vocabulary acquisition - journal of international students

64 ISSN: 2162-3104 Print/ ISSN: 2166-3750 Online Copyright © by JIS http://jistudents.org/

Journal of International Students

Spring 2013 Vol. 3 Issue 1

The English language is considered to have the largestvocabulary in the world (Crystal, 2002). Educatednative speakers of English are expected to knowapproximately 20,000 word families or 70,000 words(Nation, 2001); however, educated non-native speakersof English know less than one quarter of the nativespeakers’ vocabulary (Laufer & Yano, 2001). Non-native speakers of English must increase theirvocabulary knowledge in order to become successful intheir academic endeavors in English-mediumeducational environments. A solid foundation ofvocabulary knowledge is essential at every stage of thelearner’s second language (L2) development.Regardless of the degree of the learner’s competency ingrammar and pronunciation; one cannot have effectivecommunication without sufficient vocabularyknowledge. Developing the learner’s vocabulary skillsultimately facilitates richer listening and speakingabilities (Chang, 2007; Joe, 1998; Joe, Nation, &Newton, 1996; Newton, 1995), reading abilities (Cobb,2008; Haynes, 1993; Laufer, 1992; Nation, 2001;Nation & Coady, 1988; Wesche & Paribakht, 2000),and writing abilities (Engber, 1995; Ferris, 1994;Hinkel, 2004; Laufer, 1998; Laufer & Nation, 1995).Research highlights that learning words in a systematicmanner is very important for both word retention andthe facilitation of the learner’s later production (Carter,1998; McCarthy, 1996; Nation, 2009; Roberts, 1999).This paper presents effective vocabulary learningstrategies that students who use English as their secondlanguage (ESL) can use to enhance their vocabularyacquisition and the learning of English.

Process of Vocabulary Acquisition

There have been two differing perspectives about L2vocabulary acquisition: implicit learning and explicitlearning. The implicit vocabulary learning theory holds

that subconscious vocabulary acquisition duringreading is more effective than learning words throughpurposeful vocabulary exercises because the learner’sconscious focus is on the story, not on the items to learn(Krashen, 1987, 1993). However, numerous studieshave convincingly shown that extensive reading is notsufficient to improve the learner’s L2 vocabularyknowledge (Carter 1998; Carter and McCarthy 1988;McCarthy, 1996; Nation 2009; Wesche & Paribakht,2000). Although solely relying on reading forvocabulary development may lead to the learner’sability to recognize a large number of words, it is notlikely to advance the learner’s ability to use words in aproductive mode (Folse, 2004; Nation, 2008; Schmitt& McCarthy,1997). Vocabulary learning throughextensive reading is most effective when the reader’sL2 proficiency level is advanced because the readershould know when and how to use contextual clues andbe aware of word families and affixes for analyzingwords (Folse, 2004). Individual learners have differentstyles of acquiring L2 vocabulary, and inferring wordsfrom context during reading does not necessarily resultin long-term retention (Sokmen, 1997). Mostresearchers and educators now agree that the greaterthe depth of processing involved in lexical learning, themore secure and long term the learning is likely to be(Carter, 1998; McCarthy & O’Dell, 1999; Nation,2008; Schmitt & McCarthy, 1997). Successfulvocabulary learners should make use of efficientlearning strategies to expand their vocabulary powerand the learning of English.

Dictionary Potential and Dictionary Training

One of the most essential resources for languagelearners is a dictionary. Research points out thatincreasing recognition for the importance of explicitvocabulary training in L2 learning should be

Vocabulary Acquisition: Practical Strategies for ESLStudentsYoung-Kyung Min, PhD

University of Washington at Bothell (USA)

“Without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed.” (Wilkins, 1972, p. 111)

65Journal of International Students

accompanied by a greater awareness of the dictionary’spotential (Folse, 2004; Scholfield, 1997). The threeconditions for learners to be able to say they know aword are: which words it is usually associated with(lexical patterning); what grammatical characteristics ithas (grammatical pattering); and how it is pronouncedand spelled (McCarthy, 1996). The most importantaspect of knowing a word is the collocationalpartnerships of the word (Folse, 2004; Sokmen, 1997).As the word parts “co” and “location” suggest, acollocation is a word or phrase that is frequently usednear the target word. Learning chunks and groups ofwords that go together is a very effective way toexpand the learner’s vocabulary power (Lewis, 1993;Nattinger & DeCarrico, 1992; Sokmen, 1997).Monolingual dictionaries can help learners develop amore solid awareness of the collocational partnershipsof words since meaning and other information areprovided in the same language as the target word.

Research also highlights positive effects ofbilingual dictionaries on the learners’ L2 developmentespecially on their reading comprehension abilities(Folse, 2004; Knight, 1994; Luppescu & Day, 1993).Bilingual dictionaries help learners quickly grasp themeanings of words, especially for words that aredifficult to translate into English. The immediatesemantic association between the L2 word and the L1word can help learners reinforce the meanings of wordsand retain them in long-term memory. However, theconstant use of a bilingual dictionary holds learnersback from developing both a feel or intuition for wordsand the skill of paraphrasing to make up for words theydo not know. Using bilingual dictionaries as the onlyreference source may hinder them from developingwriting vocabulary because bilingual dictionaries focuson the translations of words rather than usages (Nation,2008).

Based on my experience of learning English asa foreign language and teaching ESL writing coursesfor over 15 years, a very useful resource that can helplearners understand the collocational partnerships ofwords is the encoding dictionary. It is a monolingualdictionary, but it is not a typical dictionary. As the name“encoding” suggests, in the encoding dictionary, wordsare systematically grouped together by meaning not byalphabetical order. It presents how semantically similarwords have different syntactic and pragmatic usages.The most common encoding dictionary available onthe market is the Longman Language Activator: theWorld’s First Production Dictionary. As an example,the entry “consist of/be made of” from the dictionary is

presented in the Appendix. The encoding dictionarycan promote a deeper level of processing words andcan help learners increase their knowledge ofcollocational partnerships more effectively bycomparing differences in word usages based on thespecific examples. As the title of this dictionarysuggests, it can help learners develop receptive(reading) vocabulary into productive (writing)vocabulary. It is crucial for the learner’s literacydevelopment that vocabulary is learned not onlyreceptively but also productively (Nation, 2008).

The encoding dictionary can also enhancelearners’ awareness of the fundamentalinterdependence between lexis and grammar. Learnersdo not need to depend solely on grammar books; theycan also enhance their grammatical knowledge throughthe dictionary. The encoding dictionary illustrates thata dichotomy between grammar and vocabulary is notalways appropriate. Research highlights that it is notappropriate to divide a language into grammar andvocabulary (Folse, 2004; Nation, 2008, 2009; Sokmen,1997). Some aspects of language that have been dealtwith under grammar in the area of L2 acquisition areactually lexical in nature (Sonaiya, 1991). Language isa grammaticalized lexis not lexicalized grammar(Lewis, 1993). If the goal of L2 education is to developthe learner’s communicative ability, then it is crucial toenhance the learner’s awareness of the connectionbetween lexis and grammar. It is important toremember that communicative competence goes handin hand with vocabulary competence, and vocabularycompetence goes hand in hand with collocationalcompetence.

Word Unit Analysis

Words can be stored in terms of their graphologicalforms as well as by their meanings. Graphologicalforms can greatly enhance word storage and recall.There are more words in English that are related bycommon roots or bases than many other languages(McCarthy, 1996). A knowledge of roots and affixes(prefixes and suffixes) will help learners unlock themeanings of many English words. Knowledge of wordformation is very important, especially for those whosenative language is not of the Greco-Latin family group.It is crucial for ESL students to study Greco-Latinaffixes and roots because such knowledge helps themlearn many new words “by relating these words toknown words or known prefixes and suffixes, and itcan be used as a way of checking whether an

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unfamiliar word has been successfully guessed fromcontext” (Nation, 1990, p. 168). Learners can alsodevelop inferencing skills by analyzing the left flank(prefixes), the right flank (suffixes), and the center(roots), which can ultimately lead to better wordretention.

Let’s take a look at the following words:convivial, revive, survive, vitality, vitamin, vivacious,vivid, and vivisection. They all have something incommon: each of them is built on the building block of“vit” or “viv”. The Latin roots “viv” and “vit” mean“life” or “to live”. By learning the common Greek andLatin roots and affixes, learners can recognize, analyze,build, and use many related words more easily andquickly. Although root prediction does not work all thetime, this method will help learners make fewer trips tothe dictionary both for a new word and for words theyhave looked up before and will help them expand theirvocabulary knowledge. Another effective way to useword roots in acquiring L2 vocabulary is to match aword of Latin origin with one of Greek origin,whenever the meaning of the word and the rootcorresponds. Let me explain this further in thefollowing section.

Word Parallels

The English lexicon comprises two main strands:Greco-Latin and Anglo-Saxon (Crystal, 2002). TheAnglo-Saxon words in English comprise only about35% of the lexicon as a whole with words of French,Latin, and Greek origins comprising the rest of thelexicon; and Anglo-Saxon words account for 50% ofthe high frequency words that are used in our everydaylives (Nation, 1994, 2001). Learning the word parallelsof Greek and Latin roots that share the same meaningis a very effective strategy for solid vocabularydevelopment. Here is an example that illustrates theword parallel method (Nurnberg & Rosenblum, 1966,2005):

Anglo Saxon Latin Greekteamwork cooperation synergybirth origin genesissong chant anthembelief tenet dogmaghost specter phantom

Anglo Saxon Latindrink beverageforgive condonefatherhood paternityneighborhood vicinityloneliness solitude

Latin Greekexperiential empiricalirregular anomalousselective eclecticcircumference peripherytransformation metamorphosis

Most students learn the Anglo-Saxon words in the leftcolumn first since they are more commonly used in oureveryday lives than their Greco-Latin partners. Manystudents do not know “dogma” is the Greek word for“belief”, and “tenet” is the Latin correspondent;“beverage” is the Latin word for “drink”, and“paternity” is the Latin equivalent for “fatherhood.” Aslearners get to know the relationships between theAnglo-Saxon and Greco-Latin words, they can developmore awareness of formal and informal registers. Theirincreased understanding of connotation will ultimatelyhelp them develop their writing vocabulary as well asreading vocabulary.

Pronunciation and Spelling for Word Power

To learn a new word, one must learn three things:meaning, pronunciation, and spelling. Learning theexact pronunciation of the new word is very importantfor L2 vocabulary acquisition (Celce-Murcia, 2001;Laufer, 1998). Lower-level learners may especiallybenefit from perceiving acoustic and orthographicsimilarities in words (Hennings, 2000; McCarthy,1994). Many simple words are mis-spelled becausethey are mispronounced. English is not an easylanguage to spell. The differing spellings are the resultof the complex linguistic history since English was notcreated at one time or from one source (Crystal, 2002).When learners get in the habit of pronouncing wordswith care and acquire the habit of looking closely at theword, as they read the word or write it down, theirspelling is bound to improve. Taking into considerationthat the relationship of spelling to sound of the Englishlanguage is quite irregular, the importance of learningexact pronunciation with vocabulary needs to behighlighted.


Vocabulary Journal

Ideally, one word form would only have one meaning,and each meaning would be associated with only oneform. A language such as English, however, has a greatnumber of homonyms (same in spelling and sound butdifferent in meaning), polysemes (word of multiplemeanings), synoforms (similar spelling), andsynophones (similar sounds). Thus, organizing wordsin a systematic manner and reviewing them at regularintervals are very important for both word retentionand facilitation of the learner’s later production.Numerous studies indicate that reviewing vocabularyat regular intervals is a very effective technique forlearners to develop a feel for their learned vocabularyand to enhance their learning of English (Carter, 1998;Folse, 2004; McCarthy, 1996; Nation, 2008, 2009;Roberts, 1999). Learners acquire new lexical items bymeeting them at least seven times (Huizenga &Huizenga, 2000), and a minimum of 12 exposures isneeded for them to develop solid vocabularyknowledge (Meara, 1987).

In a vocabulary journal, learners can includevarious pieces of information about the target wordsuch as pronunciation, part of speech (noun, verb etc),lexical and grammatical patterns, register, etc. Onefeature that learners should include in their vocabularyjournal is a synonym or antonym of the word, whichcan greatly increase their ability to use and retain theword (Bromberg & Gale, 1998; Folse, 2004; Nurnberg& Rosenblum, 2005). Learners can also include anypersonal examples (anecdotes, memories, or feelings)that can help them develop a feel for the target wordand retrieve the word later. Learners can organize theirvocabulary journal in various styles. They can drawimages or create grids and sets to visualize semanticnetworks of words, which will lead to better retention.

Basically, keeping a vocabulary journalprovides learners with opportunities to experiment withwords. The journal is a space where they can practicewords and expand meaning while they are acquiringnew vocabulary, which will ultimately help themdevelop both their writing and reading vocabulary.Keeping a vocabulary journal will also help thembecome more aware of the interdependence betweenlexis and grammar, and it can prevent learners frombeing preoccupied with grammatical rules.

Conclusions

Effective vocabulary acquisition training is integral for

effective reading and writing processes. The ability toread and write fluently requires learners to reach a“lexical threshold” (Laufer, 1997). Reading andwriting cannot be separated from each other: the morein-depth reading they do, the more in-depth writingthey can do. The more English reading learners do, themore English vocabulary they will be exposed to.However, as noted earlier, relying solely on reading todevelop English vocabulary is not an effective way toexpand vocabulary. It is essential for learners tocombine an explicit approach to vocabulary learningwith extensive reading to maximize their vocabularypower and the learning of English.

Lack of vocabulary knowledge is a problemacross all areas. As Wilkins (1972) powerfully argues,“Without grammar very little can be conveyed, withoutvocabulary nothing can be conveyed” (p. 111).Learners should know that vocabulary plays aprominent role in their L2 acquisition anddevelopment. Learners should utilize efficientvocabulary learning strategies and resources toincrease effectiveness in their vocabulary acquisitionmore actively. In essence, the more active they are intheir vocabulary acquisition process, the more activereaders and writers they will become. It is important toremember that effective storage of words willultimately lead to effective retrieval of words: effectiveinput always precedes effective output.

Appendix

CONSIST OF / BE MADE OFWays of saying that something is made of or contains anumber of parts, substances etc

Consist of: Bolognaise sauce consists of minced beef,onion, tomatoes, mushrooms, garlic and seasoning. /Lorna’s whole wardrobe consisted of jeans, tee shirtsand sweaters. / The senior management team consistsof John, Betty, and Ken. / He mixed a special drink,consisting of gin, vodka, and cherry brandy.

Be made of: The candlesticks are made of brass. / Shemixed a batter made of flour, eggs and water. / What’sthis carpet made of?

Be made up of: The US government is made up of twolegislative assemblies – Congress and the Senate. / TheUnited Nations is made up of more than 200 individualnations. / The jury was mostly made up of women.

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Be composed of: The earth’s atmosphere is composed mainly of nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide. / The human body is composed of billions of tiny cells.

Comprise: The house comprises 2 bedrooms, a kitchen, and a living room. / The city’s population comprises mainly Asians and Europeans.

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Carter, R. (1998). Vocabulary: Applied linguistic perspectives. London, UK: Routledge.

Carter, R., & McCarthy, M. (1988). Vocabulary &language teaching. London: Longman.

Celce-Marcia, M. (2001). Teaching English as a second or foreign language (3rd ed.), Boston, MA: Thomson Learning.

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Cobb, T. (2008). Commentary: Response to McQuillanand Krashen. Language Learning & Technology, 12, 109-114.

Crystal, D. (2002). The English language. London: Penguin.

Engber, C. (1995). The relationship of lexical proficiency to the quality of ESL compositions. Journal of Second Language Writing, 4, 139-155.

Ferris, D. (1994). Lexical and syntactic features of ESLwriting by students at different levels of L2 proficiency. TESOL Quarterly, 28, 414-420.

Folse, K. (2004). Vocabulary myths: Applying second language research to classroom teaching. AnnArbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

Haynes, M. (1993). Patterns and perils of guessing in second language reading. In T. Huckin, M. Haynes, & J. Coady (Eds.), Second language reading and vocabulary acquisition (pp. 46-64). Norwood, NJ: Albex.

Hennings, D. G. (2000). Contextually relevant word study: Adolescent vocabulary development across the curriculum. Journal of Adolescent &Adult Literacy, 44(3), 268-279.

Hinkel, E. (2004). Teaching academic ESL writing: Practical techniques in vocabulary and grammar, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Huizenga, J. & Huizenga L. (2000). Can you believe it? Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Joe, A. (1998). What effects do text-based task promoting generation have on incidental vocabulary acquisition? Applied Linguistics, 19(3), 357-377.

Joe, A., Nation, P., & Newton, J. (1996). Vocabulary learning and speaking activities. English Teaching Forum, 34(1), 2-7.

Knight, S. (1994). Dictionary use while reading: The effects on comprehension and vocabulary acquisition for students of different verbal abilities. Modern Language Journal, 78(3), 285-299.

Krashen, S. (1987). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Krashen, S. (1993). The case for free voluntary reading. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 50(1), 72-82.

Laufer, B. (1992). How much lexis is necessary for reading comprehension? In P. Arnaud & H. Bejoint (Eds.), Vocabulary and applied linguistics (pp. 126-131). London: Macmillan Academic & Professional Ltd.

Laufer, B. (1997). The lexical plight in second language reading: Words you don’t know, words you think you know, and words you can’t guess. In J. Coady & T. Huckin (Eds), Second language vocabulary acquisition (pp. 20-34). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Laufer, B. (1998). The development of passive and active vocabulary in a second language: Sameor different? Applied Linguistics, 19(2), 255-271.

Laufer, B., & Nation, P. (1995). Vocabulary size and use: Lexical richness in L2 written production. Applied Linguistics, 16(3), 307-322.

Laufer, B., & Yano, Y. (2001). Understanding unfamiliar words in a text: Do L2 learners understand how much they don’t understand? Reading in a Foreign Language, 13, 539-566.

Lewis, M. (1993). The lexical approach. Hove, UK: Language Teaching Publications.

Longman, A. W. (1994). Longman language activator: The world’s first production dictionary. Boston, MA: Longman.

Luppescu, S. & Day, R. (1993). Reading, dictionaries,and vocabulary learning, Language Learning


43(2), 263-287. McCarthy. M. (1994). A new look at vocabulary in

EFL. Applied Linguistics, 5(1), 12-22.McCarthy, M. (1996). Vocabulary. Oxford, Oxford

University Press.McCarthy, M. & O’Dell, F. (1999). English vocabulary

in use: Elementary. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Meara, P. (1987). Vocabulary in a second language: Vol. 2. London: Center for Information on Language Teaching & Research.

Min, Y. (2002). A study of teacher and learner strategies in the acquisition of vocabulary. Master’s thesis, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK.

Nation, P. (1990). Teaching and learning vocabulary. New York, NY: Newbury House.

Nation, P. (1994). Morphology and language learning.In R.E. Asher (Ed.) The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics (pp. 2582-2585). Oxford, Pergamon Press.

Nation, P. (2001) Learning vocabulary in another language. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Nation, P. (2008). Teaching vocabulary: Strategies andtechniques. Boston, Heinle.

Nation, P. (2009). Teaching ESL/EFL reading and writing. New York, NY: Routledge.

Nation, P., & Coady, J. (1988). Vocabulary and reading.In R. Carter & M. McCarthy (Eds.), Vocabulary learning and teaching (pp. 97-110). London, UK: Longman.

Nattinger, J., & DeCarrico, J. (1992). Lexical phrases and language teaching. Oxford, Oxford University Press.

Newton, J. (1995). Task-based interaction and incidental vocabulary learning: A case study. Second Language Research, 11(2), 159-177.

Nurnberg, M., & Rosenblum, M. (1966). All about words: An adult approach to vocabulary Learning. New Jersey, Prentice-Hall.

Nurnberg, M., & Rosenblum, M. (2005). All about words: An adult approach to vocabulary learning. Delhi, India: W.R. Goyal Publisher.

Roberts, E. (1999). Critical teacher thinking and imaginations: Uncovering two vocabulary strategies to increase comprehension. ReadingHorizons, 4(1), 65-77.

Schmitt, N. & McCarthy, M. (1997). Vocabulary: Description, acquisition and pedagogy.Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Scholfield, P. (1997). Vocabulary reference works in foreign language learning. In N. Schmitt & M. McCarthy (Eds.), Vocabulary: Description, acquisition, and pedagogy (pp. 237-257). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Sokmen, A. (1997). Current trends in teaching secondlanguage vocabulary. In N. Schmitt & M. McCarthy (Eds.), Vocabulary: Description, acquisition, and pedagogy (pp. 237-257). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Sonaiya, R. (1991). Vocabulary acquisition as a process of continuous lexical disambiguation.US Department of Education, Education Resources Information Center.

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_______________About the Author:

Young-Kyung Min received her PhD in Curriculum andInstruction with a specialization in Writing Studiesfrom the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.Her areas of interests include composition theory andpedagogy, second language literacy and qualitativeresearch methodology. Her e-mail is [email protected].

How to Cite:

Min, Y. K. (2013). Vocabulary acquisition: Practical strategies for ESL students. Journal of International Students, 3(1), 64-69.

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I first wish to applaud those who gave birth to thisjournal, which is a timely addition to the scholarlylandscape. The increasing presence of internationalstudents in the United States is generally under theradar of those who study, advocate, or write aboutmigration or diversity in the United States. And yet, asI have learned through my own research, advocacy, andinteractions with international students, this is a groupthat is central to American diversity, and not anafterthought. I say this for several reasons. First,international students often graduate and remain in ourcountries because they are valued new entrants to ourlabor market. Only recently has the U.S. Congressrecognized this fact by introducing legislation to loosenthe visa barriers that many of our high-achievingscience and technology graduates face when theyattempt to adjust their status.

Second, international students contribute tohigher education by exposing us to information andperspectives that we may otherwise have missed. Myown international graduate students offer languageskills that I do not possess and insights into datasources and academic literature from their homecountries. Some of my most memorable teachingmoments in class have been stimulated by thecontributions of international students who can givetheir classmates first-hand accounts of the meaning ofwearing the hijab in their culture, life under anauthoritarian government, or alternative perspectiveson textbook histories. I like to quote, with a laugh, afriend’s experience in her social work class one day, asthey were discussing family life. An internationalstudent in the class raised his hand and stated, “InAmerican society, divorce is a problem.” An Americanstudent raised his hand and disagreed: “No, inAmerican society, divorce is a solution.” This diversityof perspective makes for important educationalexchanges. Our students who have the opportunity tostudy abroad through programs such as Fulbright, asAkli underscores in this issue, become vital players inthis exchange as they reintegrate back into their homeinstitutions.

Our own boundaries get stretched by thepresence of international students. This year, studentsat my university got the opportunity to splash coloredpowder all over each other to celebrate the Indianfestival of Diwali. Further, international students openour eyes to an appreciation of our own embarrassment

of riches, such as teaching methods that emphasizeanalysis, original thought, writing, and criticalthinking. As one immigrant woman that weinterviewed for the book Immigration and Women:Understanding the American Experience asked, whyare American universities establishing branches inother countries to teach technical subjects such as mathand science in which those countries already excel?She recommends the opposite: that these universitiesshould export our more unique model to the world:“Liberal arts teach you to be educated, to think.”

In my recent research and writing onimmigration, I insist that we pay more attention to agrowing demographic: the cross-border migration ofwomen, who are now the majority of immigrantsglobally. One chapter in the story is that of highereducation. As a result of the global women’s movementand other international initiatives, a record number ofwomen are pursuing higher education across the world.UNESCO reports that between 1970 and 2009, theincrease in the number of females in higher (tertiary)education was almost twice as high as the increase inthe numbers of males (UNESCO, 2012). Women arenow in the majority among students in highereducation in 93 out of 139 countries (UNESCO, 2012).This tide is not expected to stem. Since nearly one infive students (female and male) who chooses tomigrate to another country for her/his universityeducation heads for the United States, it is my countrythat is among the main beneficiaries of this growingfemale student population (UNESCO Institute forStatistics, 2012).

There are a number of reasons behind thisgrowth that are related to continued genderinequalities. We interviewed women for our book, forexample, who came to the United States because of theeducational opportunities that it offered for females, incontrast to their own countries. One was a graduatestudent from India who moved here to studyengineering. Many of these women are graduatestudents who go on to become professors here in ourinstitutions, contributing to both the gender andinternational diversity of our educational leaders. Wealso interviewed several of these women. Suchperspectives offer powerful teaching moments in ourclasses as well. As one of my co-authors reported,several years ago, she asked her new first-year studentsto introduce themselves in class, and mention what

Guest Editorial, Journal of International StudentsEnriching American Riches with International Students

Susan C. Pearce, PhDEast Carolina University, North Carolina (USA)

iiJournal of International Students

they plan to do when they graduate. After a series ofthe expected responses about starting an ideal job orfamily, one female student, who had been detained forher advocacy for women’s rights in her country,announced, “I am going back to Afghanistan to defeatthe Taliban.”

Even in a resource-rich country like in theUnited States, a very small percentage of students canafford to travel abroad to attend a university, even for ashort time. Recognizing this problem and the value ofsuch exchanges in an increasingly globalizing world,my university, East Carolina University, created theGlobal Classroom, which uses the latestcommunication technology to establish video- andcomputer-linked classroom experiences. The multi-disciplinary Global Understanding courses connectstudents in more than 40 institutions across more than24 countries. Such initiatives can work hand-in-handwith the integration of international students, since thecourses broaden and deepen American students’understanding of other cultures and of students likethemselves in those countries. Among the interestinglessons of these courses is that our students are rarelyseeing a monocultural classroom on the other side ofthe screen. For instance, they talk with Lithuanian,Chinese, and Spanish students who are studying withthe British class members in the U.K., and with aNigerian student in our Chinese partner’s class. Thus,this growing phenomenon of studying internationally ispresenting itself in unique ways in these types of“virtual” exchanges, which will likely become morecommon in the future as well (Global UnderstandingCourse, 2012).

Lest our cheerleading for this diversity glossover the more complex, and sometimes eventormenting, realities of students on the ground, ourcontributors to this volume offer some eye-openingcritical analysis. If we owe a debt to the rich diversitythat international students bring to our campuses andclassrooms, one of those debts is to pay more attentionto their particular needs as newcomers. This includesboth more intensified feelings of homesickness andisolation than those of our American-born students, asOnabule and Boes explain in their article in this issue;Jackson and Ray also elaborate on this issue. Roy’sarticle enlightens us about learning difficulties thatinternational students have in the classroom, whichprofessors could address through some simpletechniques. When universities and colleges createservices and write policies, is the international studentperspective at the table? While the answer may havebeen “yes” for years, if not decades, in the traditionalimmigrant gateways such as New York and LosAngeles, there are new immigrant gateways across thecountry that are still getting their feet wet in this regard.In my college years, I do not recall more than one or

two “exchange students” per year—and they wereconsidered exotic, even if they were Europeans. Thisscenario has changed dramatically, and today diversityis the name of the game across the States.

The important new ground that the research inthis issue of Journal of International Students breakscan potentially help the institutions of higher educationovercome any leftover monoculturalism of the past—and that includes any “gender monoculturalism.”Further, it can help those individual newcomers avertcrises or manage them when they arise, both to ensuretheir success for their own lives, and to createenthusiastic ambassadors for our educationalinstitutions worldwide.

ReferencesGlobal understanding course. (2012). Retrieved from

http://www.ecu.edu/cs-acad/globalinitiatives/course.cfm

Pearce, S. C., Clifford E. J., & Tandon R. (2011). Immigration and women: Understanding the American experience. New York, NY: New York University Press.

UNESCO. (2012). World Atlas of Gender Education. Paris, France: United Nations. Retrieved fromhttp://www.uis.unesco.org/Education/ Documents/unesco-world-atlas-gender-education-2012.pdf

UNESCO Institute for Statistics. (2012). Global Flow of Tertiary-Level Students. Retrieved from http://www.uis.unesco.org/Education/Pages/international-student-flow-viz.aspx

About the Guest Editor:Dr. Susan C. Pearce is Assistant Professor ofSociology at East Carolina University, North Carolinain the United States. She conducts research on thecultural contexts of politics, particularly concerningethnicity, migration, gender, and social movements inthe United States and in European countriesundergoing democratic transformations. She is the co-author (with Elizabeth J. Clifford and Reena Tandon)of Immigration and Women: Understanding theAmerican Experience (2011), and the co-editor of theanthologies Reformulations: Markets, Policy, andIdentities in Central and Eastern Europe (2000) andMosaics of Change: The First Decade of Life in theNew Eastern Europe (2000). She is currentlycompleting a book manuscript of the 20th anniversarycommemorations of the 1989 revolutions in East-Central Europe. E-mail: [email protected]

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iii ISSN: 2162-3104 Print/ ISSN: 2166-3750 Online Copyright © by JIS http://jistudents.org/



An increasingly diverse population of students leavetheir home to pursue their education overseas. Datafrom the Organization for Economic Cooperation andDevelopment (OECD) indicate that in 2007, threemillion students worldwide studied outside their homecountries (OECD 2009). This global mobility ispredicted to increase to 7.2 million in 2025 (cited inGu, Schweisfurth, & Day, 2009). Leading exporters ofinternational education include such countries as theUnited States, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australiaand New Zealand (Bashir, 2007; Choudaha & Chang,2012). Some universities worldwide enrol a significantproportion of international students’ bodies. Theenrolment of this student cohort is a response toincreasing global competition (Choudaha & Chang,2012) and is also triggered by the need for universitiesto source additional income (Stone, 2006; McGowan,2007). For international students (particularly thosefrom non-English speaking backgrounds), an overseasdegree has multiple benefits, ranging from the prestigeof a degree obtained from an English-speaking country,to improved opportunities for immigration and betterprospects of securing a better job and to the genericvalue of improved skill in the English language itself inbusiness and in life.

What are the implications of student mobility?The presence of international students has transformedthe monolithic culture of higher education institutionsworldwide into a multicultural one. How institutionsare coping with the changed nature of the classroomand with the different needs and expectations ofinternational students become a key issue ininternational education. It is not an easy undertakingfor both international students and host institutions.Entering a new learning sphere, international studentsmay find transition and adjustment difficult. Cultureconditions and shapes learning in general and languagelearning in particular (Gonzalez, Chen, & Sanchez,2001) hence cultural differences and also prioreducational system are believed to have contributed tothe social and academic adjustment of internationalstudents. Universities are striving to address some of

the challenges teaching international students forexample, their language difficulties, adjustment tolearning styles in western education and reformingteaching materials to suit the varying needs of thestudents so as to provide all students with maximumlearning opportunities.

The presence of international students also hasimplications for the development ofinternationalisation of higher education, a “process thatprepares the community for successful participation inan increasingly interdependent world” (Francis, 1993,p. 5). In the context of internationalisation, thedevelopment of intercultural perspectives becomes anintegral part of learning in all disciplines (Crichton &Scarino, 2007). To prepare such graduates, institutionshave progressed by internationalising the curriculum,for example, by incorporating international elementsinto the curriculum and teaching and learning activitiesand by expanding the study of Asian language tofacilitate understanding of other cultures (Harman,2005). Internationalisation of the curriculumincorporates a range of values such as openness andtolerance of other cultures (Webb, 2005). The culturaldiversity introduced by international students providesa teaching resource for developing teacher andstudents’ cultural awareness and learning. If diversityis embraced rather than problematized, it can enhancethe intercultural leaning of all students and staff.However, there is a serious concern that culturaldiversity represented by international students wasundervalued and underutilised by local community(Kondakci, et al., 2008; Sawir, 2013). Knight (2003,pp. 2-3) notes that internationalisation is about“relating to diversity of cultures that exits withincountries, communities, and institutions”. Hence, howcultural diversity can be well exploited has become acompelling undertaking in order to achieve successfulinternationalisation of the curriculum.

Student mobility is expected to continue and togrow. Institutions enrolling international students havemultiple roles not only to maximise the transitionalexperience of international students but also to ensure

Guest Editorial, Journal of International StudentsInternational Students and Internationalisation of Higher Education

Erlenawati Sawir, PhDCentral Queensland University (Australia)

ivJournal of International Students

that their presence benefits host institutions and localcommunity particularly local students. More researchon international students continues to be fruitful tounpack the complexity of students’ transitional andeducational experience. At the same time, institutionsshould work on strategy to ensure that the diversity aspart of the global environment of work and learning isrecognised and utilised by the local community so as toachieve a genuine internationalisation of institutions.

References

Bashir, S. (2007). Trends in international trade inhigher education: Implications andoptions for developing countries.Education Working Papers, No. 6.Washington D.C.: The World Bank.

Choudaha, R., & Chang, L. (2012). Trends ininternational student mobility. Retrieved formhttps://www.wes.org/ewenr/12feb/feature.htm

Crichton, J., & Scarino, A. (2007). How are we tounderstand the intercultural dimension? Anexamination of the intercultural dimension ofinternationalisation in the context of highereducation in Australia. Australian Review ofApplied Linguistics, 30(1), 1-18.

Francis, A. (1993). Facing the future: Theinternationalization of post-secondaryinstitutions in British Columbia. Vancouver,Canada: British Columbia Centre forInternational Education.

Gonzalez, V., Chen, C., & Sanchez, C. (2001). Culturalthinking and discourse organisational patternsinfluencing writing skills in a Chinese English-as-a-Foreign-Language (EFL) learner. BilingualResearch Journal, 25(4), 417-442.

Gu, Q., Schweisfurth, M., & Day, C. (2009). Learningand growing in a foreign context: Interculturalexperiences of international students. Compare,1-17.

Harman, G. (2005). Internationalisation of Australianhigher education: Critical review of literature. InP. Ninnes & M. Hellsten (Eds.),Internationalizing Higher Education: CriticalExplorations of Pedagogy and Policy (pp. 119-140). Hong Kong, HK: Springer.

Knight J. (2003). Updating the definition ofinternationalization. International HigherEducation, 33, 2-3.

Kondakci, Y., den Broeck, H. V., & A. Yildirim. (2008).The challenges of internationalisation from

foreign and local students’ perspectives: Thecase of management school. Asia PacificEducation Review, 9(4), 448-463.

McGowan, U. (2007). Internationalisation of thecurriculum: Meeting the challenge of studentdiversity. Proceedings of the 30th HERDSAAnnual Conference, 8-11 July, AdelaideAustralia. Retrieved fromhttp://www.herdsa.org.au/wp-content/uploads/conference/2007/PDF/S/p234.pdf

Organization for Economic Cooperation, Development(OECD). (2009). Education at a glance. Paris,France: Author.

Sawir, E. (2013 in press). Internationalization ofhigher education: The contribution ofInternational students. Globalization, Societiesand Education.

Stone, N. (2006). Conceptualising interculturaleffectiveness for university teaching. Journal ofStudies in International Education, 10(4), 334-356.

About the Guest Editor:

Dr. Erlenawati Sawir is a Research Fellow at theInternational Education Research Centre, CentralQueensland University, Australia. She has completedher PhD in Language and Education at MonashUniversity in 2003. She specialises in sociolinguisticsand international education. She has contributed to anumber of research projects: investigation of the socialand economic security of international students inAustralia and in New Zealand; university leaders’strategies in the global environment; university staffunderstanding of international students andintercultural teaching and learning; Internationalisingsecondary school education in Victoria; academic staffperspectives on internationalising higher educationinstitutions; and the exploration of domestic studentexperiences of and responses to internationalisation ofhigher education in Australia and Denmark. She is co-author of three books International Student Security(2010, Cambridge University Press), Ideas forIntercultural Education (2011, Palgrave Macmillan),and Regulating International Students’ Wellbeing(2013, The Policy Press). E-mail: [email protected]

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JIS Board: Editors & Reviewers

Founder/Editor-In-Chief

Krishna Bista, Arkansas State University, USA

Guest Editors Erlenawati Sawir, Central Queensland University,Australia [Spring 2013 Vol. 3 Issue 1]Susan C. Pearce, East Carolina University,USA [Spring 2013 Vol. 3 Issue 1]

Associate EditorsCharlotte Foster Missouri Western State U., USADiana B. Carlin, Saint Louis University, USAHugo Garcia, Claremont Graduate University, USAJune A. Gordon, University of California, USAKeri Dutkiewicz, Davenport University, USASandria Officer, University of Toronto, CanadaRai Farrelly, University of Utah, USAVera V. Chapman, The U. of Mississippi, USA

Book Review EditorsCharles R. Harris, Stony Brook University, USAJoy Bancroft, University of Kansas, USA Kerri Bennett, Arkansas State University, USAMisato Yamaguchi, Augusta State University, USANicole Gervasio, Columbia University, USAShyam Sharma, Stony Brook University, USA

Copy EditorsElise Geither, Cleveland State University, USA Glenda A. Riley, Indiana Institute of Technology, USAKaren Young, Clayton State University, USAMiguel Lopez, California State University, USAPaul M.W. Hackett, Emerson College, USA Rolf Holtz, Troy University, USAVirginia Gonzalez, University of Cincinnati, USA

Advisory BoardAmany Saleh, Professor of Curriculum & Instruction,Arkansas State UniversityDon Jones, Assistant Vice-President of Adm. & StudentServices, Belhaven UniversityGeorge Foldesy, Professor of Education & Director,Center for Excellence in Education Russ Hannah, Associate Vice-Chancellor for Finance,Arkansas State University

Publication CoordinatorsJoyce Mann, Arkansas State University, USAPamela Shultz, Arkansas State University, USA

Reviewers

The following people reviewed manuscripts submitted forpublication in Journal of International Students fromDecember 2011 through December 2012. Their assistanceis greatly appreciated.

Abu Kamara, Dalhousie University, CanadaAlex Kumi-Yeboah, Dalton State College, USAAlexander N. Akulli, Michigan State University, USAAllenda Zionch, University of Nevada, Los Vegas, USAArnaud Prevot, Argosy University, USABrandy Stone, Arkansas State University, USABurcu Ates, Sam Houston State University, USACahty Maahs-Fladung, Utah State University, USACharles W. Prince, George Washington University, USACheryl DoBose, Arkansas State University, USACrystal Machado, Indiana U. of Pennsylvania, USA Danilo M. Baylen, University of West Georgia, USADavid Pang, The University of Auckland, New ZealandElena Yakunina, University of Buffalo, USAFelicia Castro-Villarreal, The U. of Texas at San AntonioFujuan Tan, University of Wyoming, USA Gina J. Mariano, Troy University, USAGuan Kun Saw, Michigan State University, USAHaijun Kang, Kansas State University, USAJason Hoi Y. Chan, University of Wyoming, USAJeff Koloze, South University, USAJennifer Hoyte, Florida International University, USAJeton McClinton, Jackson State University, USAKris Aric Knisely, Emory University, USALauren M. Griffith, Central Michigan University, USALeah Gustilo, De La Salle University, PhilippinesLeia K. Cain, University of South Carolina, USALeigh Pritchard, Brock University, CanadaLing Gao LeBeau, Indiana U. at Bloomington, USALisa Kahle-Piasecki, Tiffin University, USAMartha Vungkhanching, California State U., Fresno, USAMelissa S. Mincic, innovation Research & Training, Inc, USANaJuana Lee, University of Georgia, USA Nilay Yildirim, Syracuse University, USANoparat Tananuraksaku, South-Eas Asia U., ThailandOlena Zhadko, New York Institute of Technology, USA N. Aida Rustamovna, Kazan National Research Tech U. RussiaReza Pishghadam, Ferdowsi U. of Mashhad, IranRoy Y. Chan, Boston College, USARui Cheng, Nazareth College, USASheena Terrell, Arkansas State University, USAShelda Debowski, U. of Western Australia, AustraliaStephen Tippett, Arcadia University, USASusan Edgar-Smith, Eastern University, USAWilliam Lange, Arkansas State University, USAZheng Zhu, Washington State University, USA