contribution was greater in site IV compared to other study sites. The diversity index of

tree community showed greater value in site III compared to other study sites. A similar trend was observed in

the case of understory community also. However, a reverse trend was observed in the case of herbaceous

community with reference to diversity index. The dominance index was greater in study sites, I and II

compared to other study sites for both tree community and understory species. However, the dominance index

of herbaceous community was greater in the study sites III and IV compared to other study sites.

Table 1. Consolidated details of phytosociological analysis of the selected sacred groves in the Karaikudi taluk of

Sivagangai District, Tamil Nadu, India.

Site I Site II Site III Site IV

No. of species

Trees (No./ha) 14 8 15 12

Understory (No./0.05 ha) 25 19 29 27

Herb (No./20 m2) 33 33 31 38

Total no. of species 65 55 68 68

Density

Trees (No./ha) 162 144 126 154

Understory (No./25 m2) 15.4 16.3 20.2 21.7

Herb (No./m2) 22.1 20.1 31.1 27.9

Shannon index

Trees 1.90 1.69 2.33 2.28

Understory 2.91 2.68 3.03 3.03

Herb 2.87 3.09 2.68 2.69

Dominance index

Trees 0.22 0.23 0.13 0.12

Understory 0.07 0.08 0.06 0.06

Herb 0.09 0.07 0.12 0.13

Tree basal area (m2ha

-1) 7.72 6.55 12.31 6.87

Albizia amara was the dominant tree species in sites I and IV followed by Acacia leucophloea (Table 2). In

site II, Drypetes sepiaria was the dominant species followed by Acacia leucophloea, Dalbergia sissoo and

Azadirachta indica. Ficus benghalensis is the dominant species in site III followed by Acacia leucophloea,

Prosopis juliflora and Acacia arabica. The understory plant community was dominated by Acacia leucophloea

in sites I, II and III, whereas in site IV, Randia spinosa was dominant. Tephrosia purpurea was the dominant

species of herbaceous community in site I and is followed by Croton sparsiflorus and Leucas aspera while in

site II, grasses were dominant. Leucas aspera was the dominant species in the herbaceous community of site III

and site IV followed by Tephrosia purpurea and Croton sparsiflorus.

Table 2. Importance value index of different life forms (tree, understory and herbs) in the four selected sacred groves in the

Karaikudi taluk of Sivagangai District of Tamil Nadu, India.

Name of the species Site I Site II Site III Site IV

Tree community

Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. 86.20 53.57 65.77 48.17

Acacia arabica (Lam.) Willd. - - 24.55 -

Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. 2.82 - - -

Albizia amara Willd. 101.81 15.18 - 64.88

Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth. - - 16.81 -

Atalantia monophylla (L.) Corr. - 3.92 - -

Azadirachta indica A. Juss. 21.99 34.22 23.74 26.30

Chloroxylon swietenia DC. 6.65 - - 29.31

Crataeva religiosa Forst. - - 3.74 -

Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. ex DC. - 50.74 - 7.82

Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) W & A 17.60 4.76 10.74 -

Drypetes sepiaria Roxb. - 115.36 3.66 22.64

Eucalyptus globulus Labill. 3.70 - - -

Feronia elephantum Corr. 2.56 - - -

Ficus benghalensis L. 14.70 - 58.72 -


.


Ficus racemosa L. 3.08 - - -

Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr. - - 4.96 22.76

Madhuca longifolia L. - - - 4.70

Morinda pubescens J.E. Smith 4.19 22.26 12.97 14.27

Prosopis juliflora L. 25.16 - 35.57 30.32

Senna polyantha (Collad.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby 6.72 -

Senna siamea (Lam) H.S.Irwin & Barneby 17.97 13.18

Syzygium cuminii (L.) Skeels - - 7.46 -

Tamarindus indica L. - - 8.03 -

Tectona grandis L.f. 2.82 - - -

Thespesia populnea (L.) Soland. ex Correa - - - 15.66

Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) K. Schum - - 5.33 -

Understory community

Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. 31.42 48.01 45.47 28.70

Acacia speciosa Willd. 3.70 - - -

Acacia tomentosa Willd. - - 5.29 -

Adenanthera pavonia L. 2.52 3.45 - -

Adhatoda vasica Nees - - 8.11 -

Albizia amara Willd. 29.22 - - 28.19

Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth. - - - 7.71

Argemone mexicana L. 3.18 - - 5.56

Atalantia monophylla (L.) Corr. - - 3.04 -

Azadirachta indica A. Juss. 12.92 28.88 6.73 4.18

Calotropis gigantea (L.) R. Br. - - 13.84 -

Carissa carandas L. 12.35 4.28 - -

Cassia auriculata L. 23.85 14.10 13.14 8.65

Cassia fistula L. 6.24 8.75 3.93 11.88

Cassia sp. - - 13.05 -

Chloroxylon swietenia DC. 6.04 - - 13.21

Coccinia indica W. & A. 2.52 2.93 7.80 8.21

Crotalaria laburnifolia L. - - 2.43 -

Datura metel L. 3.66 - 4.18 2.21

Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) W. & A. 17.70 7.96 3.85 4.02

Drypetes sepiaria Roxb. - 26.47 - 13.73

Euphorbia antiquorum L. 24.64 20.03 15.35 5.57

Ficus benghalensis L. - - 6.35 -

Gloriosa superba L. 2.27 2.89 0.33 -

Jasminum sp. - - - 3.67

Jatropha glandulifera Roxb. 6.66 - 4.17 4.48

Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr. - - - 3.74

Mangifera indica L. - - - 3.00

Memecylon umbellatum Burm.f. 20.26 22.30 2.43 10.57

Morinda pubescens JE Smith 8.74 19.21 16.18 11.55

Nerium odoratum Lam. - - 10.67 6.11

Pandanus tectorius Soland. ex. Parkinson - - 15.11 -

Pavetta indica L. 12.53 25.69 4.78 16.77

Phoenix sylvestris Roxb. 6.00 5.16 12.18 -

Prosopis juliflora L. 22.23 20.15 28.76 20.70

Randia spinosa (Thunb.) Poir. 2.61 20.59 - 38.28

Scoparia dulcis L. - - 2.95 -

Thespesia populnea (L.) Soland. ex Correa - - - 4.53

Toddalia asiatica (L) Lam. 2.38 - 6.87 -

Torenia asiatica L. - - 3.12 15.56

Vitex negundo L. 28.04 14.85 24.11 12.18

Ziziphus jujuba L. 8.33 4.31 15.78 7.02

Herbaceous community

Abrus precatorius L. - 2.02 - -

Abutilon indicum G. Don. 2.99 3.57 - -

Acalypha indica L. 14.07 10.34 7.77 25.51


.


Achyranthes aspera L. 5.38 10.47 5.40 1.99

Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f. - - 3.38 2.13

Amaranthus sp. 8.85 16.28 7.77 13.03

Aristolochia bracteata Retz. 2.33 - - -

Asparagus racemosus Willd. 3.06 2.02 1.40 3.01

Boerhaavia diffusa L. 4.85 7.32 1.96 4.99

Borreria hispida (L.) K. Sch. - 5.43 1.40 -

Borreria ocymoides (Burm.f.) DC. - 2.37 - -

Cassia sp. 8.77 8.04 2.42 -

Chloris barbata Sw. 2.75 4.13 - 2.34

Cissus quadrangularis L. - 3.57 - 1.72

Cleome viscosa L. 2.33 - 1.60 -

Clitoria ternatea L. 1.93 2.60 - 1.30

Crotalaria retusa L. - - - 1.51

Croton sparsiflorus Mor. 44.36 14.22 20.34 38.90

Cyperus sp. - - 7.86 -

Digitaria marginata Link - 2.02 - 1.51

Duranta repens L. 1.75 7.13 - 1.51

Echinops echinatus Roxb. 4.99 - - 1.54

Euphorbia sp. 7.20 5.43 2.80 4.73

Evolvulus alsinoides L. 5.27 4.85 3.37 4.23

Grasses (unidentified) 19.85 49.65 11.84 4.82

Haplanthus verticillaris Nees 1.66 - - 1.46

Heliotropium strigosum Willd. 3.46 - 1.40 1.51

Indigofera enneaphylla L. 5.26 2.37 1.59 1.51

Justicia betonica L. 4.99 2.37 2.60 3.85

Kyllinga brevifolia Rottb. - 10.21 - -

Lactuca sativa L. 1.39 2.37 4.20 1.30

Leucas aspera Spr. 44.23 30.79 81.12 81.94

Malva sylvestris L. - - - 1.30

Mimosa pudica L. 5.79 5.84 2.91 4.46

Mollugo nudicaulis Lam. 4.99 6.42 4.20 4.73

Ocimum basilicum L. - - .40 -

Ocimum sanctum L. 7.75 4.59 10.15 5.24

Oldenlandia umbellata L. - - 2.80 1.51

Phyllanthus maderaspatensis L. 12.11 15.30 19.46 7.41

Physalis minima L. - - 6.02 1.30

Pilea microphylla (L.) Liebm. - - - 1.51

Polycarpea corymbosa Lam. - - - 3.98

Sida acuta Burm.f. 2.90 5.86 8.43 5.58

Sida cordifolia L. 2.79 - - 1.69

Solanum trilobatum L. 2.37 6.02 - 1.99

Solanum xanthocarpum Sch. & Wendl. 3.86 - 2.41 2.59

Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers. 54.07 26.33 51.36 43.81

Tridax procumbens L. 1.66 5.43 9.18 6.61

Typha angustata B. & Ch. - 14.70 - -

Unidentified - - 12.44 -

With increasing tree size classes, species richness (number of species per hectare) decrease in sites I and II

while sites III and IV did not show any specific trend (Table 3). Similarly, density also didn’t show any specific

trend. The size class distributions of dominant tree species in the study sites are presented in figure 1–4. Few

species showed ‘L-shaped’ curves. The ‘L-shaped’ curves represent a good regeneration status of those species.

Some species showed ‘J-shaped’ curves and they are at moderate levels in terms of regeneration status.

However, several species didn’t show any specific pattern.

Similarity index values among the study sites in different life forms are presented in Table 4. The study site

IV showed more than 50% similarity in tree community with all other study sites. Study site II showed lower

similarity values with sites I and III. Understory plant community showed greater similarity among the study

sites than that of tree community. However, herbaceous community showed greatest similarity among all the life


.


forms. Site I showed more than 72-79% similarity with other study sites. Lower similarity was observed

between site II and site IV.

Table 3. Diameter class-wise (DBH) species richness (no. of species) and density (No./ha) of trees (>10 cm DBH) in

the four selected sacred groves in the Karaikudi taluk of Sivagangai district of Tamil Nadu, India.

Diameter

class (cm)

Number of species Density

Site I Site II Site III Site IV Site I Site II Site III Site IV

10–20 10 7 10 13 92 40 64 98

20–30 9 6 6 10 37 64 11 49

30–40 3 6 3 1 4 30 4 2

40–50 3 4 7 4 27 9 18 7

50–60 - 1 7 4 - 1 26 6

60–70 - - - - - - - -

70–80 1 - - - 1 - - -

80–90 1 - - 1 1 - - 1

90–100 - - 1 - - - 3 -

Figure 1(A-D). Diameter class wise (DBH) distribution of some dominant species in the selected sacred grove (Site

I) in the Karaikudi taluk of Sivagangai District, Tamil Nadu, India.

Table 4. Similarity index of tree (T), understory (U) and herbaceous (H) community in the

selected sacred groves in the Karaikudi taluk of Sivagangai District, Tamil Nadu, India.

Site I Site II Site III Site IV

Site I - 0.455T

0.739U

0.746H

0.482T

0.654U

0.718H

0.518 T

0.717 U

0.794H

Site II - 0.435T

0.612U

0.677H

0.571T

0.638U

0.649H

Site III - 0.500T

0.607U

0.704H

Site IV -


.



II) in the Karaikudi taluk of Sivagangai District, Tamil Nadu, India.


III) in the Karaikudi taluk of Sivagangai District, Tamil Nadu, India.


.



IV) in the Karaikudi taluk of Sivagangai District, Tamil Nadu, India.


A total of 106 plant species were recorded from the four selected tropical dry evergreen forests (sacred

groves) in the Sivagangai District of Tamil Nadu. Similarly, 83 species were identified in Nakuleshwar sacred

groves (Singh et al. 2011). A total of 189 plant species were recorded in 6 selected sacred groves of Tamil

Nadu (Kumar 2006). Ramanujam & Kadamban (2001) reported 74 species in Oorani sacred grove (Pondicherry)

and 136 species in Olagapuram sacred grove (Pondicherry). The number of tree species (species richness) >30

cm GBH in all the study sites ranged from 8-15/ha and this is at lower side of the range when compared to other

sacred groves of several other regions in Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The species richness in Thirumanikuzhi sacred

grove was 38 and Kuzhanthaikuppam sacred grove was 52 (Parthasarathy & Karthikeyan 1997), in Puthupet

sacred grove 52 (Parthasarathy & Sethi 1997), in three sacred groves of Kerala 20-23 (Chandrashekara &

Sankar 1998) and in six sacred groves of Tamil Nadu 11-17 (Kumar 2006), in Ayyanar Kovil sacred groves of

Madurai district 56 (Ganesan et al. 2009), in 10 sacred groves in Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh 42-66 ha-1

species (Rao et al. 2011). The tree diversity index (Shannon index) in the present study was in the range of 1.7-

2.3, which is comparable to Thirumanikuzhi and Kuzhanthaikuppam sacred groves (Parthasarathy &

Karthikeyan 1997). However, the tree species diversity is higher than Puthupet sacred grove (Visalakshi 1995,

Parthasarathy & Sethi 1997). The low value of tree species richness in the present study may be attributed to

anthropogenic pressures such as lopping, extraction of minor forest produce (fruits, seeds etc.) and cattle

grazing. These attributes may also be some of the reasons that might have resulted in poor tree regeneration

through seedling recruitment and also stunted growth in lopped trees, thus leading to small openings in the

canopy of sacred groves studied. Invasion by Prosopis juliflora in the periphery of the sacred grove inhibits the

regeneration of native species due to allelopathic effect which is also one of the reasons. The dominance index

value of trees in the present study was from 0.12-0.23 which is comparatively lesser than the dominance index

recorded in Kuzhanthaikuppam sacred grove (Parthasarathy & Karthikeyan 1997) and Puthupet sacred grove

(Parthasarathy & Sethi 1997). However, the dominance index value is comparable to that of Thirumanikuzhi

sacred grove (Parthasarathy & Karthikeyan 1997). The higher dominance value in the present study is due to the

dominance of single species in the sacred groves. Lower number of herbaceous species in the present study may

be due to grazing, trampling, edaphic and climatic factors. Herbs which grow immediately after monsoon

seasons become the victims of anthropogenic and adverse climatic factors.


.


Tree density in the present study ranges from 126-162 ha-1 which is comparable to the density of

Marakkanam reserve forest near Pondicherry (Visalakshi 1995). However, the tree density range recorded in the

present study is at lower range when compared to the sacred groves of Thirumanikuzhi sacred grove and

Kuzhanthaikuppam sacred grove (Parthasarathy & Karthikeyan 1997), Puthupet sacred grove (Parthasarathy &

Sethi 1997), and Chittoor sacred groves, Andhra Pradesh (929 -1018 ha-1, Rao et al. 2011). Such low density of

tree species in the present study is governed by a complex array of environmental factors besides human

interferences as suggested by Visalakshi (1995). Ground clearing and ground fires occur during occasional

rituals and annual festivals (by the visiting devotees) and these may influence the tree density of the sacred

groves. Man-made disturbances such as cattle grazing, criss-crossing foot path, lopping of small branches for

fodder may also be reasons for low tree density. The canopy gaps were invaded by exotic weed like Prosopis

juliflora, thus influencing the course of natural regeneration of sacred groves (Ramakrishnan et al. 1998).

Menace of invasion by alien weeds was also reported in many sacred groves in India (Parthasarathy &

Karthikeyan 1997, Ramakrishnan et al. 1998, Ramanujam & Kadamban 2001, Swamy et al. 2003).

In the present study, Ficus benghalensis was found to be the keystone species in the sacred groves because it

supports birds and insects. Similarly, Ficus benghalensis in sacred groves at Suriampettai play the role of a

keystone species providing a niche for the large number of birds and plants (King et al. 1997). In addition to

that, several (more than 7) honey combs were present in a single tree of Ficus benghalensis at the study site III.

Gloriosa superba and Asparagus racemosus were found to be threatened plants as they are tuber-bearing

climbers and are of medicinal importance. Uprooting these threatened plants for medicinal uses will make them

disappear from these sacred groves.

These sacred groves still possess a sizable proportion of the region’s characteristic flora. They also have rich

cultural tradition associated with them. People’s changing attitudes, erosion of traditional beliefs and faiths, and

cattle grazing have caused degradation of sacred groves over the years. These sacred groves would be protected

to conserve the regional flora adjacent to human habitats as well as to sink carbon during global warming. This

study also suggests that reduction of grazing and restriction of ground clearance during the festival times are

essential to enhance the regeneration potential of these sacred groves.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors express sincere thanks to UGC, New Delhi for providing the financial assistance. We also thank

Dr. Karuppusami Assistant Professor, Madurai College, Madurai, and Scientist BSI, Coimbatore for their help

in identification of plant materials.

REFERENCES

Agnihotri P Sharma S, Dixit V, Singh H & Husain T (2010) Sacred groves from Kumaon Himalaya. Current

Science 99: 8–997.

Amirthalingam M (1998) Sacred groves of Tamil Nadu. CPR Environmental Education Centre. Chennai, 190 p.

Bawri A, Gajurel PR, Paul A & Khan ML (2015) Diversity and distribution of Primula species in western

Arunachal Pradesh, eastern Himalayan region, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 7(1): 6788–6795.

Berkes F & Davidson IJH (2006) Biodiversity, traditional management systems, and cultural landscapes:

Examples from the boreal forest of Canada. International Social Science Journal 58: 35–47.

Bhagwat SA & Rutte C (2006) Sacred groves: potential for biodiversity management. Frontiers of Ecology and

Environment 4: 519–524.

Byers BA, Cunliffe RN & Hudak AT (2001) Linking the conservation of culture and nature: a case study of

sacred forests in Zimbabwe. Human Ecology 29: 187–218.

Champion HG & Seth SK (1968) A revised survey of the forest types of India. Manager of Publication, New

Delhi, India, 404 p.

Chandrashekara UM & Sankar S (1998) Ecology and management of sacred groves in Kerala, India. Forest

Ecology and Management 112: 165–177.

Chun YW & Tak KI (2009) Songgye, a traditional knowledge system for sustainable forest management in

Choson Dynasty of Korea. Forest Ecology and Management 257: 2022–2026.

Daye DD & Healey JR (2015) Impacts of land-use change on sacred forests at the landscape scale. Global

Ecology and Conservation 3: 349–358.


.


Fabricius C (2004) Rights, resources and rural development: community-based natural resource management in

Southern Africa. Earthscan, London.

Gamble JS (1925) Flora of Presidency of Madras, Vol. 1–3. Adlard and Son. London, 2017 p.

Ganesan S, Ponnuchamy M, Kesavan L & Selvaraji A (2009) Floristic composition and practices on the selected

sacred groves pallapatty village (Reserved forest) Tamil Nadu. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 8:

154–162.

Gao H, Ouyang Z, Chen S & Koppen CSA (2013) Role of culturally protected forests in biodiversity

conservation in Southeast China. Biodiversity and Conservation 22: 531–544.

Garnett ST, Sayer J & DuToit J (2007) Improving the effectiveness of interventions to balance conservation and

development: a conceptual framework. Ecological Society 12: 2.

Hu L, Li Z, Liao W & Fan Q (2011) Values of village fengshui forest patches in biodiversity conservation in

The Pearl River Delta, China. Biological Conservation 144: 1553–1559.

Infield M (2001) Cultural values: a forgotten strategy for building community support for protected areas in

Africa. Conservation Biology 15: 800–802.

Jim CY (2003) Conservation of soils in culturally protected wood lands in rural Hong Kong. Forest Ecology

and Management 175: 339–353.

Kandari LS, Bisht VK, Bhardwaj M & Thakur AK (2014) Conservation and management of sacred groves,

myths and beliefs of tribal communities: a case study from north-India. Environmental Systems Research 3:

16. [DOI: 10.1186/s40068-014-0016-8].

Khan ML, Khumbongmayum AD & Tripathi RS (2008) The sacred groves and their significance in conserving

biodiversity an overview. International Journal Ecology and Environmental Sciences 34 (3): 277–291.

Kibet S (2011) Plant communities, species diversity, richness, and regeneration of a traditionally managed

coastal forest, Kenya. Forest Ecology and Management 261: 949–957.

King IEDO, Viji C & Narasimhan D (1997) Sacred groves: Traditional ecological heritage. International

Journal of Ecology Environmental Sciences 23: 463–470.

Kumar K, Manhas RK & Magotra R (2011) The Shankaracharya sacred grove of Srinagar, Kashmir, India.

Current Science 101: 262–263.

Kumar M (2006) Ecological studies on the selected sacred groves of Tamil nadu. Ph.D. thesis submitted to

Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai, 140 p.

Luo Y, Liu J & Zhang D (2009) Role of traditional beliefs of Baima Tibetans in biodiversity conservation in

China. Forest Ecology and Management 257: 1995–2001.

Malhotra KC, Gokhale Y, Chatterjee S & Srivastava S (2007) Sacred groves in India: An overview. Aryan

Books International, New Delhi, 170 p.

Matthew KM (1988) Flora of Tamil Nadu Carnatic, Vol. I–IV. St. Joseph College Thiruchirapalli, 915 p.

Mgumia FH & Oba AG (2003) Potential role of sacred groves in biodiversity conservation in Tanzania.

Environmental conservation 30(3): 259–265.

Page NV, Qureshi Q, Rawat GS & Kushalappa CG (2010) Plant diversity in sacred forest fragments of Western

Ghats: a comparative study of four life forms. Plant Ecology 206: 237–250.

Pandey HN (2010) Sacred Forests: Their Ecology and Diversity. Regency Publications, New Delhi, 197 p.

Parthasarathy N & Karthikeyan R (1997) Plant biodiversity inventory and conservation of two tropical dry

evergreen forests on the Coromandel Coast, South India. Biodiversity and Conservation 6: 1063–1083.

Parthasarathy N & Sethi P (1997) Trees and liana species diversity and population structure in a tropical dry

evergreen forest in South India. Tropical Ecology 38: 19–30.

Ramakrishnan PS, Saxena KG & Chandrashekara UM (1998) (Eds.) Conserving the Sacred for Biodiversity

Management. Oxford and IBH publications. New Delhi, 480 p.

Ramanujam MP & Kadamban D (2001) Plant biodiversity of two tropical dry ever green forests in the

Pondicherry region of South India and the role of belief system in their conservation. Biodiversity and

Conservation 10: 1203–1217.

Rao BR, Sureshbabu MV, Reddy MS, Reddy AM, Rao VS, Sunitha S & Ganeshaiah KN (2011) Sacred Groves

in southern Eastern Ghats, India: Are they better managed then forest reserves. Tropical Ecology 52(1): 79–

90.


.


Rawat M, Vasistha HB, Manhas RK & Mridula N (2011) Sacred forest of Kunjapuri Siddha peeth, Uttarakhand,

India. Tropical Ecology 52(2): 219–221.

Ray R, Chandran MDS, Ramachandra TV (2014) Biodiversity and ecological assessments of Indian sacred

groves. Journal of Forestry Research 25(1): 21−28.

Salick J, Amend A, Anderson D, Hoffmeister K, Gunn B & Zhendong F (2007) Tibetan sacred sites conserve

old growth trees and cover in the eastern Himalayas. Biodiversity and Conservation 16: 693–706.

Shannon CI & Weiner W (1963) The mathematical theory of communication. University of Illinois press,

Urbana iii. USA.

Shrestha LJ, Devkota M & Sharma BK (2015) Phyto-sociological Assessment of Sacred Groves in Kathmandu,

Nepal. International Journal of Plant & Soil Science 4(5): 437–444.

Simpson EH (1949) Measurement of diversity. Nature 163: 688.

Singh HP, Agnihotri PC, Pande & Husain T (2011) Biodiversity conservation through a traditional beliefs

system in Indian Himalaya: A case study from Nakuleshwar sacred groves. Environmentalist 31: 246–253.

Soury A, van Koppen K, Tchibozo MS & Cotonou B (2007) Sacred forests: a sustainable conservation

strategy? The case of sacred forests in the Oue ´me ´ valley, Benin. Wageningen University, Wageningen.

Sukumaran S. & Jeeva S (2008). A floristic study on miniature sacred groves at Agastheeshwaram, Southern

peninsular India. Eurasian Journal of Biological Science 2 (8): 66–72.

Swain PK, Sivaramakrishna I & Murty LN (2008) Scared Groves Their distribution in Eastern Ghats region.

EPTRI – ENVIS New letter, 144 p.

Swamy PS, Kumar M & Sundarapandian SM (2003) Spirituality and Ecology of sacred groves of Tamil Nadu.

Unasylva 54: 53–58.

Swamy PS, Sundarapandian SM & Chandrasekaran S (1998) Sacred groves of Tamil Nadu. In: Ramakrishnan

PS, Saxena KG & Chandrashekara UM (eds.) Conserving the sacred for biodiversity management, Oxford

and IBH publications. New Delhi, pp. 357–361.

Visalakshi N (1995) Vegetation analysis of two tropical evergreen forests in Southern India. Tropical Ecology

36: 117–127.

Wadley RL & Colfer CJP (2004) Sacred forest, hunting, and conservation in West Kalimantan, Indonesia.

Human Ecology 32: 313–338.

Wassie A, Sterck FJ & Bongers F (2010) Species and structural diversity of church forests in a fragmented

Ethiopian High land landscape. Journal of Vegetation Science 21: 938–948.

Whittaker RH (1969) Evolution and diversity of plant communities. In: Woodwell GM & Smith HM (eds)

Diversity and stability in ecological system. Brookhaven Symposium on biology No. 22 U.S. Department of

Commerce. Springfield, Virginia, pp. 179–93.

Yuan J & Liu J (2009) Fengshui forest management by the Buyi ethnic minority in China. Forest Ecology and

Management 257: 2002–2009.

www.tropicalplantresearch.com 47 Received: 15 January 2015 Published online: 30 April 2015

ISSN (E): 2349 – 1183

ISSN (P): 2349 – 9265

2(1): 47–50, 2015

Research article

ehT study of Nano silica effects on the total protein content

and the activities of Catalase, Peroxidase and Superoxid

Dismutase of Vicia faba L.

Ghffar Roohizadeh*, Sedigheh Arbabian, Golnaz Tajadod, Ahmad Majd and

Fahimeh Salimpour

Department of Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, North-Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University,

Tehran, Iran


Abstract: Silica is the second common element of soil content which has positive effects on the

resistance of plants against biotic and abiotic stresses. This element can increase the yield,

decrease the evaporation and perspiration and moreover, causes increasing of production of

antioxidant enzymes, and less sensitivity to some fungal diseases. In the present study, the effects

of silica on the total protein content and activity of some antioxidant enzymes in Vicia faba L.

were studied. The seeds of plant were treated by 0 (as control), 1.5 and 3 mM of Nano silica. There

were three repeats for all treatments. The result showed that 1.5 mM treatment did not significantly

increase the total protein content in comparison to control samples. The activity of Peroxidase in

the 1.5 and 3 mM treatments of Nano silica was significantly increased. In 3 mM treatments of

Nano silica also increased the activity of Superoxide Dismutase and Peroxidase significantly.

Based on the results, it can be concluded that Nano silica particles can increase the activity of

some antioxidant enzymes in broad bean, which in turn, brings about less damages caused by

reactive oxygen species, and protects the plant’s physiological processes against stresses.

Keywords: Antioxidant enzymes - Total protein - Nano silica - Vicia faba L.

[Cite as: Roohizadeh G, Arbabian S, Tajadod G, Majd A & Salimpour F (2015) ehe study of Nano silica

effects on the total protein content and the activities of Catalase, Peroxidase and Superoxid Dismutase of Vicia

faba L. Tropical Plant Research 2(1): 47–50]

INTRODUCTION

Vicia faba L. is one of the Fabaceae. This plant is annual grass, with 80–110 cm height. The flowers of

broad bean are white with black or purple spots. The seeds are sheathed and the fruits, seeds and flowers have

medical usages. Vicia faba L. is hetero fertilized with 2n=12. Because of possessing of high percentage of

proteins (30–34%), this plant is alimentary- worth. Environmental stress causes reduction of balance between

reactive oxygen species and antioxidant defence of plants (Bai & Sui, 2006). Superoxide Dismutase as one of

the metalloproteins, can catalyse 2O20-

o2 + O20-

(Kakkar & Sawhney 2002). SOD indeed, produces H2O2.

(Elkahoui et al. 2005). Catalase (CAT) is one of the H2O2 scavenger which can catalyse the reaction of 2H2O2

2H2O+O2 as a metalloprotein (Garnczarska 2005). After an smooth increasing of catalase activity which is

associated with shortage of water in root and leaves, this activity in leaves would be stable at constant level, and

is reduced in heavy shortage of water in root, that may bring about inactivation of catalase (Feierabend et al.

1992). After oxygen, silica is the second structural element in the earth which is non-mobile in the plants.

Although silica is not necessary for plants, most of the higher plants need it to have optimum growth (Richmond

& Sussman 2003, Ma et al. 2004, Currie & Perry 2007). The most effect of silica on plants is related to the

resistance against biotic and abiotic stress (Ma & Yamaji 2006, Liang et al. 2007). As the cell wall of plants

prevents the entrance of elements into cells, the Nano particles which have less diameter than the pores of cell

wall, therefore can easily cross the pores. Nano particles in the leave’s surface enter the plants through the

stomata and or base of hairs, and then transported to the different organs. Silica plays important role in the

Roohizadeh et al. (2015) 2(1): 47–50

.


treatment

prot

ein

cont

ent

(µg

/ g F

W )

Ctrl

N 1.5 N 3

0.000

0.002

0.004

0.006

0.008

0.010

ab b

c

tolerance against salt stress (Zhu et al. 2003), manganese toxicity (Shi et al. 2005), boron toxicity (Gunes et al.

2007) and cadmium toxicity (Vaculik et al. 2009, Shi et al. 2010) via changing the activity of antioxidant

enzymes. In the present study, silica was used as Nano particles with 14 nm diameter (1.5 and 3 mM

concentrations) to assay the effects of Nano particles of silica on some antioxidant enzymes such as catalase,

peroxidase and superoxide dismutase changes, and the yield of broad bean plant.


In order to assess the effects of silica nanoparticles, on antioxidant activity of broad bean (Vicia faba), the

samples were grown in greenhouse. Before cultivation, the impact seeds were sterilized in 5% hypochlorite

sodium solution. The seed then were washed up by deionised water. In each pot 2 seeds were cultivated.

Solution containing 0 (as control), 1.5 and 3 mM of nanoparticle of silica, were used for treating. The

temperature of greenhouse was adjusted to 222 °C (at night) and 252 °C (at day). The relative humidity was

44 %. The samples were treated for 65 days and the fresh leaves of them kept in liquid nitrogen for enzyme

assay.

Total protein

The Bradford (1976) method was used for total protein assay. 1 mL of Bradford solution was mixed with 100

L of enzyme extract, and then the absorption was recorded in 595 nM wave length. The protein concentration

was expressed as mg ml-1

Catalase activity

The activity of catalase was measured by Aebi (1984) method. CAT activity was determined as the rate of

disappearance of H2O2 at 240 nm, for 1 minute. Reaction mixture (3 ml) included 50 mM potassium phosphate

buffer (pH 7), and the activity was expressed as mol min-1

mg-1

protein.

Peroxidase activity

Koroi (1998) method was used to assay the activity of peroxidase. The mixture of 2 mL acetate buffer (pH

4.8), 0.2 mL hydrogen peroxide 3% was used. The change in absorbance was determined at 590 nm (FW OD

min-1

g-1

).

Superoxide dismutase activity

The activity of superoxide dismutase was assayed by Giannopolitis & Ries (1977). Reaction mixture

containing 50 mM potassium phosphate buffer (pH 7.8), 1.3 M riboflavin, 0.1 mM EDTA. 13 mM methionine,

63 M NBT, 0.05 M sodium carbonate (pH 10.2) and enzyme extract was used. The photo-reduction of NBT

was measured at 560 nm.

Statistic analyze

SPSS ver16. Was used for comparing of the means using duncan test at P<0/05, level of significance. The

diagrams were plotted using Excel software.

RESULTS

Total protein

The result showed that the protein content in 1.5

mM treatment of nano silica has no significant

different to control sample. But this content in 3

mM treatment of nano silica was reduced in range of

9% compared to control. This rage was about 7% in

comparison with 1.5 mM of nano silica treatment

(Fig. 1).

Figure 1. The effect of nano silica particles on total protein content of broad bean leaves. (Means ± SE and P < 0.05. The

letters show significance of differences)

Roohizadeh et al. (2015) 2(1): 47–50

.


Peroxidase activity

The result showed that in the leaves of broad bean, 1.5 and 3 mM treatments of nano silica, significantly

increased the activity of peroxidase in range of 25 and 27 % compared to control samples respectively (Fig. 2A).

Catalase activity

The assessment of catalase activity indicated that in 1.5 mM treatment of nano silica the activity of this

enzyme in leaves was significantly decreased in a range of 29% compared to control samples. However, the

increasing of catalase activity was not significant in 3 mM treatment (Fig. 2B).

Superoxide dismutase activity

The result showed that the activity of superoxide dismutase in leaves of broad bean plant, has highest level

in 3 mM treatment in comparison to control (71 % higher). There was no significant difference between control

sample and 1.5 mM silica treatment. However this difference was significant between 1.5 and 3 nm silica

treatments (Fig. 2C).

Figure 2. The effect of nano silica particles on total protein content of broad bean leaves: A, Peroxidase; B, Catalase; C, Superoxide

dismutase. (Means ± SE and P < 0.05. The letters show significance of differences)

DISCUSSION

The total protein content if 1.5 mM treatment of nano silica showed no significant increasing compared to

control sample. When plant’s cell is under stress signalling pathway in corporation with calcium send signals to

nucleus of cell. Due to this signalling, genes expression undergoes changes and because of increasing or

decreasing of some genes, plant can resist against stress. The result of this change in the genetics, changes in the

amount and type of special proteins (Amini et al. 2007).

Watanabe et al. (2001) showed that treatment of selenium can cause increasing of amino acid content,

especially Asp in rice. The assessment of changes pattern of total protein content shows that under silica stress

some new proteins can be generated, or the amount of some others can be increased or decreased. Treatment of

rice plant with silica brought about activity of catalase and Glycine betaine (Biglari et al. 2012).

Silica and nanoparticles of that, can act as a stressgen factor in leaves and as a result, the activity of

antioxidant enzymes would be increased. These enzymes protect plants against toxicity and damages of reactive

oxygen (Van Breusegem et al. 1999). Catalase and ascorbate peroxidase can scavenge H2O2 in plant and

therefore, the increasing of superoxide dismutase is also predictable. The activity of ascorbate peroxidase was

increased in nano silica treatment. Miao et al. (2010) indicated that silica can compensate the effect of

potassium shortage in soy bean. Kiani et al. (2012) reported that treatment of rice with nano silica increased the

activity of catalase and ascorbate peroxidase.

CONCLUSION

The result of present study conclude that silica prevent oxidant damages via increasing of antioxidant

enzymes activity and decreasing of free radicals. Due to the lack of information about the main mechanism of

silica effects is yet unknown, more studies are needed to assay the uptake and transportation of nanoparticles in

plants.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are thankful of all laboratories personnel Mahmoodieh Islamic Azad University Tehran North

Iran, who contributed to this research.

treatment

Pe

rox

idas

e A

ctiv

ity

(mo

l /

min

/ g

FW

)

contr

ol

N 1

.5 N 3

0

2

4

6

8

10

a

bc c

treatment

Cat

alas

e A

ctiv

ity

( µ

mo

l/m

in/g

FW

)

Ctrl

N 1

.5 N 3

0

5

10

15

20ac

b

c

treatment

Su

pe

rox

id D

ism

uta

se A

ctiv

ity

(un

it /

mg

pro

tein

)

Ctrl

N 1

.5 N 3

0

1

2

3

ab b

c A B C

Roohizadeh et al. (2015) 2(1): 47–50

.


REFERENCES

Aebi H (1984) Catalase in vitro. Methods in Enzymology 105: 121–126.

Amini F, Ehsanpour AA, Hong QT & Shin JSh (2007) Protein Pattern Changes in Tomato under In Vitro Salt

Stress. Russian Journal of Plant Physiology 54(4):464–471.

Bai L & Sui F (2006) Effect of soil drought stress on leaf of maize. Pedosphere 16: 326–332.

Biglari F, Hadad R & Sotude A (2012) Assessment of silica treatments on glycine changes and catalase, in rice,

in drought stress. In: Second conference of plant physiology at Iran.

Braford MM (1976) A rapid sensitive method for the quantitation of microgram quantities of protein utilizing

the principle of protein dye binding. Analytical Biochemistry 72(1–2): 248–254.

Currie HA & Perry C (2007) Silica in plants: Biological, biochemical and chemical studies. Annals of Botany

100(7): 1383–1389.

Elkahoui S, Hernandez JA, Abdelly C, Ghrir R & Limam F (2005) Effects of salt on lipid (peroxidation and

antioxidant enzyme activities of Catharanthus roseus suspension cells. Plant Science 168: 607–613.

Feierabend J, Schaan C & Hertwig B (1992) Photoinactivation of catalase occurs under both high and low

temperature stress conditions and accompanies photoinhibition of photosystem II. Plant Physiology 100:

1554–1561.

Garnczarska M (2005) Response of the ascorbate-glutathione cycle to reaeration following hypoxia in lupine

roots. Plant Physiology and Biochemistry 43(6): 583–590.

Giannopolitis CN & Ries SK (1977) Superoxide dismutase Occurrence in higher plants. Plant Physiology 59:

309–314.

Gunes A, Inal A & Bagic EG (2007) Silicon mediated changes of some physiological and enzymatic parameters

symptomatic for oxidative steress in spinach and tomato grown in sodic – B toxic soil. Plant soil 290: 103–

114

Kakkar RK & Sawhney VK (2002) Polyamine research in plants-a changing perspective. Plant Physiology 116:

281–292.

Kiani Z, Abdolzadeh A & Sadeghipour H (2012) Assessment of silica treatment on shortage of iron in rice.

Iranian biology magazine 4: 61–71.

Koroi SAA (1989) Gelek trophers tissue and spectral photometric chon under change Zomein fiussdr

temperature and stracture Peroxidase isoenzyme. Physiolgy Vegetation 20: 15–22.

Liang Y, Sun W, Zhu Y & Christie P (2007) Mechanisms of silicon-mediated alleviation of abiotic stresses in

higher plants- a review. Environmental Pollution 147: 422–428.

Ma JF & Yamaji N (2006) Silicon uptake and accumulation in higher plants. Plant Science 11: 392–397.

Ma JF, Mitani N, Nagao S, Konishi S &Yano M (2004) Characterization of the silicon uptake system and

molecular mapping of the silicon transporter gene in rice. Plant Physiology 136: 3284–3289.

Miao BH, Han XG & Zhang WH (2010) The ameliorative effect of silicon on soybean seedlings grown in

potassium-deficient medium. Annals of Botany 105: 967–973.

Richmond KE & Sussman M (2003) Got silicon? The non-essential beneficial plant nutrient. Current Opinion in

Plant Biology 6(3): 268–272.

Shi G, Cai Q, Liu C & Wu L (2010) Silicon alleviates cadmium toxicity in peanut plants in relation to cadmium

distribution and stimulation of antioxidative enzymes. Plant Growth Regulation 61: 45–52.

Shi XH, Zhang CC,Wang H & Zhang FS (2005) Effect of Si on the distribution of Cd in rice seedling. Plant and

Soil 273: 53–60.

Vaculik M, Lux A, Luxova M, Tanimoto E & Lichtscheidl I. (2009) Silicon mitigates cadmium inhibitory

effects in young maize plants. Environmental and Experimental Botany 67: 52–58.

Van Breusegem F, Slooten L & Stassart JM (1999) Overproduction of Arabidopsis thaliana Fe SOD confers

oxidative steress tolerance to transgenic maize. Plant Cell Physiology 40: 515–523.

Watanabe S, Fujiwara T, Yoneyama T & Hayash H (2001) Effects of silicon nutrition on metabolism and

translocation of nutrients in rice plants. Plant Nutrition Developments in Plant and Soil Sciences 92: 174 –

175.

Zhu JK (2003) Regulation homeostasis under salt steress. Current Opinion in Plant Biology 6(5): 141-145.

www.tropicalplantresearch.com 51 Received: 05 February 2015 Published online: 30 April 2015

ISSN (E): 2349 – 1183

ISSN (P): 2349 – 9265

2(1): 51–57, 2015

Research article

Technical feasibility and effectiveness of vermicomposting at

household level

K.I.M. Perera* and A. Nanthakumaran

Department of Bio Science, Faculty of Applied Science, Vavuniya Campus, University of Jaffna, Sri Lanka


Abstract: Understanding the value of vermicompost, an attempt was made to study the technical

feasibility and effectiveness of vermicomposting at household level and to analyze and compare

the performance of the crops grown using vermicompost. The study was carried out during April

(2013) to January (2014) at Madampe in Puttlam, Sri Lanka. Initially three vermicomposting units

were established separately using six plastic bins with 45 cm diameter and 40 cm height each. The

locally available earthworm species, Eisenia fetida and Eisenia andrei were used to prepare

vermicompost using shredded paper as the bedding material. Five treatments with five replicates

of control (T1), inorganic fertilizer (T2), vermicompost (T3), garden compost (T4), and a

combination of vermicompost + inorganic fertilizer (50:50) (T5) were tested with potted okra

(Abelmoschus esculentus) using randomized block design. The growth parameters and the yield

characteristics were recorded during the period of six to fifteen weeks of planting. The data were

statistically analyzed using ANOVA and LSD test. Results revealed that the average marketable

fruit yield per plant for T3 was the highest among five treatments. The results indicated that there

was a significant difference between vermicompost and other treatments on the average

marketable yield of okra. The average yield of T3 showed 63%, 50% and 37% increase compared

to that of T1, T2 and T4 respectively. It also showed 18% increase of yield in T5 when compared

to T2. Vermicomposting provide an environmental friendly way of increasing the crop yield. Use

of local earthworms to the typical process of vermicomposting could be a successful and a

sustainable win-win solution to protect the environment.

Keywords: Vermicompost - Earth worm - Environment - Degradable waste - Crop yield

[Cite as: Perera KIM & Nanthakumaran A (2015) Technical feasibility and effectiveness of vermicomposting at

Household level. Tropical Plant Research 2(1): 51–57]

INTRODUCTION

Earthworms digest the organic matter accumulated on earth through the process of vermicomposting and

produce vermicompost. It is an environmental friendly way of minimizing degradable waste generated by day-

to-day activities.

Vermicomposting is a novel technique, applying the concept of using earthworms to turn "garbage" into

"black gold”. The worms consume the waste materials and excrete them in the form of worm castings. The

worms coat the organic material with their mucous excretions which contain micro-organisms. After the

microbial pre-decomposition the worms convert the pre-fermented compost material into worm humus, along

with mineral substances (De koff et al. 2012). Vermicomposting can be practiced anywhere, even on a small

scale, and easily integrated into any agricultural system. A properly designed vermicomposting system

processes organic waste into vermicompost within 2–3 months. This self-aerated process does not require

mechanical aeration or mixing.

Home-gardening is a common practice at Madampe, in Puttlam district of Sri Lanka. Application of

chemical fertilizers over a period could result in poor soil health, reduction in productivity, and increase in

incidences of pest and disease and cause environmental pollution (Ansari et al. 2010, Abafita et al. 2014). But,

using vermicompost as a fertilizer could create a significant change in the field of organic agriculture by

Perera & Nanthakumaran (2015) 2(1): 51–57

.


minimizing environmental hazards. Vermicompost is a complete, balanced, natural feed for all types of plants,

and could safely be used for vegetables, flowers, fruit trees and foliage and field crops. The application of

vermicompost to the field contributed towards the maintenance and improvement of soil fertility (Chaoui 2010).

Understanding the value of this cost-effective product of vermicompost, an attempt was made to study the

technical feasibility of producing vermicompost at household level, to study the effectiveness of vermicompost

for the potted vegetable crops at home garden and to compare the performance of the crops grown with

vermicompost, garden compost, inorganic fertilizer and the combination of vermicompost + inorganic fertilizer.


The study was carried out during April, 2013 to January, 2014 at household level in Madampe, located at the

Puttlam district of Sri Lanka and initially three vermicomposting units were established separately using six

plastic bins with 45 cm diameter and 40 cm height each, at household level. The locally available earthworm

species, Eisenia fetida L. and Eisenia andrei L. were used for the purpose of vermicompost preparation. Two

bins were used to prepare one bin system. Large holes about three centimetres in diameter were drilled around

the upper bin to facilitate air circulation and about 12 to 16 holes of 5 millimetre in diameter were drilled at the

bottom of the upper bin to facilitate the drainage of excess water retain in the bed to maintain the moisture level

inside of the upper bin and another bin was placed underneath to collect the drained water. The bin system was

designed in such a way to enable vermicompost collection from the upper bin and vermiwash from the lower bin

as by-product.

Three vermicomposting bins namely bin 01; bin 02 and bin 03 were prepared using shredded paper as the

bedding material. The paper materials were torn into small pieces moistened and filled about 17–18 cm of the

bin. Then a handful of soil from worms’ original habitat and about sixty local earthworms per each bin were

added. After adding earthworms another thin layer of paper was laid above.

Water was added to those units to keep them moist. At the beginning a very small amount of grit material

and a small amount of vegetable matter, coffee filters, and fruit leftover were added. Gradually the amount of

food added was increased. The product of vermicompost was harvested after 90 days. A homogenized

vermicompost sample was obtained and then it was subjected to physiochemical characterization. To analyse the

effectiveness of the prepared vermicompost, the okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L.) was grown with the

following treatments (Table 1).

Table 1. The treatments used during the experiment.

Treatment Abbreviations Quantity/plant

Control [CON] No additions

Inorganic fertilizer [CHE] Urea-5.4 g , TSP -10.8g , MOP-2.7 g

Vermicompost [VC] 270 g

Compost [COM] 215 g

Vermicompost + Inorganic

fertilizers (50:50)

[CHE + VC] 135g of vermicompost and Urea-2.7 g , TSP -5.4g ,

MOP-1.35 g

The pot experiments were placed using a randomized block design with five replicates for each treatment.

The pots were filled with sterilized dry soil (5 kg) with other supplements, according to the treatments used as

shown in table 1. The Initial soil samples and garden compost were subjected to physiochemical analysis. The

growth parameters such as average plant height (cm), average number of leaves per plant, average stem

circumference (cm), average inter nodal distance at the harvesting stage (cm), average root height (cm), average

number of pods per plants, average length of pods at the harvesting stage (cm), average width of pods at the

harvesting stage (cm), average marketable fruit yield (g), average number of diseased leaves per plant at the

harvesting stage, average number of days taken for flowering, average number of days plant bare pods and

average number of days taken the pods to mature after plucking were recorded during the period of 6–15 weeks

of planting.

The results were recorded and the means for each treatment were compared statistically using ANOVA with

the help of the MINITAB 15 software.

RESULTS

Around 6150 g of vermicompost and 575 ml of vermiwash were produced using about 4200 g of raw

material. The temperature change during vermicomposting was observed and shown in figure 1.


.


Figure 1. Temperature change during Vermicomposting.

The physiochemical properties of vermicompost, garden compost and the soil used were listed in table 2.

While various growth parameters of okra plants were shown in table 3 to 5.

Table 2. Physiochemical properties of vermicompost, soil and garden compost. Parameter Vermicompost Compost Soil

OM 17.77% 76.90% 20.72%

N 0.91% 1.15% 0.48%

P 0.14% 0.17% 0.11%

K 0.2% 0.6% 0.5%

C 9.90% 44.35% 11.95%

C/N ratio 10.87 38.56 24.85

pH 6.98 7.21 7.25

EC 1.1 0.2 0.4

Moisture content 15.58% 12.20% 11.64%

Bulk density 0.5 g cm-3 1.3 g cm-3 1.6 g cm-3

Particle density 2.49 g cm-3 2.50 g cm-3 2.68 g cm-3

Porosity 0.76 0.48 0.40

Table 3. The Effect of different treatments on average plant height and number of leaves per plant at 50th day, 65th day and 80th

day from the date of planting (Mean±SD).

S.N. Treatment Average plant height (cm) Average number of leaves per plant

At 50 days At 65 days At 80 days At 50 days At 65 days At 80 days

1 CON 12.4±2.6 34.2±4.6 45.8±4.7 5.4±0.5 7.8±1.3 10.8±1.3

2 CHE 21.4±2.5 54.2±9.1 65.4±8.3 7.0±0.7 9.6±0.5 14.2±1.3

3 VC 17.4±1.5 37.4±6.9 59.6±3.2 6.0±1.2 8.8±1.0 12.6±0.5

4 COM 17.2±2.0 36.8±5.6 46.8±5.2 6.0±1.2 8.4±1.1 11.4±1.1

5 CHE + VC 20.0±1.4 49.6±4.5 48.6±7.4 6.4±0.5 9.0±1.2 13.2±0.8

Table 4. The effect of different treatments on average number of pods, fruit length, fruit width, fruit weight and marketable

fruit yield per plant (Mean±SD).

S.N. Treatment

Average

number of pods

per plant

Average length of

pods at harvest

(cm)

Average width

of pods at

harvest (cm)

Average weight of

pods at harvest

(g)

Average

marketable fruit

yield per plant (g)

1 CON 7.6±0.8 13.3±1.5 5.4±0.8 26.6±1.5 202.2±23.8

2 CHE 8.4±1.5 15.9±1.4 6.8±0.4 32.6±3.9 273.8±49.4

3 VC 14.8±1.3 16.4±1.1 7.0±0.7 37.2±1.9 550.6±48.5

4 COM 11.4±1.3 15.6±3.8 5.9±0.8 30.2±4.7 344.3±40.5

5 CHE + VC 9.2±0.4 16.4±0.8 6.8±0.5 36.2±5.9 333.0±16.9


.


The means of treatments did not differ significantly (P<0.05) for the average number of leaves at 50 days per

plant, the average number of leaves at 65 days per plant , average length of pods at harvest. Whereas for the

other parameters such as average plant height at 50 days (cm),average plant height at 65 days (cm),average plant

height at 80 days (cm),average number of leaves per plant at 80 days, average number of pods per plant, average

width of pods at harvest (cm), average weight of pods at harvest (g), average marketable yield per plant (g),

average number of days taken for flowering per plant, average number of days a plant effectively bear pods,

number of days taken for the pods to mature after plucking per plant investigated, the means of treatments

showed statistically significant differences.

The least significant difference test (LSD) was applied to the selected parameters to find out the differences.

The calculated LSD values and significant mean differences for each parameter obtained during statistical

analysis were given in table 6.

Table 6. LSD values and mean differences at 5% significance level.

S.N. Parameter LSD Mean difference

1 Average plant height at 50 days

(cm)

2.74 9 (T1 – T2),5 (T1 – T3), 4.8 ( T1- T4), 7.4 (T1 – T5), 4 ( T2

– T3), 4.2 (T2 – T4)


(cm)

8.47 20.2 (T1 – T2),15.4 (T1 – T5), 17 ( T2- T3), 17.6 (T2 –

T4),12.2( T3 – T5), 12.8 (T4 – T5)


(cm)

8.01 19.6(T1 – T2),13.8(T1 – T3), 18.6( T2- T4), 16.8 (T2 –

T5),12.8( T3 – T4), 11 (T3 – T5)

4 Average number of leaves per

plant at 80 days

1.40 3.4 (T1 – T2), 1.8 (T1 – T3), 2.4 (T1 – T5), 1.6 (T2 – T3),

2.8 (T2 – T4),1.8 (T4 – T5)

5 Average number of pods per

plant

1.53 7.2 (T1 – T3), 3.8 (T1 – T4), 1.6 (T1 – T5), 6.4 (T2 – T3),

3.0 (T2 – T4), 3.4 (T3 – T4), 5.6 (T3 – T4), 2.2 (T4 – T5)

6 Average width of pods at

harvest (cm)

0.95 1.4 (T1 – T2), 1.56 (T1 – T3), 1.44 (T1 – T5), 1.04 (T3 – T4)

7 Average weight of pods at

harvest (g)

5.26 6 (T1 – T2), 10.6 (T1 – T3), 9.6 (T1 – T5), 7.0 (T3 – T4), 6.0

(T4 – T5)

8 Average marketable yield per

plant (g)

50.2 71.6(T1 – T2), 348.4 (T1 – T3), 142.1 (T1 – T4), 130.9 (T1 –

T5), 276.8 (T2 – T3), 129.5 (T2 – T4), 59.3 (T2 – T5), 206.3

(T3 – T4), 217.4 (T3 – T5)

9 Average number of days taken

for flowering per plant

7.80 25.0 (T1 – T3), 20.4 (T1 – T4), 10.6 (T1 – T5), 19.6 (T2 –

T3), 15.2 (T2 – T4), 14.4 (T3 – T5), 10.0 (T4 – T5)

10 Average number of days a plant

effectively bear pods

9.14 16.4 (T1 – T3), 12.0 (T1 – T4), 15 (T2 – T3), 12.8 (T3 – T5)

11 Number of days taken for the

pods to mature after plucking

per plant

0.76 1.2 (T1 – T2), 2.0 (T1 – T3), 1.0 (T1 – T5),0.8 (T2 – T3), 1.4

(T3 – T4), 1.0 (T3 – T5)


Temperature change during vermicomposting was observed at the beginning of the experiment as shown in

figure 1. Initially the temperature of the substrate was high and then decreased gradually as the composting

process progressed. During the first phase of vermicomposting process the heat released by the oxidative action

of intense microbial activity and earthworm activity on the organic matter may be the reason for the high

temperature. When compost maturation stage occurred, the compost temperature dropped to that of the ambient

and then decreased with the progress of the composting process which was probably due to the decreased

Table 5. The effect of different treatments on number of days taken for flowering, number of days plants bear fruits and

number of days taken for the pods to mature after plucking per plant (Mean±SD).

S.N. Treatment Average number of days

taken for flowering

Average number of days

a plants bear pods

Average number of days taken for

the pods to mature after plucking

1 CON 67.2±2.3 35.6±3.8 3.4±0.5

2 CHE 61.8±5.9 40.0±3.4 4.6±0.5

3 VC 42.2±4.9 53.0±6.9 5.4±0.5

4 COM 46.6±7.7 47.6±1.8 4.0±0.7

5 CHE + VC 56.6±7.9 40.2±6.1 4.4±0.5


.


earthworm activity resulted by full conversion of waste into degradable material. It may also be attributable to

regular sprinkling of water.

The C content and the N content of vermicompost were 9.90% and 0.91% respectively (Table 2). The values

were same as with the study done by TNAU agriculture portal (2014) and with the findings of Ansari & Sukhraj

(2010). The reduction of C was 77.6% higher in vermicomposting compared to the ordinary composting

process, which may be due to the fact that earthworms could have a higher assimilating capacity. Slightly high

N level was identified in the prepared vermicompost than garden soil (Table 2). The enhancement of N in

vermicompost was probably due to mineralization of the organic matter containing proteins and the conversion

of ammonium-nitrogen into nitrate (Suthar 2008). The N level was 54.2% higher in vermicompost than soil but

N content was 8.6% lower than that of garden compost.

The C: N ratio of vermicompost was 10.87:1 and that was in a range that could make the nutrients easily

available to the plants. The lower the C/N ratio, the higher is the efficiency level of mineralization. A

comparatively lower C/N ratio in vermicompost implied that there was an enhanced organic matter

mineralization than that of garden compost (Table 2).

pH was 6.98 and the value being around seven emphasized that it was in a neutral range, which promotes the

availability of plant nutrients like NPK. EC of vermicompost was higher than garden compost and soil (Table

2).

As the bulk density and particle density are important measures of porosity, the results indicated that

vermicompost had an increased porosity which could facilitate the availability of nutrients to crop growth. The

porosity was 36% and 47% higher than that of the garden compost and soil respectively. The moisture content

of prepared vermicompost was also 21% and 25% higher than the garden compost and soil respectively (Table

2).

The other physiochemical characteristics including the dark black color of vermicompost and the absence of

foul odor indicated that the decomposition of waste was a complete process.

Samaranayake et al. (2010) reported that vermicompost appeared to be generally superior to conventionally

produced compost as it had high levels of bio-available nutrients, high level of beneficial soil microorganisms,

rich in growth hormones, humic acids which promote root growth and increase the nutrient uptake. It was free

of pathogens, free of toxic chemicals and thus vermicompost could protect plants against various pests and

diseases. According to Singha et al. (2009) the earthworm humus contained the essential nutrients of nitrogen

(N), phosphorus (P) and potash (K) in much larger quantities than those present in the soil or in comparable

compost.

The statistical analysis revealed that there was a significant difference between the treatments for the

parameters given in Table 6.Average plant height observed during the trial at 50 days and 65 days were

maximum for plants treated with T2 [CHE] followed by T5 [CHE + VC], T3 [VC],T4 [COM] and T1 [CON]

respectively (Table 3). It was maximum for plants treated with T2 [CHE] followed by T3 [VC], T5 [CHE +

VC], T4 [COM] and T1 [CON] respectively at 80 days (Table 3).

Average number of leaves per plant observed after 50 days and 65 days did not differ statistically and at 80

days of planting it was maximum for plants treated with T2 [CHE], followed by T5 [CHE + VC], T3 [VC], T4

[COM] and T1 [CON] respectively (Table 3).

The maximum number of leaves observed with T2 [CHE] could be accounted by the fact that chemical

fertilizers were high in nitrogen, which was responsible for rapid plant growth. According to Lazcano et

al.(2011), the enhanced plant growth of the plants treated with vermicompost may be attributed to various direct

and indirect mechanisms, including biologically mediated mechanisms such as the supply of plant-growth

regulating substances, and improvements in soil biological functions.

The average number of pods per plant observed were maximum for plants treated with T3 [VC] followed by

T4 [COM], T5 [CHE + VC], T2 [CHE] and T1 [CON] respectively (Table 4). Average width of the pods at

harvesting was maximum for plants treated with T3 [VC] followed by almost the same amount for T5 [CHE +

VC] and T2 [CHE], T4 [COM] and T1 [CON] respectively (Table 04). The average fruit weight per plant

observed during harvesting was maximum for plants treated with T3 [VC] followed by T5 [CHE + VC], T2

[CHE], T4 [COM] and T1 [CON] respectively (Table 4).

The average marketable fruit yield per plant for T3 [VC] was recorded as 550.6 g and it was the highest. The

amount of fruit yield thereafter reduced in the order of T4 [COM], T5 [CHE + VC], T2 [CHE], and T1 [CON]


.


respectively (Table 4). Yield is the most important parameter which would broach the importance of the whole

process of cultivation. The significant effect of vermicompost compared to those with other treatments, indicate

that there was significant difference between vermicompost and control (T3-T1), vermicompost and chemical

fertilizers (T3-T2), vermicompost and garden compost (T3-T4), and also between vermicompost and the

mixture of chemical fertilizer + vermicompost (T3-T5) on the average marketable yield production (Table 4).

As the soil condition was much more enhanced while using vermicompost there was no wonder of having

the highest significant difference between vermicompost and control. The average yield of okra during the trial

showed significantly greater response in comparison with the control by 63%. It was proved that soil enriched

with vermicompost provides additional substances that were not found in chemical fertilizers (Ansari & Ismail,

2008).

Results clearly indicated a better performance of okra using the vermicompost rather than that of chemical

fertilizers by 50%. Chemical analysis of vermicompost and compost (Table 2) showed that vermicompost

prepared was superior to the garden compost. Hence the yield was higher in vermicompost by 37% than that of

garden compost. However results showed using a mixture of chemical fertilizers and vermicompost was also

giving a good yield than using chemical fertilizers alone by 18%.

The average number of days taken for flowering per plant observed was minimum for plants treated with T3

[VC] followed by T4 [COM], T5 [CHE + VC], T2 [CHE] and T1 [CON] respectively (Table 5). The average

number of days plant effectively bear pods was maximum for plants treated with T3 [VC] followed by T4

[COM], T5 [CHE + VC], T2 [CHE] and T1 [CON] respectively (Table 5). The average number of days taken

for the pods to mature observed after harvesting was maximum for plants treated with T3 [VC] followed by T2

[CHE], T5 [CHE + VC], T4 [COM] and T1 [CON] respectively (Table 5). These results indicated that by using

vermicompost the okra pods could be harvested earlier as well as for a longer period compared to the other

treatments.

The results of the mean comparisons together with LSD (Table 6) confirmed that there was a large variation

in fertilizer effects depending on the type of fertilizer used. It indicated that the applications of vermicompost

had an emphatic effect on plant growth and production. Vermicomposting provided an environmental friendly

way of increasing the crop yield.

The nutrient content of the prepared vermicompost and its effect on the productivity of okra implied that it is

effective to practice in the field instead of applying chemical fertilizers. Organic manure provides a very

effective solution for increasing organic waste fraction. It was possible to adopt the technique of

vermicomposting in terms of reducing household waste at the source of production. Use of local earthworms to

the typical process of vermicomposting seems to be a success and it would result the balanced vermicompost to

protect the environment balance. Therefore it could be concluded that vermicomposting was ideal for an

efficient sustainable management of the environment and the economy.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors express their gratitude to the Department of Biological Science, Vavuniya Campus of the

University of Jaffna for providing laboratory facilities and all sort of support rendered for the successful

completion of the research study.

REFERENCES

Abafita R, Shimbir T & Kebede T (2014) Effectsof different rates of vermicompost as potting media on growth

and yield of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) and soil fertility enhancement. Sky Journal of Soil Science and

Environmental Management 3(7): 73–77.

Aggie horticulture (2013) Texas A & M University System, home Worm Production, from Texas A & M

Agrilife research. Available from: http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.

edu//plantanswers/publications/worm/worm.html (accessed: 10 Sept. 2013).

Ansari AA & Ismail SA (2012) Role of Earthworms in Vermitechnology. Journal of Agricultural Technology

8(2): 403–415.

Ansari AA & Sukhraj K (2010) Effect of vermiwash and vermicompoat on soil parameters and productivity of

Okra in Guyana, Guyana. African Journal of Agricultural Research 5(14): 1794–1798


.


Chaoui H (2010) Vermicasting (or Vermicomposting): Processing Organic Wasted through Earthworms.

Available from: http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/engineer/facts/10-009.pdf (accessed: 06 July 2013).

De Koff JP, Lee BD & Mickelbart MV (2012) Home &Environment - Household Composting with Worms.

Purdue University, Purdue Extension, Information literacy. Available from: http://www.ces.purdue.edu/new

(accessed: 20 June 2013).

Department of Agriculture (2006) Okra - Plantation recommondation: Recommended Varieties. Available

from: http://www.agridept.gov.lk/index.php/en/crop-recommendations/994 (accessed: 17 July 2013).

Lazcano C & Domínguezb J (2011) The use of vermicompost in sustainable agriculture, impact on plant growth

and soil fertility, how vermicompost influences plant growth, effects and proposed mechanisms, Available

from: http://webs.uvigo.es/jdguez/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/the-use-of-vermicompost.pdf (accessed: 25

Sept. 2013).

Samaranayake JWK & Wijekoon S (2010) Effect of selected earthworms on soil fertility :plant growth and

vermicomposting. Tropical Agricultural Research and Extension 13(2): 33–40.

Sinha RK, Herath S, Valani D & Chauhan K. (2009) Earthworms Vermicompost: A Powerful Crop Nutrient

over the Conventional Compost & Protective Soil Conditioner against the Destructive Chemical Fertilizers

for Food Safety and Security. American-Eurasian J. Agric. & Environ. Science 5 (S): 01-55: 14–17.

Suthar S (2008) Development of a novel epigeic-anecic-based polyculture vermireactor for efficient treatment of

municipal sewage water sludge. International Journal of Environment and Waste Management 2(1/2): 84–

101.

Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (2014) TNAU AGRITECH PORTAL- Organic farming: Compost:

Vermicompost. Available from: http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/org_farm/ orgfarm_vermicompost.html (accessed:

20 June. 2013).

http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/org_farm/%20orgfarm_vermicompost.html

www.tropicalplantresearch.com 58 Received: 08 February 2015 Published online: 30 April 2015

ISSN (E): 2349 – 1183

ISSN (P): 2349 – 9265

2(1): 58–63, 2015

Research article

A note on Aroids Ethnobotany in Hau River, Vietnam

Duong Minh Truyen*, MashhorMansor and Amir Shah Ruddin

School of Biological Sciences, University Sains Malaysia, 1180 Penang, Malaysia


Abstract: Araceae family is the member of Order Arales. This family is best characterized by

flowering plants, which have inflorescence in the spadix. Nowadays, Araceae becomes the most

familiar plants to humans and also catogarized as an economic group. A large amount of Araceae

has been largely planted, especially in Vietnam, a densely populated country. In Mekong Delta of

Vietnam, the demands of using aroid species are increasingly popular. An investigation into use

values of Araceae is conducted along Hau River, one of two largest branches of Mekong River in

Vietnam. Households living along river banks are interviewed through questionnaires. From the

result, there are 18 species of Araceae which role as decorative and ornamental plants such as

Dieffenbachia maculata, Anthurium andreanum and Aglaonema nitidum. Another six species are

cultivated as food plants for human as same as for feeding cattle, such as Alocasia, Colocasia and

Xanthosoma. In medical field, 10 aroid species are used by locals, but some treatments have not

been scientifically verified. Only five species been used for feeding cattle.

Keywords:Araceae-Aroid species-Ethnobotany-Hau River

[Cite as: Truyen DM, Mansor M & Ruddin AS (2015) A note on Aroids Ethnobotany in Hau River, Vietnam.

Tropical Plant Research 2(1): 58–63]

INTRODUCTION

The family Araceae is one of the common monocotyledonous flowering plants in the world and has a total of

117 genera and more than 3790 species (Nauheimer 2012). According Mansor et al. (2012), Araceae is also one

of the largest families in the world after the orchids, grasses and sedges. Most of the species are found in

tropical areas. Nowadays, Araceae is becoming more familiar to humans and recognized as an important source

of food, ornamental plants (Truyen 2015) in proceeding). The local inhabitants have used aroid early in cooking,

religious ceremony and medical purposes. Some species rich in carbohydrate have provided crucial food for

million people in the world (Truyen 2015) in proceeding). The Colocasia species have been used for fermenting

vegetable, feeding to fish and pigs (Nunes et al. 2012). Pemberton & Liu (2009) stated that Araceae has large

beneficial commercial values, especially for ornamental industry. This family has been used widely in

horticultural industries and home decorations such as Xanthosoma sagittiffolium, Alocasia denudate. Based on

Henderson (1954), Aglaonema species been used in decorations. In addition, species of Araceae has been

utilized for medicinal purposes, as mentioned by Chilpa & Estrada (1995).

In Vietnam, some species have been found to have curative values. For example, Dan (2011) stated that local

people use Alocasia macrorhizos to treat gout, flu and beriberi, Typhonium trilobatum to cure asthma and

vomiting and snakes (Fang et al. 2012). Lasia spinosa can cure hepatitis, malaria, rheumatism, backache,

arthritis, orchitis and cough (Hai 2012). On the other hand, another useful value of aroid species is identified

from the chemical constituents of Typhonium flagelliforme, an indigenous plant of Malaysia that is often used as

an essential ingredient of herbal remedies for alternative cancer therapies (Choo et al. 2001). This plant has anti-

proliferative properties towards human cancer cell lines and has been used to treat cancer (Lai et al. 2010).


Hau River is located in Mekong Delta in Vietnam, which is the lowest part of Mekong River with an

extremely high human population and highly disturbance (Fig. 1). Mekong Delta alone has about 18 million

inhabitants (40,000 km2). Hau River reflects a highly modified environment by human intensive agricultural

Truyen et al. (2015) 2(1): 58–63

.


activities. The survey of aroids ethnobotany along Hau Rivers conducted in order to record the usages of Aroid

species as economic plants such as for decoration, foods and medical utilization in the different riverine

communities. This will provide a supplement to future research in Mekong Delta in the next years.

Figure 1. Location of study area.

The information on the documents of the Araceae family of Ho (1991), Mansor et al. (2012) and the map of

the Mekong Delta in 2009 was used to survey the ethnobotany of aroid species along Hau River. Using the line

transect to survey. The line selected must go through the habitats of species (Nguyen et al. 2010, Nguyen &

Bushnell 2010). The main line goes along the Hau River, through 3 cities with different populations (lowly

populated, middle populated and highly populated areas) (Fig. 2).

Figure 2. The 3 different populated areas along the Hau River, Mekong Delta, Vietnam. (Source:

http://www.wisdom.caf.dlr.de/en/content/population-density-districts-2004.html)

Survey from brackish water area to fresh water area based on the salinity map of the Mekong Delta in 2009

and survey from high land along the riverbanks (not flooded) to the low land (deep flooded), from alluvium soil

to alum soil based on the soil map of the Mekong Delta in 2000. Use the GPS to mark the locations where find

Truyen et al. (2015) 2(1): 58–63

.


the aroid species. At each location, collect the plants (leaf, flower and roof) and take the photos of the plant to

identify the scientific names in the laboratory. Interview the local people at surveyed location by using the

conducted questionnaires about the use values of the species.

RESULTS

The selected three populated zones of Hau River shows the different percentages of use values (Fig. 3).

Generally, there is a significant difference between five use values such as for food, medicine, ornamental,

wastewater purification and feeding in Hau River. Based on the results, aroid species are widely used for

ornamentation while wastewater purification purpose is not observed. In lowly populated zone, the highest

percentage is 39.6% for ornamental purpose whereas the smallest is 8% for medical purpose. Aroid species were

also used for food with 34.8% and feeding with 31.3% in low populated zone. These numbers changed in

moderately populated zone, the highest percentage is 44% for medicine. Feeding purposes were noticed more than

ornamental purposes, with 37.5% in compared to 34.9%. In highly populated zone, aroids were used for food and

medical purposes (41.3% and 48% respectively). Ornamentation was the last one with 25.5% in highly populated

zone.

Figure 3. The total percentage of aroid using values in Hau River based on three different zones.

From the results of aroid ethnobotany in Hau River as shown in table 2, the number of aroid species in

ornamentation reaches the peak of 18 plants. Furthermore, the high number of aroid species for medical purpose is

10, followed by food and feeding cattle with 6 and 5 aroid species respectively (Table 1). There is no aroid species

which is used for wastewater purification purpose in Hau River.

Table 1. Aroids ethnobotany in Hau River.

No. Species Food Medicine Ornamentation Wastewater

purification

Feeding

cattle

1 Acorus verus - + - - -

2 Aglaonema commutatum - - + - -

3 Aglaonema hybrid - - + - -

4 Aglaonema nitidum - - + - -

5 Alocasia macrorrhizos - + + - +

6 Amorphophallus konjac - + + - -

7 Anthurium andreanum - - + - -

8 Caladium bicolor - + + - -

9 Colocasia antiquorum + - - - -

10 Colocasia esculenta + - - - +

34.8

23.9

41.3

8

44

48

39.6

34.9

25.5

0 0 0

31.3

37.5

31.3

48.2

9.4

42.4

0

10

20

30

40

50

Lowly populated zone Moderately populated zone Highly populated zone

%

Food Medicine

Ornamentation Wastewater purification

Truyen et al. (2015) 2(1): 58–63

.


11 Colocasia gigantea + - - - +

12 Cryptocoryne ciliata + - - - +

13 Dieffenbachia amoena - + + - -

14 Epipremnum giganteum - - + - -

15 Epipremnum pinnatum - - + - -

16 Lasia spinosa + + - - -

17 Philodendron erubescens - - + - -

18 Pistia stratoides - + + - +

19 Pseudocracontium lacourii - - + - -

20 Scindapsus officinalis - + + - -

21 Spathiphyllum patinii - - + - -

22 Syngonium macrophyllum - - + - -

23 Syngonium podophyllum - - + - -

24 Typhonium flagelliforme - + - - -

25 Typhonium trilobatum - + - - -

26 Xanthosoma sagittifolium + - - - -

27 Zamioculcas zamiifolia - - + - -

Total 6 10 18 0 5

Note: +, Present; -,Absent.

Aglaonema hybrid: Aglaonema hybrid “Silver Queen” (Aglaonema curtis x Aglaonema treubii).

Based on the results in table, some aroid species have been used for more than one purpose. Only Alocasia

macrorrhizos and Pistia stratoides were used for three use purposes, such as medicine, ornamentation and

feeding. Besides, Lasia spinosa was used for food and medical purposes. There are some aroid species exploited

for medicine and ornamentation, namely Alocasia macrorrhizos, Amorphophallus konjac, Caladium bicolor,

Dieffenbachia amoena and Scindapsus officinalis. Moreover, three aroid species were used for food and feeding

cattle, namely Colocasia esculenta, Colocasia gigantea and Cryptocoryne ciliata. However, out of 27 aroid

species in Hau River as shown in table 2, Acorusverus, Typhonium flagelliforme and T. trilobatum were only

used for medical purposes. For food, there were only 5 species mentioned, such as Colocasia antiquorum, C.

esculenta, C. gigantea, C. ciliata and Xantho somasagittifolium (Fig. 4). In these species, except X.

sagittifolium, four aroid species mentioned above have also used for feeding cattle.

Figure 4. Some aroid species: A, Colocasia esculenta; B, Typhonium trilobatum; C, Colocasia gigantea; D,

Caladium bicolor.

Truyen et al. (2015) 2(1): 58–63

.


DISCUSSION

Out of 27 species reported in Hau River, Colocasia esculenta distributes widespread from upstream to

downstream in many different niches and be found with high frequency of appearance. C. esculenta been used as

food, feeding cattle and medicine, the number of natural growing species decreased significantly.

The corms of C. esculenta are taken as starch in every meal. Locals steam, peel and mash corms with water.

Then, it can be used when fresh or kept for one or two days at room temperature. In addition, the young leaves of

C. esculenta are used as vegetables and cooked with meat and fish. Another way to cook C. esculenta is the stems

as a snack. Stems are also soaked in vinegar and fermented for use as vegetables. Alocasia maccrorrhizos and X.

sagittifolium are also used like C. esculenta. According to Schultes (1984), the corms of C. esculenta contain high

carbohydrates but low in fat and protein. Nevertheless, this species also has calcium oxalate, which causes toxic

reactions to the throat if the calcium oxalate is not removed before eating. That is why in preparation for eating, the

local communities boil, wash and mash the corms to reduce oxalate content.

Araceae has become more and more important in people diet nowadays. C. esculenta, a tuberous plant whose

tuber is the 14th most consumed food crop in the world (Nunes et al. 2012). Monsteradeliciosa is also a valuable

species for food (Berlingeri & Crespo 2012). Some species are esteemed as food plants (Heng & Zhi-Ling 2006)

such as A. macrorrhizos, Amorphophallus paeoniifolius, Amorphophallus xiei, C. esculenta and X. sagittifolium.

These are cultivated as sources of carbohydrate foods (Chen et al. 2007). Many genera are used for feeding cattle

(Zarate et al. 2012).

Araceae has a good nutrients profile, and may be used as fish food components and used in some local

communities replace costly commercial feed. With its potentiality as fish food component the utilization of

Araceae in the preparation of fish, feed is an opportunity for livelihood improvement to rural people, since

aquaculture is now one of the fastest growing sectors in agriculture (Mandal et al. 2010). Moreover, Schultes

(1984) has also stated that fresh taro corms and leaves and stems can be used as an animal feed, although half of

fresh weight of this plant is not utilized.

Other use values of aroids are for ornamental purposes. This includes the giant taro, A. macrorrhizos, and

Chinese taro, Alocasia cucullata, both of which are important ornamentals (Nauheimer et al. 2012). In addition,

many other genera in the Araceae which are used as ornamental plants are Aglaonema, Caladium,

Dieffenbachia, Epipremnum and Nephthys genera (Stanly et al. 2012). Moreover, the genus Philodendron that

plays an important role in the rainforest ecosystems are also used interior decoration of homes and offices.

Aroids are used in medicine in many traditional cultures. This important characteristic of aroids has not been

fully appreciated (Chen et al. 2007). X. sagittifolium Schott. is a medicinal species used in traditional Brazilian

medicine to prevent and treat osteoporosis and bone diseases (de Oliveira et al. 2012). Hundreds years ago, in

India, Indonesia and China, Acorus calamus L. has been used as medicine for diabetes in traditional folk

medicine (Wu et al. 2009). A valuable source for glycosidase inhibitors is Aglaonema treubii that is used as

anti-diabetic, anti-metastatic, antiviral, and immunomodulatory agents (Chen et al. 2007).

CONCLUSION

Aroids are widely used in Mekong Delta particularly for food, feeding, medical treatment and ornamental

purposes. In which, ornamentation is concerned the most, followed by medical purpose. Besides, aroid species

are used popularly in highly populated zone more than in two other zones.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would also like to show our gratitude to the University Sains Malaysia for sharing their pearls of wisdom

with us during the course of this research.

REFERENCES

Berlingeri C & Crespo MB (2012) Inventory of related wild species of priority crops in Venezuela. Genetic

Resources and Crop Evolution 59(5): 655–681.

Chen J, Henny RJ & Liao F (2007) Aroids are important medicinal plants. Proceedings of the International

Symposium on Medicinal and Nutraceutical Plants 756: 347–353.

Chilpa RR & Estrada MJ (1995) Chemistry of Antidotal Plants. Interciencia 20(5): 257.

Truyen et al. (2015) 2(1): 58–63

.


Choo CY, Chan KL, Sam TW, Hitotsuyanagi Y & Takeya K (2001) The cytotoxicity and chemical constituents

of the hexane fraction of Typhonium flagelliforme (Araceace). Journal of Ethnopharmacology 77(1): 129–

131.

Dan, H (2011) Ray dai - Alocasia macrorhiza Schott. Medicinal Plants and Herbs in Vietnam.

De Oliveira, GL, Andrade LDC & de Oliveira AFM (2012) Xanthosoma sagittifolium and Laportea aestuans:

Species used to prevent osteoporosis in Brazilian traditional medicine. Pharmaceutical Biology 50(7): 930–

932.

Fang S, Lin C, Zhang Q, Wang L, Lin P, Zhang J & Wang X (2012) Anticancer potential of aqueous extract of

alocasia macrorrhiza against hepatic cancer in vitro and in vivo. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 141(3):

947–956.

Hai HD (2012) Pymply Lasia. Wild Vegetables.

Henderson MR (1954) Malayan Wild Flowers. Monocotyledons. The Malayan Nature Society. Kuala Lumpur 2:

1–356.

Heng L & Zhi-Ling D (2006) A new species of Amorphophallus (Araceae) from Yunnan, China. Novon 16(2):

240–243.

Ho PH (1991) Cay co vietnam = An illustrated flora of Vietnam. California: Pham Hoang Ho.

Lai CS, Mas RHMH, Naira NK, Mansor SM & Navaratnam V (2010) Chemical constituents and in vitro

anticancer activity of Typhonium flagelliforme (Araceae). Journal of Ethnopharmacology 127(2): 486–494.

Mandal RN, Datta AK, Sarangi N & Mukhopadhyay PK (2010) Diversity of aquatic macrophytes as food and

feed components to herbivorous fish - a review. Indian Journal of Fisheries 57(3): 65–73.

Mansor M, Boyce PC, Othman AS & Sulaiman B (2012) The Araceae of Peninsular Malaysia. Glugor, Pulau

Pinang: Penerbit Universiti Sains Malaysia. MPH Distributors.

Nauheimer (2012) Global history of the ancient monocot family Araceae inferred with models accounting for

past continental positions and previous ranges based on fossils. [Historical Article. Research Support, Non-

U.S. Gov't]. New Phytology 195(4): 938–950.

Nauheimer L, Boyce PC & Renner SS (2012) Giant taro and its relatives: a phylogeny of the large genus

Alocasia (Araceae) sheds light on Miocene floristic exchange in the Malesian region. [Research Support,

Non-U.S. Gov't]. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 63(1): 43–51.

Nguyen LD, Minh NT, Thy PTM, Phung HP & Huan HV (2010) Analysis of Changes in the Riverbanks of

Mekong River - Vietnam by Using Multi-Temporal Remote Sensing Data. Networking the World with

Remote Sensing 38: 287–292.

Nguyen NQ & Bushnell LG (2010) Modeling and LQR Control of Salinity in the Mekong Delta. In: 49th Ieee

Conference on Decision and Control (Cdc), pp. 3784–3789.

Nunes RSC, Pinhati FR, Golinelli LP, Reboucas TNH, Paschoalin VMF & da Silva JT (2012) Polymorphic

microsatellites of analysis in cultivars of taro. Horticultura Brasileira 30(1): 106–111.

Pemberton RW & Liu H (2009) Marketing time predicts naturalization of horticultural plants. Ecology 90(1):

69–80.

Schultes RE (1984) Taro - a Review of Colocasia esculenta and Its Potentials. Economic Botany 38(1): 154–

154.

Stanly C, Bhatt A, Sulaiman B & Keng CL (2012) Micropropagation of Homalomena pineodora Sulaiman &

Boyce (Araceae): a new species from Malaysia. Horticultura Brasileira 30(1): 39–43.

Truyen DM (2015) The distribution of Aroids along Hau River, Vietnam. Journal of Science and Engineering.

(in proceeding).

Wu HS, Zhu DF, Zhou CX, Feng CR, Lou YJ, Yang B & He QJ (2009) Insulin sensitizing activity of ethyl

acetate fraction of Acorus calamus L. in vitro and in vivo. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 123(2): 288–292.

Zarate NAH, Vieira MD, Tabaldi LA, Gassi RP, Kusano AM & Maeda AKM (2012) Agroeconomic yield of

Taro clones in function of number of hilling operation. Semina-Ciencias Agrarias 33(5): 1673–1680.

www.tropicalplantresearch.com 64 Received: 05 December 2014 Published online: 30 April 2015

ISSN (E): 2349 – 1183

ISSN (P): 2349 – 9265

2(1): 64–71, 2015

Research article

Lichen flora of Jammu and Kashmir State, India: An updated

checklist

Reema Goni*, Ajay K. P. Raina, Rani Magotra and Namrata Sharma

Department of Botany, Jammu University, Jammu & Kashmir, India

. *Corresponding Author: [email protected] / [email protected] [Accepted: 24 April 2015]

Abstract: Jammu and Kashmir is one of the lichen rich regions of Himalayas and often called as

Hot Spot of lichen diversity in India. However, very little information is available regarding lichen

flora of this region. In present study an attempt has been made to provide an updated checklist of

lichen flora of the region. The study is based on previous literature available from the region.

Keywords: Diversity - Lichen - Flora - Jammu and Kashmir

[Cite as: Goni R, Raina AKP, Magotra R & Sharma N (2015) Lichen flora of Jammu and Kashmir State, India:

An updated checklist. Tropical Plant Research 2(1): 64–71]

INTRODUCTION

Jammu and Kashmir lying between the coordinates 32º17' and 36º58' North Latitudes and 73º26' and 80º30'

East Longitudes covers an area of 2,22,236 Km2 with an altitude varying from 300–6500 m above mean sea

level. The state falls in the lichenogeographic zone constituting of mountainous to semi mountainous plains,

Shiwalik ranges, mountains of Kashmir valley, Pir Panjal range of Ladakh and Kargil. Including Jammu and

Kashmir the Himalaya is often called the “Hot Spot” of lichen diversity in India. The climate in the state varies

from tropical, subtropical to alpine, the annual precipitation ranges from 107-650 mm, with an average of 600

mm of snow during winter. The temperature fluctuation during summer is 15ºC to 43ºC and in winter -3ºC to

26ºC. This varied climate together with varied altitudinal range provides different kinds of substrates and niches

for colonization and growth of lichens. The lichen collection in the state started during early thirties of last

century where Smith (1931) identified and published some lichen species collected by Kashyap. A

comprehensive account of lichen diversity was made by Sheikh et al. (2006a). In addition, an enumeration of 48

species from Pulwama, Budgam and Jammu districts (Sheikh et al. 2006b), 30 species from Mansar-Surinsar

Wildlife Sanctuary (Sheikh et al. 2009), 18 species from Ramnagar Wildlife Sanctuary (Solan et al. 2010), 38

species from cold deserts of Ladakh (Kumar et al. 2012, Kumar et al. 2014), 77 species from Kishtwar, Rajouri

and Jammu districts (Sheikh et al. 2013), 18 species from Nandini Wildlife Sanctuary (Goni et al. 2013) and 25

species from Kargil district (Rahim et al. 2014) have been made for the area. This communication is an effort to

reveal the complete and updated checklist of lichens from Jammu and Kashmir.


The following checklist of lichens is based on the literature available from various sources.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The present checklist of lichen flora of Jammu and Kashmir revealed the occurrence of 356 species of

lichens belonging to 35 families and 91 genera (Table 1). In terms of taxa, the most diversified family is

Parmeliaceae with 24 genera and 65 species. This is followed by Physciaceae (11 genera and 57 species),

Lecanoraceae (4 genera and 46 species), Teloschistaceae (2 genera and 34 species). Families Cladoniaceae,

Megasporaceae, Collemataceae, Verrrucariaceae, Peltigeraceae, Ramalinaceae, Caliciaceae, Acarosporaceae,

and Umbilicariaceae are represented by 17, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7 and 6 species respectively. Least represented

families are Bacidiaceae (5 species), Candelariaceae (5 species), Lecidiaceae (5 species), Usneaeceae (5

species), Catillariaceae (4 species), Pertusariaceae (4 species), Rhizocarpaceae (4 species), Stereocaulaceae (4

species), Thelotremataceae (4 species), Lichinaceae (3 species), Agyriaceae (2 species), Chrysothricaceae (2

species), Nephromataceae, (2 species), Ochrolechiaceae (2 species), Peltulaceae (2 species), Porpidiaceae (2

Goni et al. (2015) 2(1): 64–71

.


species), Graphidaceae (1 species), Melaspileaceae (1 species), Opegraphaceae (1 species), Porinaceae (1

species), Psoraceae (1 species) and Tephromelataceae (1 species). This enlisting confirms the wide diversity of

lichens in Jammu and Kashmir. More explorations are required to this hilly range of Jammu and Kashmir to

bring forth the lichen wealth of the state.

Table 1. List of lichen taxa from the state of Jammu and Kashmir, India.

S.No. Family Name of species Reference

1. Acarosporaceae Acarospora badiofusca (Nyl.) Th. Kumar et al. 2012

Acarospora bullata Anzi Sheikh et al. 2006a

Acarospora smaragdula (Wahlenb.) A.Massal. Kumar et al. 2012

Acarospora nitrophila H. Magn. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Acarospora strigata (Nyl.) Jatta Sheikh et al. 2006a

Pleopsidium flavum (Bell.) Korb. Kumar et al. 2012

Sarcogyne privigna (Ach.) A. Massal Sheikh et al. 2006a

2. Agyriaceae Xylographa parallela (Ach.Fr.) Behlen & Desberg Singh & Sinha 2010

Xylographa parallela (Ach.) Fr. Sheikh et al. 2006a

3. Bacidiaceae Bacidia arnoldiana Korber Sheikh et al. 2013

Bacidia incongruens (Stirton) Zahlbr. Sheikh et al. 2013

Bacidia phacodes Korber Sheikh et al. 2006a

Bacidia psorina Goni et al. 2013

Lecania fuscella (Schaerer) Korber Sheikh et al. 2006a

4. Caliciaceae Amandinea montana (H. Magn.) Marbach Singh & Sinha 2010

Amandinea polyspora (Willey) E. Lay & P. May in Sheard & P. May Singh & Sinha 2010

Amandinea punctata (Hoffm.) Coppins & Scheid. Singh & Sinha 2010

Baculifera curtisii (Tuck.) Marbach Singh & Sinha 2010

Baculifera remensa (Stirt.) Marbach Singh & Sinha 2010

Calicium abietinum Pers. Singh & Sinha 2010

Calicium glaucellum Ach. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Dirinaria aegialita (Afz. in Ach.) Moore Sheikh et al. 2013

5. Candelariaceae Candelaria concolor (Dicks.)B Stein Sheikh et al. 2006a

Candelariella aurella (Hoffm.) Zahlbr. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Candelariella grimmiae Poelt & Reddi Sheikh et al. 2006a

Candelariella nepalensis Poelt & Reddi Kumar et al. 2012

Candelariella vitellina (Ehrh.) Müll. Arg Sheikh et al. 2006a

6. Catillariaceae Catillaria erysibiodes (Nyl.) Th. Fr. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Catillaria pulverea (Borrer) Lettau Sheikh et al. 2006a

Toninia sedifolia (Scop.) Timdal Singh & Sinha 2010

Toninia coeruleonigricans (Lightf.) Th. Fr. Sheikh et al. 2006a

7. Chrysothricaceae Chrysothrix candelaris (L.) J.R. Laundon Sheikh et al. 2006a

Chrysothrix chlorina (Ach.) J.R. Laundon Sheikh et al. 2006a

8. Cladoniaceae Cladonia acuminata (Ach.) Norrl. in Nyl. & Norrl. Singh & Sinha 2010

Cladonia awasthiana Ahti & Upreti Sheikh et al. 2006a

Cladonia cartilaginea Müll. Arg. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Cladonia cenotea (Ach.) Schaer. Singh & Sinha 2010

Cladonia chlorophaea (Flörke ex Sommerf.) Spreng. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Cladonia coniocraea (Flörke) Spreng. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Cladonia corniculata Ahti & Kashiw. in Inoue Sheikh et al. 2006a

Cladonia farinacea (Vain.) A. Evans Singh & Sinha 2010

Cladonia fimbriata (L.) Fr. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Cladonia humilis (With.) J.R. Laundon Singh & Sinha 2010

Cladonia mongolica Ahti in Huneck & al. Singh & Sinha 2010

Cladonia ochrochlora Flörke Sheikh et al. 2006a

Cladonia pocillum (Ach.) Grognot Sheikh et al. 2006a

Cladonia pyxidata (L.) Hoffm. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Cladonia ramulosa (With.) J.R. Laundon Singh & Sinha 2010

Cladonia rei Schaer. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Cladonia subulata (L.) F.H. Wigg. Singh & Sinha 2010

9. Collemataceae Collema flaccidum (Ach.) Ach. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Collema furfuraceum Du Rietz Singh & Sinha 2010

Goni et al. (2015) 2(1): 64–71

.


Enchylium limosum (Ach.) Otálora Sheikh et al. 2006a

Enchylium polycarpon (Hoffm.) Otálora, Sheikh et al. 2006a

Collema pulchellum Ach. var. subnigrescens (Müll. Arg.) Degel. Singh & Sinha 2010

Collema rugosum Kremp. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Collema subflaccidum Degel. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Collema subnigrescens Degel. Singh & Sinha 2010

Leptogium burnetiae C.W. Dodge Sheikh et al. 2006a

Leptogium cyanescens (Pers..) Körb. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Leptogium pedicellatum P.M. Jørg. Singh & Sinha 2010

Leptogium saturninum (Dicks.) Nyl. Sheikh et al. 2006a

10. Graphidaceae Graphis granulata Fée Singh & Sinha 2010

11. Lecanoraceae Carbonea vitellinaria (Nyl.) Hertel Sheikh et al. 2006a

Lecanora achroa Nyl. Sheikh et al. 2013

Lecanora albescens (Hoffm.) Flörke in Flot. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Lecanora argentata (Ach.) Degel. Singh & Sinha 2010

Lecanora bolcana (Pollini) Poelt Singh & Sinha 2010

Lecanora campestris (Schaer.) Hue Sheikh et al. 2006a

Lecanora carpinea (L.) Vain. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Lecanora chlarotera Nyl. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Lecanora cinereofusca H. Magn. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Lepraria ecorticata (Laundon) Kukwa Sheikh et al. 2013

Lecanora dispersa (Pers.) Sommerf. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Lecanora flavidofusca Müll. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Lecanora flavidomarginata de Lesd. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Lecanora frustulosa (Dicks.) Ach. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Lecanora garovaglii (Körb.) Zahlbr. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Lecanora hellmichiana Poelt Sheikh et al. 2006a

Lecanora himalayae Poelt Sheikh et al. 2006a

Lecanora indica Zahlbr. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Lecanora insignis Degel. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Lecanora intricata (Ach.) Ach. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Lecanora intumescens (Rebent.) Rabenh. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Lecanora iseana Räsänen Singh & Sinha 2010

Lecanora japonica Müll. Singh & Sinha 2010

Lecanora kirra Poelt & Grube Sheikh et al. 2006a

Lecanora meridionalis H. Magn. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Lecanora muralis (Schreb.) Rabenh. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Lecanora muralis var.dubyu (Mull. Arg.) Poelt. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Lecanora perplexa Brodo Sheikh et al. 2006a

Lecanora phaeodrophthalma Poelt Sheikh et al. 2006a

Lecanora polytropa (Ehrh.) Rabenh. Singh & Sinha 2010

Lecanora praesistens Nyl. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Lecanora rugosella Zahlbr. Singh & Sinha 2010

Lecanora secernens Magnusson Sheikh et al. 2006a

Lecanora subpraesistens Nayaka & al. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Lecanora subrugosa Nyl. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Lecanora tropica Zahlbr. Rahim et al. 2014

Lecanora warmingii Müll. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Lecanora xylopphila Hue Sheikh et al. 2006a

Lecidella alaiensis (Vain.) Hertel Sheikh et al. 2006a

Lecidella carpathica Körb. Singh & Sinha 2010

Lecidella caesioatra (Schaerer) Kalb. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Lecidella euphorea (Flörke) Hertel in D. Hawksw. & al. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Lecidella flavosorediata (Vìzda) Hertel & Leuckert Sheikh et al. 2006a

Lecidella stigmatea (Ach.) Hertel & Leuckert Singh & Sinha 2010

Rhizoplaca chrysoleuca (Sm.) Zopf Sheikh et al. 2006a

Rhizoplaca melanophthalma (DC.) Leuckert & Poelt Sheikh et al. 2006a

12. Lecideaceae Lecidea auriculata Th. Fr. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Lecidea confluens (Weber) Ach. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Goni et al. (2015) 2(1): 64–71

.


Lecidea granifera (Ach.) Vain. in Hiern & al. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Lecidea plana (J. Lahm) Nyl. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Lecidea secernens H. Magn. Singh & Sinha 2010

13. Lichinaceae Peccania coralloides (Massal.) Massal. Kumar et al. 2012

Phylliscum abuense Awasthi & Singh Sheikh et al. 2006a

Phylliscum indicum Upreti Sheikh et al. 2006a

14. Megasporaceae Aspicilia almorensis Räsänen Singh & Sinha 2010

Aspicilia alphoplaca (Wahlenb. in Ach.) Poelt & Leuck. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Aspicilia caesiocinerea (Nyl. ex. Malbr.) Arnold Sheikh et al. 2006a

Aspicilia calcarea (L.) Sommerf. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Aspicillia cinereorufescens (Ach.) Massal. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Aspicillia contorta (Hoffm.) Krempelh. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Aspicilia griseocinerea Räsänen Sheikh et al. 2006a

Aspicillia hartilana Hue Sheikh et al. 2006a

Aspicilia maculata (H. Magn.) Oksner in Kopach. & al. Kumar et al. 2012

Aspicilia praeradiosa (Nyl.) Poelt and Leuck. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Aspicillia radiosa (Hoffm.) Poelt and Leuck. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Lobothallia alphoplaca (Wahlenb. ex Ach.) Hafellner Kumar et al. 2012

Lobothallia praeradiosa (Nyl.) Hafellner Singh & Sinha 2010

15. Melaspileaceae Melaspilea gemella (Eschw.) Nyl. Sheikh et al. 2006a

16. Nephromataceae Nephroma expallidum (Nyl.) Nyl. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Nephroma parile (Ach.) Ach. Sheikh et al. 2006a

17. Ochrolechiaceae Ochrolechia pallescens (L.) A. Massal. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Ochrolechia rosella (Müll. Arg.) Verseghy Sheikh et al. 2006a

18. Opegraphaceae Opegrapha dimidiata Müll. Arg. Sheikh et al. 2006a

19. Parmeliaceae Allocetraria stracheyi (C. Bab.) Kurok. & Lai Singh & Sinha 2010

Bryoria fuscescens (Gyeln.) Brodo & D. Hawksw. Singh & Sinha 2010

Canoparmelia texana (Tuck.) Elix & Hale Sheikh et al. 2006a

Cetraria potaninii Oxner Sheikh et al. 2006a

Cetrelia braunsiana (Müll. Arg.) Culb. & Culb. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Cetrelia cetrarioides (Delise ex Duby) Culb. & Culb. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Evernia divaricata (L.) Ach Sheikh et al. 2006a

Evernia prunastri (L.) Ach. Sheikh et al. 20006a

Everniastrum cirrhatum (Fr.) Hale ex Sipman Sheikh et al. 2006a

Flavoparmelia caperata (L.) Hale Sheikh et al. 20006a

Flavopunctelia flaventior (Stirt.) Hale Sheikh et al. 2006a

Flavopunctelia soredica (Nyl.) Hale Sheikh et al. 2006a

Hypogymnia physodes (L.) Nyl. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Hypogymnia vittata (Ach.) Gasilien Sheikh et al. 2006a

Lethariella cashmeriana Krog Sheikh et al. 2006a

Melanelia acetabulum (Neck.) Essl. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Melanelia disjuncta (Erichsen) Essl. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Melanelia elegantula (Zahlbr.) Essl Sheikh et al. 2006a

Melanelia infumata (Nyl.) Essl. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Melanelia panniformis (Nyl.) Essl. Singh & Sinha 2010

Melanelia sorediata (Ach.) Goward & Ahti in Ahti & al. Singh & Sinha 2010

Melanelixia fuliginosa (Fr. ex Duby) Blanco & al. Singh & Sinha 2010

Melanelixia glabra (Schaer.) Blanco & al. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Melanelixia subargentifera (Nyl.) Blanco & al. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Melanelixia subaurifera (Nyl.) Blanco & al. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Melanelixia villosella (Essl.) Blanco & al. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Melanohalea elongatula (Zahlbr.) Blanco & al. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Melanohalea exasperatula (Nyl.) Blanco & al. Singh & Sinha 2010

Melanohalea infumata (Nyl.) Blanco & al. Singh & Sinha 2010

Menegazzia pertusa (Schrank.) Stein Sheikh et al. 2006a

Nepromopsis nephromoides (Nyl.) Ahti & Randl. Kumar et al. 2012

Parmelia saxatilis (L.) Ach. Singh & Sinha 2010

Parmelia hypoclysta (Nyl.) em. Klem. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Parmelia scortea (Ach.) Ach. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Goni et al. (2015) 2(1): 64–71

.


Parmelia sulcata Taylor in Mackay Sheikh et al. 2006a

Parmelina pastilifera (Harmand) Hale Sheikh et al. 2013

Parmelina tiliacea (Hoffm.) Hale Sheikh et al. 2006a

Parmelinopsis minarum (Vain.) Elix & Hale Singh & Sinha 2010

Parmotrema austrosinense (Zahlbr.) Hale Sheikh et al. 20006a

Parmotrema crinitum (Ach.) Choisy Singh & Sinha 2010

Parmotrema cristiferum (Taylor) Hale Sheikh et al. 2006a

Parmotrema direagens (Hale) Hale Sheikh et al. 2006a

Parmotrema hababianum (Gyeln.) Hale Sheikh et al. 2006a

Parmotrema nilgherrense (Nyl.) Hale Sheikh et al. 2006a

Parmotrema praesorediosum (Nyl.) Hale Sheikh et al. 2009

Parmotrema pseudoreticulatum (Tav.) Hale Singh & Sinha 2010

Parmotrema reticulatum (Taylor) Choisy Singh & Sinha 2010

Parmotrema sancti-angelii (Lynge) Hale Singh & Sinha 2010

Parmotrema subtinctorium (Zahlbr.) Hale Singh & Sinha 2010

Parmotrema tinctorum (Despr. ex Nyl.) Hale Sheikh et al. 2006a

Pleurosticta acetabulum (Neck.) Elix & Lumbsch Singh & Sinha 2010

Punctelia borreri (Sm.) Krog Sheikh et al. 2006a

Punctelia neutralis (Hale) Krog Sheikh et al. 2013

Punctelia rudecta (Ach.) Krog Sheikh et al. 2006a

Punctelia subrudecta (Nyl.) Krog Sheikh et al. 2006a

Sulcaria sulcata (Lév.) Bystrek ex Brodo & Hawksw. Singh & Sinha 2010

Xanthoparmelia australasica Galloway Sheikh et al. 2006a

Xanthoparmelia conspersa (Ach.) Hale Sheikh et al. 2006a

Xanthoparmelia coreana (Gyeln.) Hale Sheikh et al. 2006a

Xanthoparmelia mexicana (Gyeln.) Hale Kumar et al. 2012

Xanthoparmelia somloënsis (Gylen.) Hale Sheikh et al. 2006a

Xanthoparmelia stenophylla (Ach.) Ahti & Hawksw. Kumar et al. 2012

Xanthoparmelia taractica (Kremph.) Hale Sheikh et al. 2006a

Xanthoparmelia tinctina (Maheu & Gillet) Hale Sheikh et al. 2006a

Xanthoparmelia verruculifera (Nyl.) Blanco & al. Singh & Sinha 2010

20. Peltigeraceae Peltigera canina (L.) Willd. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Peltigera dolichorrhiza (Nyl.) Nyl. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Peltigera elisabethae Gyeln. Singh & Sinha 2010

Peltigera horizontalis (Huds.) Baumg. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Peltigera malacea (Ach.) Funck Singh & Sinha 2010

Peltigera microphylla (Anders) Gylen. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Peltigera polydactylon (Neck.) Hoffm. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Peltigera praetextata (Flörke) Zopf. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Peltigera rufescens (Weiss) Humb. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Solorina bispora Nyl. Sheikh et al. 2006a

21. Peltulaceae Peltula euploca (Ach.) Poelt in Pisut Sheikh et al. 2006a

Peltula patellata (Bagl.) Swinscow & Krog Sheikh et al. 2006a

22. Pertusariaceae Pertusaria albescens var. albescens (Huds.) M. Choisy & Werner in Werner Sheikh et al. 2006a

Pertusaria melastomella Nyl. Sheikh et al. 20013

Pertusaria tropica Vain. in Hiern & al. Singh & Sinha 2010

Pertusaria quassiae (Fée) Nyl. Sheikh et al. 2006a

23. Physciaceae Anaptychia ciliaris (L.) Körb. in Massal. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Anaptychia kaspica Gyeln. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Anaptychia pseudoroemeri Awasthi & Singh Sheikh et al. 2006a

Buellia alboatra (Hoffm.) Th. Fr. Singh & Sinha 2010

Buellia alboatrior (Nyl.) Zahlbr. Singh & Sinha 2010

Buellia betulinoides R. Schub. & Klem. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Phaeocalicium curtisii (Tuck.) Tibell Sheikh et al. 2006a

Buellia montana H. Magn. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Diplotomma pharcidium (Ach.) M. Choisy Singh & Sinha 2010

Buellia polyspora (Willey in Tuck.) Vainio Sheikh et al. 2006a

Buellia punctata (Hoffm.) Mass Sheikh et al. 2006a

Buellia sorediata (Tuck.) H. Magn. Singh & Sinha 2010

Goni et al. (2015) 2(1): 64–71

.


Diplotomma alboatrior (Nyl) Szat. ex Awasthi & Singh Sheikh et al. 2006a

Diplotomma sorediatum (Tuck.) Singh & Awasthi Sheikh et al. 2006a

Heterodermia boryi (Fée) Singh & Singh Singh & Sinha 2010

Heterodermia dendritica (Pers.) Poelt, Singh & Sinha 2010

Heterodermia diademata (Taylor) Awasthi Sheikh et al. 2006a

Heterodermia hypoleuca (Ach.) Trevis. Singh & Sinha 2010

Heterodermia incana (Stirt.) Awasthi Sheikh et al. 2006a

Heterodermia indica (H. Magn.) Awasthi Sheikh et al. 2006a

Heterodermia isidiophora (Nyl.) Awasthi Singh & Sinha 2010

Heterodermia obscurata (Nyl.) Trevis. Singh & Sinha 2010

Heterodermia speciosa (Wulfen) Trevisan Sheikh et al. 2006a

Hyperphyscia adglutinata (Flörke) Mayrhofer & Poelt Sheikh et al. 2006a

Hyperphyscia syncolla (Tuck. ex Nyl.) Sheikh et al. 2013

Phaeophyscia constipata (Norrl. & Nyl.) Moberg Sheikh et al. 2006a

Phaeophyscia endococcina (Körb.) Moberg Sheikh et al. 2006a

Phaeophyscia hirsuta (Mereschk.) Essl. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Phaeophyscia hispidula (Ach.) Moberg Sheikh et al. 2006a

Phaeophyscia kairamoi (Vain.) Moberg Sheikh et al. 2006a

Phaeophyscia nepalensis (Poelt) Awasthi Sheikh et al. 2006a

Phaeophyscia nigricans (Florke) Moberg. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Phaeophyscia orbicularis (Neck.) Moberg Sheikh et al. 2006a

Phaeophyscia pyrrhophora (Poelt) Awasthi & Joshi Singh & Sinha 2010

Physcia adscendens (Fr.) Olivier Singh & Sinha 2010

Physcia aipolia (Ehrh. ex Humb.) Fürnr. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Physcia caesia (Hoffm.) Fürnr. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Physcia dilatata Nyl. Sheikh et al. 2013

Physcia dubia (Hoffm.) Lettau Sheikh et al. 2006a

Physcia integrata Nyl. Singh & Sinha 2010

Physcia leptalea (Ach.) Dc. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Physcia semipinnata (Gmel.) Moberg Singh & Sinha 2010

Physcia stellaris (L.) Nyl. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Physcia tribacia (Ach.) Nyl. Sheikh et al. 2013

Physconia detersa (Nyl.) Poelt Sheikh et al. 2006a

Physconia distorta (With.) Laundon Singh & Sinha 2010

Physconia enteroxantha (Nyl.) Poelt Sheikh et al. 2006a

Physconia grisea (Lam.) Poelt Sheikh et al. 2006a

Physconia muscigena (Ach.) Poelt Sheikh et al. 2006a

Physconia perisidiosa (Erichsen) Moberg Sheikh et al. 2006a

Physconia pulverulenta (Schreb.) Poelt Sheikh et al. 2006a

Physciopsis adglutinata (Florke) Choisy Sheikh et al. 2006a

Pyxine petricola Nyl. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Pyxine subcinerea Stirt. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Pyxine cocoes (Sw.) Nyl. Sheikh et al. 2009

Rinodina badiella (Nyl.) Th. Fr. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Rinodina turfacea (Wahlenb.) Körb. Sheikh et al. 2006a

24. Porinaceae Porina glabra Zahlbr. Sheikh et al. 2006a

25. Porpidiaceae Porpidia crustulata (Ach.) Hertel & Schwab Sheikh et al. 2006a

Porpidia macrocarpa (DC.) Hertel & Knoph in Hertel Sheikh et al. 2006a

26. Psoraceae Psora decipiens (Hedwing) Hoffm. Sheikh et al. 2013

27. Ramalinaceae Catinaria atropurpurea (Schaer.) Vì zda & Poelt in Poelt & Vìzda Singh & Sinha 2010

Frutidella caesioatra (Schaer.) Kalb Singh & Sinha 2010

Ramalina baltica Lettau Sheikh et al. 2006a

Ramalina conduplicans Vain. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Ramalina confusa Awasthi Sheikh et al. 2006a

Ramalina obtusata (Arnold) Bitter Sheikh et al. 2006a

Ramalina pollinaria (Westr.) Ach. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Ramalina sinensis Jatta Sheikh et al. 2006a

Ramalina subampliata (Nyl.) Fink Singh & Sinha 2010

28. Rhizocarpaceae Rhizocarpon disporum (Naeg ex Hepp) Müll. Arg. Kumar et al. 2012

Goni et al. (2015) 2(1): 64–71

.


Rhizocarpon geographicum (L.) DC. Kumar et al. 2012

Rhizocarpon macrosporum Räsänen Singh & Sinha 2010

Rhizocarpon sublucidum Räsänen Sheikh et al. 2006a

29. Stereocaulaceae Lepraria lobificans Nyl. Sheikh et al. 2009

Lepraria membranacea (Dicks.) Vain. Singh & Sinha 2010

Squamarina cartilaginea (With.) James Sheikh et al. 2006a

Stereocaulon glareosum (Savicz) Magn. Sheikh et al. 2006a

30. Teloschistaceae Caloplaca bassiae (Willd. ex Ach.) Zahlbr. Goni et al. 2013

Caloplaca biatorina (A. Massal.) Steiner Sheikh et al. 2006a

Caloplaca brebissonii (Fée) J. Sant. ex Hafellner & Poelt Sheikh et al. 2006a

Caloplaca cerina var. stillicidiorum (Vahl) Th. Fr. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Caloplaca cerina var. muscorum (A. Massal.) Jatta Sheikh et al. 2006a

Caloplaca cerinelloides (Erichsen) Poelt Sheikh et al. 2006a

Caloplaca cirrochora (Ach.) Th. Fr. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Caloplaca citrina (Hoffm.) Th. Fr. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Caloplaca decipiens (Arnold) Blomb. & Forssell Singh & Sinha 2010

Caloplaca diphyodes (Nyl.) Jatta Sheikh et al. 2006a

Caloplaca elegans (Link.) Th. Fr. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Caloplaca flavocitrina (Nyl.) H. Olivier Singh & Sinha 2010

Caloplaca flavovirescens (Wulfen) Dalla Torre & Sarnth. Sheikh et al. 2013

Caloplaca haematites (Chaub.) Zwackh Sheikh et al. 2006a

Caloplaca himalayana Joshi & Upreti Joshi et al.2009

Caloplaca holocarpa (Hoffm.) Wade Sheikh et al. 2006a

Caloplaca insularis Poelt Sheikh et al. 2006a

Caloplaca juniperi Poelt & Hinter Sheikh et al. 2013

Caloplaca kashmirensis Joshi & Upreti Sheikh et al. 2009

Caloplaca malaensis (Rasanen) Awasthi Sheikh et al. 2006a

Caloplaca muscorum (Massal.) Choisy & Werner Singh & Sinha 2010

Caloplaca obliterans (Nyl.) Blomb. & Forssell in Points-forteckning Singh & Sinha 2010

Caloplaca oasis (Massal.) Szatala Sheikh et al. 2006a

Caloplaca saxicola (Hoffm.) Norden Kumar et al. 2012

Caloplaca subsoluta ( Nyl.) Zahlbr Sheikh et al. 2009

Caloplaca variabilis (Pers.) Müll. Kumar et al. 2012

Xanthoria candelaria (L.) Th. Fr. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Xanthoria elegans (Link) Th. Fr. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Xanthoria fulva (Hoffm.) Poelt & Petutschnig Sheikh et al. 2006a

Xanthoria parietina (L.) Th. Fr. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Xanthoria polycarpa (Hoffm.) Th. Fr. ex Rieber Sheikh et al. 2006a

Xanthoria substellaris var. subsorediosa Räsänen Sheikh et al. 2006a

Xanthoria sorediata (Vain.) Poelt Sheikh et al. 2006a

Xanthoria ulophyllodes Räsänen Sheikh et al. 2006a

31. Tephromelataceae Tephromela atra (Huds.) Hafellner in Kalb Sheikh et al. 2006a

32. Thelotremataceae Diploschistes actinostomus (Pers. ex Ach.) Zahlbr. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Diploschistes candidissimus (Kremp.) Zahlbr. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Diploschistes muscorum (Scop.) Sant. Singh & Sinha 2010

Diploschistes scruposus (Schreb.) Norman Sheikh et al. 2006a

33. Umbilicariaceae Lasallia pertusa (Rassad.) Llano Singh & Sinha 2010

Umbilicaria jingralensis Nagarkar & Patw. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Umbilicaria krascheninnikovii (Savicz) Zahlbr. Singh & Sinha 2010

Umbilicaria nepalensis Poelt Singh & Sinha 2010

Umbilicaria vellea (L.) Ach. Kumar et al. 2012

Umbilicaria virginis Schaer. Sheikh et al. 2006a

34. Usneacea Usnea esperantiana P. Clerc Singh & Sinha 2010

Usnea subfloridana Stirt., Sheikh et al. 2006a

Dolichousnea longissima (Ach.) Articus Sheikh et al. 2006a

Usnea perplexans Stirt. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Usnea subfloridana Stirt. Sheikh et al. 2006a

35. Verrucariaceae Dermatocarpon meiophyllizum Vain Sheikh et al. 2006a

Dermatocarpon miniatum (L.) W. Mann. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Goni et al. (2015) 2(1): 64–71

.


Dermatocarpon moulinsii (Mount.) Zahlbr. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Dermatocarpella squamulosum (Ach.) H. Harada Sheikh et al. 2009

Dermatocarpon vellereum Zschacke Sheikh et al. 2006a

Endocarpon rosettum Ajay Singh & Upreti Sheikh et al. 2009

Endocarpon subrosettum Ajay Singh & Upreti Sheikh et al. 2006a

Staurothele fissa (Taylor) Zwack. Sheikh et al. 2013

Verrucaria acrotella Ach. Sheikh et al. 2009

Verrucaria aethiobola Wahlb. in Ach. Sheikh et al. 2006a

Verrucaria coerulea (Ram.) DC. Sheikh et al. 2013

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are grateful to the Director, CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Dr. D.K. Upreti, Head,

Lichen Lab, CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow and Department of Botany, University of

Jammu for providing necessary laboratory facilities.

REFERENCES

Goni R, Raina AKP & Magotra R (2013) Lichen diversity in Nandini Wildlife Sanctuary, Jammu (J&K).

Phytotaxonomy 13: 106–108.

Kumar J, Khare R, Rai H, Upreti DK, Tayade A, Hota S, Chaurasia OP & Srivastava RB (2012) Diversity of

lichens along altitudinal and land use gradients in the Trans Himalayan cold desert of Ladakh. Nature and

Science 10(4): 1–9.

Kumar J, Rai H, Khare R, Upreti DK, Dhar P, Tayade AB, Chaurasia OP & Srivastava RB (2014) Elevational

controls of lichen communities in Zanskar valley, Ladakh, a Trans Himalayan cold desert. Tropical Plant

Research 1(2): 48–54.

Rahim A, Raina AK & Hussan A (2014) Lichen diversity of Kargil town and its adjoining areas, J&K,

International Journal of Current Research 5(14): 1–4.

Sheikh MA Raina AK & Upreti DK (2009) Lichen Flora of Surinsar-Mansar Wildlife Sanctuary, Jammu and

Kashmir. Journal of Applied and Natural Science 1(1): 79–81.

Sheikh MA Upreti DK & Raina AK (2006b) Lichen Diversity in Jammu and Kashmir, India. Geophytology

36(1&2): 69–85.

Sheikh MA, Raina AK & Hussan A (2013) A preliminary observation of lichen flora in three districts of Jammu

& Kashmir. International Journal of Current Research 5(4): 966–68.

Sheikh MA, Upreti DK & Raina AK (2006a) An enumeration of Lichens from three Districts of Jammu and

Kashmir, India. Journal of Applied Biosciences 32(2): 189–191.

Singh KP & Sinha GP (2010) Indian Lichens: Annotated Checklist. Botanical Survey of India, Kolkata, India.

Solan S, Mehta KA & Magotra R (2010) A catalogue of lichens of Ramnagar Wildlife Sanctuary, Jammu

(J&K). Phytotaxonomy 10: 134–138.

volume 2, issue 1 of tropical plant research

Documents

reserve forest rights

tropical forest of assam

species richness

lopping status

biosphere reserve

present study

study site

tropical plant research