voice and the organs of speech

7/31/2019 Voice and the organs of speech

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READING & ACTIVITIES : Voice and the Organs of Speech

All materials Patricia Ashby 2006 Page 1 of 14File updated 01/10/2009

Introduction to phonetics (including voice and the organs ofspeech) READING NOTES 1

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1 What is phonetics?

Articulatory phonetics = anatomy of the vocal tract + movement of thearticulators (organs of speech) also calledspeech production .

Acoustic phonetics = physics (speech waveforms) the physicalnature of speech sounds also called thephysics of speech .

Auditory phonetics = psychology and hearing (hearing andidentifying speech sounds as in ear-training+ how speech sounds are actually heard) also called speech perception .

2 How does phonetics relate to phonology?

PHONETICS PHONOLOGY

Concrete: Like computer hardware: mechanicaland visible.

Abstract: Like computer software: instructional,explanatory and invisible.

Theoretical: Often fairly abstract theorising sometimes even philosophical innature seeking explanations forsound patterns and alternations.Analyses, orders (and seeks toexplain) data and facts from phonetics.

Practical: Obviously, there is theory involved herebut it is theory about empiricallyverifiable facts about empirical andpractical issues.Identifies and describes speech data,supplying data and facts for phonology.

Example:English has two different l-sounds or l-phones, e.g.

Zk\the first sound in like

Z4\the last sound in kill.

Example:English has only one l-sound unit orl-phoneme, e.g.

.k. as in like, kill, etc.(If I say Z4\ike I simply sound ratherAmerican, but I am still saying thesame word like; if I say ki Zk\+ I maysound like a German speaker ofEnglish saying the word kill in bothcases I sound rather different or odd,but the words dont change theirmeaning.)


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READING NOTES: Voice and the Organs of Speech

Page 2 of 14 All materials Patricia Ashby 2006File updated: 01/10/2009

Scope: Phonetics is concerned with accents andwith pronunciation and with how wemanage to make the different noises atall it is interested exclusively in what

speakers sound like.

Scope: Phonology is concerned with contrasts(am I saying kill or bill, like or

mike?) structure, patterns andorganisation of sounds it has no

interest at all in what these actuallysound like!

Allophones: Different phones (sounds) used topronounce a single phoneme are calledallophones of that phoneme. Zk\and Z4\ are allophones of the phoneme .k. inEnglish.

Phonemes: Phonologists call the abstract unitsthey are interested in phonemes orsegments .

Representation of data: Phonetic transcriptions are presented insquare brackets: []

Representation of data: Phonemic (or broad phonetic)transcriptions are presented in slantbrackets: //

3 The IPA chart

To understand how to read this grid, you need to know a few things about howspeech sounds are actually made. In Block 1, we will look at two concepts:voice and organs of speech .

4 The larynx and voice production

The larynx The glottis is the space between the vocal folds; the vocal folds are like twocurtains hanging down inside the larynx; the vocal folds join vertically down theinside of the thyroid (shield) cartilage at the front of the larynx structure andone to each aretynoid cartilage at the back; the aretynoids and the thyroidcartilage are positioned on top of the cricoid (ring) cartilage (the last cartilageat the top of the trachea (wind pipe).

Location of the larynx (Picture after LADEFGED, P (2005, 5th edition)Course in Phonetics. Fort Worth: Harcourt CollegePublishers. Hereafter CIP .)

larynx


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For those of you who are a bit unsure about quite where your larynx is, it isinside your neck, at the bottom of your throat the visible indicator is the protuberance of the thyroid cartilage that we know in lay language as ourAdams apple.

Thyroid cartilage (= frontwall of larynx structure; hyoid) bone and epiglottis would allbe above this)

View of the larynx from behind

Thyroid cartilage

View of the larynx from in front (on top of the trachea)

Voice production To produce normal voice (also called chest voice and modal voice), the vocalfolds are adducted (drawn together) and held gently closed. Controlledexpulsion of lung air begins and forces an air-stream up the trachea where, atthe top, it meets a resistance (obstacle) in the form of the closed vocal folds(image 1, below). Air pressure from the lungs (sub-glottal pressure/pressurefrom below the glottis) increases, pushing against the folds and starting toseparate them at the bottom (image 2, below; remember they have depth, likea pair of curtains). Controlled expulsion of air continues and the column of air(the air-stream) continues pushing (image 3), gradually forcing the folds apartin depth (image 4). When the air reaches the top, there is no further resistanceand, still under pressure from the lungs, it accelerates out of the top of thelarynx, leaving a drop in pressure behind it where the vocal folds then almostsnap back together (images 5 and 6), first at the bottom (image 6) and then, bydegrees, in depth (images 7 and 8; following the tail end of the exiting airflow).This closing movement is partly elastic (remember, they are being deliberatelyheld together, so they are now snapping back to that position when they are no


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longer being forced apart by the airstream, like letting go of a stretch piece ofelastic) and partly suction (the loss of air pressure between the folds as theairflow suddenly accelerates through this is called the Bernoulli effect ). Butcontrolled expulsion of air from the lungs goes on and so the whole cycle startsagain with the folds gradually opening and then, when the pressure drops,being sucked back together again. In this way, successive small bursts of lung

air are emitted as the vocal folds continue to open and close (or vibrate).You can see this opening-closing motion in the following diagrams. You cansee that the folds open from the bottom to the top and then close again fromthe bottom to the top.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Vibratory cycle of the larynx (Images adapted from CLARK, J and YALLOP, C (1990) An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology . Oxford: Blackwell.)

Different adjustments of the way in which the folds and aretynoids are held(states of the glottis or glottal settings) result in different voice types.

Note that voiceless sounds (where the passage of air is continuous) havegreater/stronger air-flow than voiced ones (where the flow is broken up intosuccessive small bursts).

Different states of the glottis can be representedschematically by adapting this diagram (a viewof the larynx from above).

The glottis is the space between the vocal folds.

(Image from COLLINS B and MEES I (2003Practical Phonetics and Phonology . London:Routledge hereafter PPP .)

Understanding the larynx waveformIn images 1-8 above you can see one complete sequence of movements from


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closed vocal folds, through opening and back to closed again. This sequence iscalled a cycle and repeats over and over again to create the sound we callnormal voice. The number of times the cycle repeats in one second is called thefundamental frequency (Fx). The average Fx for men is between 100Hz and120Hz. Womens voices are about an octave higher and their average Fx isbetween 200Hz and 240 Hz. The vibrations are too rapid to be seen by the

human eye! (If you want to see them, you have to use a stroboscopic lightsource.)

Lx, like all sounds, has a waveform. The peaks in the waveform are the fullyclosed points in the cycle, corresponding to images 1 and 8. This wave form iscalled the larynx waveform (Lx). The shape repeats itself for long as thevibratory cycles continue.

Lx Larynx waveform

(Image from ASHBY & MAIDMENT 2005)

Waveforms with repeating patterns of this kind are called periodic waveforms.

One cycle is one period. You can measure how long a cycle or period takes tobe completed in fractions of a second or ( ms ) and this gives is called theperiodic time (T).

Periodic waveforms are of two kinds: simple and complex. Lx is a complexwaveform. You can tell this by looking at it because it has a slightly irregularsort of shape in the case of LX, it has a kind of triangular-looking shape.Some complex waveforms are much, much more complicated than Lx (vowelwaveforms, for example, are very complex by comparison). All complexwaveforms can be deconstructed into a number of so-called simplewaveforms or sinewaves. These just have a smoothing curving line. Thedeeper the curve, the greater the amplitude of the sound (related to

loudness and measured in decibels, dB) and the more curves that occur inany given interval of time, the greater the frequency ( f , related to perceivedpitch and measured in kilohertz, kHz).

Below are some sinewaves (from HAYWARD, K (2000) Experimental Phonetics . London: Longman) with these different characteristics studythem carefully and look for the differences of frequency and loudnessdescribed.


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Selection of sinewaves

5 States of the glottis or glottal settings(All images in this section from PPP .)

Open glottis (voiceless sounds)The open glottis is the most usual way of achieving voicelessness in a speechsound. The vocal folds are held wide apart as shown in the diagram above much as for normal breathing and the egressive pulmonic airstream passesthrough without interference. This is the state of the glottis associated with soundssuch as:

Zj\ voiceless velar plosiveZB\ voiceless palatal fricativeZsR\ voiceless palatoalveolar affricateZl\ voiceless bilabial nasal

English has a number of voiceless consonants:Zo s j e S r R g sR\

Closed glottis (glottal stop)

The vocal folds are drawn tightly together in depth and resist pressure from the


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sub-glottal egressive pulmonic air-flow. This is the state of the glottis required forthe production of:

a) the glottal stop (voiceless glottal plosive),Z>\.

b) ejective consonants such as the voicelessbilabial ejective plosive Zo\+ the voicelessalveolar ejective fricative Zr\, the voicelessalveolar ejective lateral affricate Zs J\, etc.In these sounds, the closed glottis acts asthe initiator for the egressive glottalic orpharyngeal airstream, airstream causing brief expulsion of air from the pharynxwhen the larynx containing the tightly closed folds is rapidly raised in a piston-likemovement.

Narrowed glottis

Narrowing of the space between the vocal folds by pulling the folds towards eachother but not near enough to cause closure causes the egressive pulmonicairstream to become turbulent.

This turbulent air travels through the supra-glottal cavities and is perceived asvoiceless [h]-like friction.

Vibrating vocal foldsWhen the vocal folds are drawn together in depth, closing the glottis, but not sofirmly as to resist the pressure of the egressive pulmonic airstream, the passageof this air through between the folds causes them to vibrate. This is the state ofthe glottis in the production of normal voice or chest voice. This is the type of

voice used for the majority of voiced speech sounds. Voicing is the usualcharacteristic of vowels (although some languages, Japanese for example, do usevoiceless ones as well) and approximant consonants (although again somelanguages, Burmese for example, also use voiceless approximants).

As well as its vowels, English has a rangeof voiced consonants:

Za c f u C y Y l m M v k i\-

Vocal fold vibration is also used to produce pitch change (in lexical pitch andintonation). The slower the rate of vibration, the lower the pitch that will be heard.

Whisper and breathy voiceThe glottal setting for whisper involves drawing the vocal folds into a firmly closedposition but leaving the aretynoids open; voiceless air passes through the opening


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between the aretynoids.

The glottal setting for breathy voice is similar to that associated with whisperexcept that the vocal folds are held less firmly together and vibrate; air passingthrough the vibrating folds adds voicing to the breathy (whisper) quality of the airwhich is passing simultaneously through the open aretynoids.

This is the state of the glottis required for the so-called voiced glottal fricative Z\ and for the murmured stops or voiced aspirates of many Indo-Aryan andDravidian languages. Breathy voice is denoted by the addition of a dierisis belowthe symbol, e.g. Z@\-

Creak and creaky voiceCreak is produce when the vocal folds are drawn together as if for Z>\but allowedto vibrate extremely slowly at the very front. This is not widely used in languages,but when combined with the rest of the folds vibrating normally, creating an effectknown as creaky voice, it has much more widespread use. You hear creaky voice

very often at the end of falling intonation tunes in English (and even in the middlelow section of a fall-rise); creaky voice is used in Danish where is it called std;etc.

These relationship between these different states of the glottis can besummarised as follows (diagram reproduced from PPP ):


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6 Application of knowledge about voicingPhoneticians use their knowledge about the voicing of speech sounds to drawvoicing diagrams. You can already begin to practice this technique.

Job 1First, determine which of the English consonants on your phoneme list are voicedand which are voiceless. Say each sound aloud and listen can you hear voice?If you are not sure, rest your fingers gently on the front of your throat can youfeel any vibration? Another test is to put your fingers in your ears and see if youcan hear a buzz or if there is just some kind of percussive or mechanical noise ifthere is a buzz, the sound is voiced.

Fill in the following blanks to complete the five pairs of Standard Southern BritishEnglish voiceless-voiced consonant sounds:

______ voiceless o j S r g

VVVVV voiced c u C Y l m M v q k i

Job 2 Once you have decided which sounds belong to which category (voiceless or

voiced) you can apply this knowledge to a type of parametric diagram whichshows the voicing of an utterance.

For example, in the utterance answer , the structure is VCCV (where V representsa vowel sound and C represents a consonant sound) and all are voiced, exceptthe second C. A voicing diagram of this utterance would look like this:

answer [ @9 m r ?]

VVVV VVVV VVVV

In the utterance since , the structure is CVCC and the first and last sounds arevoiceless while the middle two are voiced:

since [ r H m r ]

VVVV VVVV


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Using the examples as models, complete the following diagrams to show thevoicing behaviour in each utterance.


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1 itself [ H s !r dl f ]

2 face [ e dH r]

Note that in eachdiagram, weshow the vocalfolds extendingbeyond the limitsof the utteranceitself they existeven when we arenot speaking.

3 office [ !P e H r]

4 fussy [ !e U r h]

5 machine [ l ? !R h9n ]

6 revision [ q ? !u H Y m]

7 Jugoslavia [ i t9 f ?T !r k @9 u h]


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8 mushroom [ !l U R q T l]

9 indigenous [ H m !c H cY ? m ?]

10 remarkable [ q H !l @9 j ? a ? k]

Job 3 Draw parametric diagrams showing the action of the vocal folds for the followingutterances. (Always check in LPD to see that you have transcribed them correctlyfirst.)

anything, father, himself, laughing, before

SummaryThe larynx is a largely cartilaginous structure at the bottom of a speakersthroat inside of which are two membranous masses, the vocal folds.Activity of the vocal folds contributes to voice production in speech; the larynxis identified as the phonatory (voice producing) mechanism in speechproduction.Rate of vibration of the vocal folds contributes to intonation.Closure and narrowing of the vocal folds contribute to consonantal manner ofarticulation.The larynx is also instrumental in the initiation of glottalic/pharyngeal air-streammechansisms.

7 The organs of speech Apart from its role in voice production and the initiation of air-streams. the larynx isalso the innermost speech organ in the vocal tract itself.

The organs of speech are all anatomical organs with primary, life-supporting,biological functions. None are specifically tools of speech production.

Speech makes use of everything in the vocal tract from the larynx structure andthe epiglottis to the pharynx, parts of the upper palate (roof) of the mouth, parts ofthe tongue, teeth and lips as well as the nasal cavities. Obviously the primaryfunctions of all these organs are concerned not with speech but with breathing,


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smelling, biting, tasting, chewing, and swallowing. It is mans unique creativenessthat has put them to the parallel use of speaking.

The glottis is a defining boundary in the anatomy and physiology of speech.Everything below the glottis is termed sub-glottal (the trachea, lungs andmusculature involved in the production of the egressive pulmonic air-stream that

we most commonly use in speech). Everything above the glottis is termed supra-glottal (spaces such as the pharynx or pharyngeal cavity, the mouth or oral cavityand the nose or nasal cavities are know collectively as the supra-glottal cavities).

The most productive and active cavity in speech is the oral cavity. All parts of thiscavity are utilized when speaking. The immovable upper jaw contains organswhich can be collectively termed passive articulators while those associating withthe moveable lower jaw are termed active articulators. The most active andflexible of all is the tongue.

The following image is adapted from SS . The diagram is a section through thehead (sometimes known affectionately as a Sammy!) showing the outline of the

parts of the vocal tract that are used in speech production. The technical name forvocal tract drawings like this is mid-sagittal section literally, a section or slicethrough the mid-line of the head.

A number of the organs shown in this diagram can be moved voluntarily ordeliberately. The most obvious are the lips and the tongue. The soft-palate orvelum can also be moved in an up-down or raised-lowered motion which isimportant for what is called manner of articulation (see Block 3). But the mostflexible of all the organs is the tongue and for that reason we need to consider itmore closely.

Articulatorsabove thisline arePASSIVE

articulators

Articulatorsbelow thisline are

ACTIVEarticulators

The organs of speech


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The tongue is a complex muscular structure and has tremendous flexibility andfinesse of movement. Some parts of the tongue are more flexible than others. Thetip and blade, for example, are extremely flexible, being unattached to the rest ofthe mouth. They can adopt a huge range of positions and can also operate

relatively independently of, say, the back of the tongue this gives the tongue thepotential for doing two different things at the same time! As well as the differentpoints of the tongue from front to back: tip or apex, blade, front, centre, back,root), the side rims of the tongue are also independently and voluntarily moveableand they must also be taken into consideration when describing the production ofspeech sounds. The following image of the tongue is also taken from SS .

Parts of the tongue

SummaryThe organs of speech all have other primary biological functions.Organs can be divided into active (those that move) and passive (those that remain

(relatively) static).Passive organs include: upper lip and teeth, the alveolar ridge, the palate (hard andsoft).Active organs include: the lower lip and all parts of the tongue (the tip/apex, blade,front, centre, back, root and side-rims).The larynx is also an important speech organ.

voice and the organs of speech

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