vivekananda journal of research -...

Vol.6 – Issue 1 January - June 2017 ISSN 2319-8702(Print) ISSN 2456-7574(Online)

VIVEKANANDA JOURNAL OF RESEARCH

ADVISORy BOARD

Prof. S.C. Raina Vice Chancellor National Law University, Shimla Himachal Pradesh

Mr. P. P. Rao Senior Advocate Supreme Court of India

Prof. K.G. Suresh Director General Indian Institute of Mass Communication New Delhi

Dr. P. K. Das Professor, IIT Guwahati, Assam Organising Vice Chairman JEE 2009

Prof. K. Parmeswaran Professor, Gandhi Nagar National Law School

Dr. Hamid Nemati Chef Editor of IJISP University of North Carolina, USA

Dr. Sanjeev Singh Head – Institute of Informatics and Communication, cluster Innovation Centre University of Delhi

Prof. Mirza S. Saiyadain Ex-Professor IIM Ahmedabad & Mc Gill University, Canada

Prof. R. K. Mittal Professor- USMS, Director Planning & Development Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University New Delhi

Prof. V. Sudesh Professor, University Law College Bangalore University

Dr. Sudesh Avte President COPCONSULT Formerly Executive Vice President Security Mumbai International Airport

Prof. Devesh Kishore Professor Emeritus India Today Media Institute (ITMI) Noida


Editorial Board

Editor Dr. Vinay Kumar Professor & Dean Research

Members of Editorial Board• Dr. Rashmi Salpekar

• Dr. Amit Channa

• Dr. Meenakshi Gandhi

• Dr. Pawan Whig

• Dr. M. Balasubramanian

• Ms. Shruti Nagpal

• Ms. Tushita Gaur Sharma

• Ms. Dimple Chawla

© Vivekananda Institute of Professional Studies Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University AU Block, Outer Ring Road, Pitampura, Delhi-110034 * Listed in UGC approved journals (Id:41082)

Published & Printed by Mr. Dalip Kumar, Registrar (for and on behalf of Vivekananda Institute of Professional Studies, New Delhi)

Editorial

An academic journal provides platform for communications among scholars. It filters errors, maintains record of scientific advance. Vivekananda Journal of Research (VJR) is an ongoing endeavor in this direction since 2012 by Vivekananda Institute of Professional Studies (VIPS). VJR is the outcome of the vision VIPS stands for. And the vision of VIPS is to achieve excellence in education because “Education is the manifestation of perfection already in man”, as said by Swami Vivekananda.

VJR is a multidisciplinary research journal that includes research works in the field of Law, Information Technology, Journalism and Management. VJR is publishing the original research work, review work and conceptual paper submitted by scholars from across the country. The current issue contains 12 papers. The journal is included in the UGC approved list of journals. Besides Google Scholar, VJR is also indexed in Indian Citation Index (ICI).

It is our delectation to acknowledge the lucubrated contributions of authors who have supported this issue. Their research works have been selected for publication in this issue based on the recommendation of esteemed reviewers.

Learn to share knowledge, share knowledge to learn something new. With this broad objective, the editorial board of VJR is presenting its latest issue Volume 6, Issue 1.

Dr. Vinay Kumar Editor

CONTENTS

Title of the Article Page No.

Securing Security in Digital Age 1-19 Avijit Dutta

Work- Life Balance of Women Managers - With Special Reference to Child Care 20-35 P.Sundara Pandian, S. Muthulakshmi and J.Kamatchi Eswaran

International Terrorism: Issues and Challenges 36-51 Arya. A. Kumar

Steganography Technique using Chess Puzzle & Block Mapping 52-71 Abhishek Bansal

InfluenceofOrganizationalDevelopmentonFinancialImprovements 72-83 Madhu Arora and Miklesh Prasad yadav

New media use of older adults 84-90 Debarati Dhar

Fuel cell, an alternative energy conversion device: Perspectives and Future 91-97 S. Karthikeyan

Socio Economic Impact of Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment 98-117 Guarantee Scheme P. Sundara Pandian and M.Suresh

Monopoly of ownership of property: The Case of owning intellectual property 118-121 V.Sudesh

Medical image compression using MATLAB 122-135 Dimple Chawla

Impact of Macro Economic Variables on Gold Price 136-150 Himani Gupta and Manisha Gupta

Invasion of Privacy by Media 151-160 Manmeet Dhillon and Gurpreet Kaur

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Securing Security in Digital Age

Avijit Dutta*

Abstract

Security is a multidisciplinary, multifaceted and multidimensional concept. It touches micro and macro fabrics of society in innumerable ways. In recent years ICT (Information and Communication Technology) evolved rapidly and diffused into ways of life to come up with digital overtone almost with every aspects of it. The term ‘Digital’ is getting prefixed with many activities like, ‘Education’, ‘Health Care’, ’Marketing’, ‘Finance’, ‘Banking’,’ Transacting’ etc. to elevate them to next layer of evolutionary terms as ‘Digital Education’, ‘Digital Health Care’, ’ Digital Marketing’, ‘Digital Finance’, ‘Digital Banking’,’ Digital Transacting’, and so forth. As each of these activities and many more under sun, essentially associates security concerns, the term ‘Digital Security’ legitimately finds a place in all possible forums where ever ‘Security’ is deliberated.

In recent years knowledge exercises, riding on ICT, are creating digitally enriched intellectual properties, with speed and accuracy, having enormous techno-commercial values, drawing attention of cyber criminals, needing digital security protection. Thus as civilization moved ahead, concept of material possession progressed from physical to digital, bringing digital security along with material security on focus. These facts apart, it may be observed that with new innovations in ICT and associated areas, individuals in society are drawing closer and at times bit too close to be restful on security issues [2, 3].

This text is exploring the way, concepts on Civilization, Wealth and ICT is evolving and pushing ahead security perceptions. It also attempts to

* Avijit Dutta, Ex-Scientist ‘F’ NIC, New Delhi, Email: [email protected]

Vivekananda Journal of Research January- June 2017, Vol. 6, Issue 1, 1-19

ISSN 2319-8702(Print) ISSN 2456-7574(Online)

© Vivekananda Institute of Professional Studies http://www.vips.edu/vjr.php

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point out where possible security lapses may take place and measures therein to protect common interest.

Keywords: ICT (Information and Communication Technology), HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol, IoT (Internet of Things), M2M (Machine to Machine), M2I (Machine to Infrastructure), M2E (Machine to Environment), OOD (Object Oriented Design), SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition)

Introduction

ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator) in early days of twentieth century commenced the era of digital computing of today’s form. Since then as an independent area of science it is evolving continuously, with assistance from technologies like ‘Computing Hardware’, ’Software’, ‘Communication Network’ and ‘Software Engineering’. Computing Hardware evolved from Large Mainframe System to smaller Personnel Computers’ and then on to even smaller devices like Desktop, Laptop, Palmtop andfinallytohandhelddeviceslikeMobilePhonesofpresentdays.AssociatedSoftwareevolvedfromnon-proceduralfirst,second,thirdgenerationsofsequentialcodingtypetoproceduralobjectorientedcodingconceptoffourthandfifthgenerationpattern.SimilarlySoftware Engineering shifted from Sequential to Object Oriented Design (OOD) approach [1, 2, 3].

Progression of Digital Communication from serial to network connectivity, evolved bit slower though, stormed computing away from standalone practices to Web Based platform. This ushered era of network based laired / tiered computing, leading to ‘Web1’, ‘Web2’ and likely to progress to ‘Web 3’ or ‘Web Squared’ paradigm, an issue that is debated. Technology today is continuously budding smaller devices with enhanced computing and connectivity capabilities. Digital networking along with computing prowess made us to realize nomadic or computing on move. Over a period of time, ever smaller programmable computing and communicating devices, capable of receiving and executing commandsthroughdigitalsignals,broughtinembeddeddevices,whichcouldbefixedintovarious tools, engaged in different functions, in a bid for process automation. Gradually these tools started to take control over many human activities and got closely associated with lifeprocesses inseparablyso-much-so that theirexistencebecame insignificant,yetessential. As these phenomena grew, acts of computing reached the state of ubiquity in


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our daily chores which engross all imaginative human societal activities like domestic acts, banking, manufacturing, travelling, driving, flying, talking and so on and evenbeyond, in specialized areas like health care where one may consider implantable devices on brain, heart, ear etc. As these devices can be accessed remotely, security concerns get automatically associated in all these areas and needs attention [7, 10, 18, 24].

Technology Evolution

Civilization moved from Agrarian, Semi Industrialization, Industrialization and Advanced Industrialization phases to arrive at Digital Age and still moving on for newer Horizon.InnovationandconceptintegrationfromdifferentfieldsofknowledgelikeNaturalScience, Engineering and Technology etc. joined hand to create novelty. Today’s ICT evolved out of such process leading to a new realm of science on Computer, Communication and its Applications. This resulted in shifting social power from agriculture production to industrialproductionandfinally to InformationProduction,which involvesprowess forcollection, collation, Analysis, Modelling and dissemination of information on all forms of products, processes, prices and places for business sustainability. This helps planner take a call on macro and micro level of adjustments and tuning. All know that the process of planning needs participation forms all walks of life for sustainability. ICT has made theprocessallencompassing,agileandefficient.ItisrealizedthattokeepICTexerciseseconomical it has to be freed from closed domain of scientist and technocrats. Towards this objective technology integration, its standardization, evaluation of protocol standards and digital communication played commendable role which steered us to the era of World Wide Web (WWW) and INTERNET. Broadly, evolutionary path of INTERNET can be viewed as – from years 1969 to 1995 it belonged to hard core technocrats and scientists, from 1995 to 2000 it belonged to geeks, from year 2000 to 2007 it became tools of masses, from 2007 to 2011 it moved to domain of mobiles, from 2012 and days beyond it may evolve into the era of Internet of Thing (IoT). It may be opined that emergence of Web Applications in form of web 1.0 (static web) occurred during Internet of geeks, which failed to sustain and died with dotcom burst phenomena as general populous had little or no chance to participate.Interactivewebinformofweb2.0exemplarfructifiedduringsubsequentyearsof innovation and continues till date. In the following section broad functional architecture of present computing paradigm is touched upon [1, 3, 15, 16].

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Functional Architecture

Computing today is amalgamation of standalone and distributed computing system having web as interface in the middle. This is known as three tire architecture, having client asking for services from servers over Web/Application server following HTTP protocol standard.

Figure-1

The architecture can be elaborated in the following functional form for better insight, as it depicts multitier scenario where in each segment possesses independent functionalities and security requirement.

At each layer it may be quite evident that the architecture works around digital communicating and computing capabilities of the day, in ‘Many to Many’ relationship scenario of real world, in other words Many clients do ask for services that needs many Server to process. Progressively, with increasing client and server participation, inclusions are growing and getting larger leading to a state of omnipresence. The figure abovebroadly attempts to show how web applications work in three tire architecture and security system is applied at each layer for protection. To start with, Web client initiates requests following HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol) standards for a service over internet and hitsafirewall.Therequestoverhereisrequiredtopassthroughasetofsecurityrulestoprogress further. If cleared it reaches Web and Application Server, where in PKI (Public KeyInfrastructure)securitysystem,confirmingSSL (Secured Socket Layer) protocol, is implemented to ensure identity of Server and initiate a secured communication channel. This is to guarantee client/s that it has approached right server for a service and communication is protected over encrypted tunnel. The request finally reachesDataServer qualifyingthrough internal firewall to retrieve desired data/information.Here again it has to passthroughidentityestablishmentprocedurestofinallyavailrequireddataandtravelbacktoclient system over the stated encrypted tunnel as response. Enhancing the setting to many-to-many scenario where many client and many servers are connected we arrive at a general


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view of today’s set-up. It may be mentioned here that numbers of digital devices asking forservicesandkindofservicesrequestedaremanyandgrowinglyreachinginfinitesimalnumber. Collectively such clients are termed as IoT (Internet of Things) [2, 3, 13, 22].

Computing of Masses

Mark Wiser, father of ubiquitous computing concept, observed that the most profound technologies are those that disappear; they weave themselves into the fabric of everyday life until getting indistinguishable from it. He adds further that such disappearance is fundamental consequence of human psychology as whenever one learns something sufficientlywell,he/sheceasestobeawareofit.Technologycontinuouslyfreesusfrombondage of unawareness at one level and takes us ahead to next level of ignorance. Once wegetsignificantlyfamiliarinusingatechnologyandgetrestfulwithit,wemoveaheadfor newer vein, leaving older ones to horizon behind [24, 25].

Figure -2

The phenomena worked true for all of us with ever advanced usages of Desktop, Laptop, Palmtop and Mobile Phone like devices, having Internet connectivity with increasing bandwidths. Computer Scientist and economist Herb Simon calls this as ‘compiling’, philosopher Michael Polanyi as ‘Tacit Dimension’, psychologist T K Gibson as ‘Visual Invariants’, philosopher Georg Gadamer and Martin Heidegger called it ‘Horizon’ and the “ready-to-hand” and John Seely Brown at PARC called it as ‘periphery’. Increasing ICT, usagesusherederaoffirst,second,thirdandfourthgenerationsofcomputingandtakingus further to intelligent and quantum computing of fifth generation.During this period

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human computer interactions shifted from ‘One Machine many users’ to ‘One user One Machine’ andfinally to ‘ManyMachineManyUser’ set-ups.Thisway technologyhasbrought computing at the door step of common users [22, 23, 24].

As Internet and Computing became technology of masses usages of computing devices increased many fold to take it to a state of ubiquity. Web applications are being developedforclientsystemstoaccessrequirementspecificservers,fordesiredinformation.The concept initiated with Web1.0 paradigm, an era of static web, wherein user could only accessfixedpagesofinformationwithoutanyscopeforinteraction.Assuchinterestforaccessing such pages died down soon, leading to ‘dotcom burst’ phenomena. Web 2.0 brought in the era of dynamic and interactive Web, opening up the scope for participation by its users with client system of all kinds, like standalone, mobile, wearable, implantable etc. This brought back interest of common man in computing so-much-so that intelligentsia has been debating on naming next generation of computing concept whether to be Web 3.0 or Web Squared as the number of people coming on board are increasing geometrically. In this era keyboard ceased to be only mechanism for data incorporation, interpretation and interaction with objects and internet. All-pervading smart devices can look, feel, sense, and photograph objects and store them within a split second instruction at any desired time and location, really smartly. Smart phones of the day are perfect example of integrated technology devices that can collect, collate and disseminate text, audio, video and photographs from same platform. At the same instance there are innumerable System of Computer Servers all across the world, wherein audio, video and text information collected by client systems are transmitted and stored for future retrieval. In the era of Web 2.0, as discussed above, the concept of data and the process of its collection, collation and dissemination have changed largely. Apart from texts, digits, audio and video, photographs too are taken to mean as data [2, 3, 22, 23].

Collective Intelligence

Underlying concepts of Web 2.0 brought in concept of crowd sourcing and Collective Intelligence as the technology facilitates mass participation on virtual space. This allows one to create a digital compositions comprising of Text, Audio, Video and Photographs or all inclusive, which can be viewed by many at same instance and add value to it, if so needed. Thus knowledge creation now is being crowd sourced, leading to collective wisdom and intelligence. The Internet computing is increasingly diffusing in to all walks of life and business functioning to evolve a virtual knowledge base and the process believed to be creating a virtual world beyond this real world. It is also conceived that this


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virtual world is evolving as an intelligent entity in this course. Various kinds of electronic devices and sensors those are used by individuals or machine systems ubiquitously strewn across the world works as sensory organs of the virtual system, which is maturing like a human entity that can answer queries from its stored knowledgebase. Information about any product, person, place etc. can be availed by actually accessing them or by reaching Virtual Knowledge Store House, comprised of system of servers through the client system over Internet [22, 23, and 24].

Interestingly, O’Reilly [22] also envisaged today’s INTERNET as a new born kid, who looks, touches and feels different objects around with the help of various sensors (being carried by us), like mobile phones and smart devices, to gather data in all forms and processes them to attain a higher state of awareness. It is increasingly getting intelligent with information gathered by sensors ubiquitously strewn around, in both static and mobile state and maturing incrementally like any living objects, though as a virtual entity. In return it shares the collected data, information and knowledge whenever these are asked for, inform of an organized query, over digital network, establishing the concept of collective intelligence. Worldwide efforts are on to bring most on board, to enrich the process of collectiveintelligenceandgetmaximumbenefitoutofit.

Figure – 3

Technology miniaturization, standardization, evaluation of various protocol standards and large scale product manufacturing are bringing down the cost of computing and communicating making easy market availability of wide range of computing and communicating devices of different size and performance capabilities, like Servers, Desktop, Laptop, Palmtop, Smart Phones, wearable devices etc. These devices are also armed with seeing, listening, recording and storing capabilities, which cater to extensive range of data

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processing and disbursing needs, helping to bring most on board. These devices with an identity can be linked amongst themselves and numerous other small or large smart digital devices, termed singularly as IoT (Internet of Things), over varied choices of connectivity options like broadband, Wi-Fi, R/F, Bluetooth etc as discussed earlier, [7,8,10,11]. Well, there is dark side of this process too, which is being discussed in following segments.

Illustration in Fig -3 attempts to present a window view of the scenario arising out of the increasing presence of IoTs. This helped to enhance the mass base of smart devices usages. Digital Devices are capable now to communicate intelligently amongst themselves and others in forms like M2M (Machine to Machine), M2I (Machine to Infrastructure) and M2E (Machine to Environment) in real time, process data at nodes or cloud , deciding almost autonomously and present the most up-to-date information to us so that we can make the best decisions. Benson Tao observes that present efforts towards building smart, connected, autonomous, and contextually aware devices around the IoTs will prove to be catalyst for a change, leading to general betterment. As it turns out, IoT is a very broad concept, which includes all kind of wearable, carriable, attachable, and implantable and everything in between devices that associates with us in our daily coir. This proliferation of devices raises concerns about individual and collective security. It may also be observed that the process of Data collection, collation, analysis is swinging from centralised to distributed system and back, giving to understand that we may not be sure how best we may manage them and what if O’Reilly’s kid, that is growing over Internet, starts playing mischief, in that case personal and collective damage will be beyond any ones guess. Symantec secured more than one billion IoT devices — including TVs, cars, and smart meters — with an eye toward providing greater safety to consumers. Semantec in its report on IoT security indicated that in the automotive industry, hackers can literally steer the car and ‘hit the brakes’ from their keyboards, It may be scary though experiments have proved thatevenaircraftflighttrackcanbealteredfromkeyboard.Lastbutnottheleastevidencesare there that ‘pace makers’ can be remotely accesses and its functioning too can be affected [9, 11, 13, 14].

Wealth Perception

It is generally perceived that had there been no second world (1st Sep 1939 – 2nd Sep

1945),GermanywouldhaveleadworldinscientificstudiesingeneralandSpaceScienceinparticular. The nation lost the war and was bifurcated in two parts, East and West Germany. RussiaandAmericasegregatedfiveresources‘M’s,Mind,Man,Machine,MaterialsandMotherland that belonged to Germany, amongst them. Most important amongst these


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resourceswereoutstandingScientistsandtacitandexplicitscientificknowledgegeneratedby them. This helped both America and Russia to lead scientific exercise of world inmany areas, mainly in space science. America gained most knowledge resource and went much ahead in scientific exercises. Later, Germany unified and its material resourcesgot amalgamated though America even today continues to be the ultimate destination of intelligentsia. The phenomenon underlines material value of intellectual resource beyond any doubt.

Society need to protect the wealth it generates, which creates security concerns. As discussed earlier technology changed the way of our living and ‘Wealth Perception’. As society moved from agrarian to digital way of life, its wealth perception along with other factors too changed from physical to digital form. Earlier physical assets, which are tangible, required protection from predators. As knowledge exercise advanced, intangible assets in form of tacit knowledge, which are expressed in lectures, thoughts, articles etc. are converted to tangible, explicit form for storage and preservation along with other documents,havingimmenseintellectualvalues.Scientificdocumentsonnewfindingsarealso increasingly getting digitized and archived, on digital platform. The value of these objectscanalsoberealizedinfinancial terms,whichcallsforsecurityprotection.Mostof these resources with low to moderate techno-intellectual value are placed over internet based virtual knowledge storages for sharing through digital devices or IoT. Nevertheless digital resources, those are of immense intellectual values with techno-commercial and militaryovertoneissecuredbehinddigitalfirewall.Someoftheseareproduceofmanyyears of research, having investments of millions of dollars. No country would like to share such resources easily. It is well known now that China obtained more than 50 terabytes of data from U.S. defense and government networks, notably on the Joint Strike Fighter’s stealth radar and engine secrets, through cyber espionage, by learning the secrets, the Chinese were able to include the design and technology in Beijing’s new stealth project. The secret also could allow Chinese air defenses to target the F-35 in a possible future conflict.NSAestimatedthattheChinesehadconductedmorethan30,000cyber-attacksaspart of the massive defense industrial espionage, and that more than 500 attacks of them weresignificantintrusionsinUnitedStatesDepartmentofDefenseSystems.Thevalueofthe stolen information is many times more than actual hardware in terms of man hours and resource investment in knowledge exercise. Obviously this kind of intellectual resources and documents need protection anywhere in the world indicating the fact that ‘Security’ needs extends beyond physical to digital form [29, 30].

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Emerging Security Perception

Stealing is an age old craft, which provides tremendous incentive in terms of time and money, as discussed above. The process of stealing in this age advanced from physical to digital form. One may not be surprised that today teaching ‘Stealing’ has become overt act from covert one. ‘Hacking’ or illegitimate access to digital devices and siphoning of information there in or stealing secretly is being recognized as a knowledge form, which has become part of academic curriculum of many recognized institutions and is being termed as ‘Ethical Hacking’ at times. To make things even more complex, when an act of hackingisconsideredethicalatonepart(benefitted)oftheland,itisconsideredunethicalon the other (affected) parts. Thus ethicality of hacking is relative one. It depends upon the fact whether hacker or hacked trying to phrase the act.

It may be recalled that when Wiki Leak famous Mr. Edward Snowden became unwanted in his own home state, got profound acceptance elsewhere in the world. In this context for many practicing digital security experts the news on breach may have come as a jolt, as technology appeared to have failed. However, at a later date the news on stealing digitalkeyofacolleague,byhimtogainaccesstoclassifieddocuments,mayhavecomeasrelief that at least technology didn’t betray!! Technology is a means to attain an objective. It is important to fathom the objective that one harbors and aims to attain, and who can assess it accurately!!

As digital computing is attaining the state of ubiquity with evolving hardware, software and data communicating might, options for unauthorized accesses to resources is also growing both at micro and macro levels. The fact has been touched upon earlier in this text that digital devices are capable now to communicate intelligently amongst themselves and others in forms like M2M (Machine to Machine), M2I (Machine to Infrastructure) and M2E (Machine to Environment). At micro level individuals or associated small system can get affected with involuntary and illegitimate access. Smart Phones having applications for booking Airlines, Railway, Movie tickets, Online Shopping, Bill Processing and Payment, E Mailing, Messaging etc has become way of life. Generally in smart phone communications which communicate in M2M mode, more often than not, by pass standard proceduresforidentityverification.Thismayaffectsmartphoneownersindividuallywithminor to largeamountoffinancialandintellectual loss.Considerascenariowhere inasmart phone is lost having a few applications left open, found by one quite well versed with smart phone handling – on positive considerations he may return the device or otherwise stealintellectualandfinancialpropertyquitesilentlycausinggrievouslosstoactualowner


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of the phone. It is reported recently that ATM machines in the country are using outdated operating system for which support and updates are being withdrawn, that makes devices used on them and sever accessed, vulnerable to hackers attack. At macro level this fact will affect large systems and sizeable part of society. Thus away from a deterministic defense mechanism, probabilistic approach seeps in, as scenario gets uncertain with its enormity. Security concerns at macro level are even more large and awesome, in following section this factor is being touched upon [26, 27].

Collective Security Perception

The Smart Grid rollout in India is a key initiative towards transforming and bringing abouthugechangesandbenefitsforthePowersector.Withaplannedoutlayof$5.8billionin the National 12th Five Year Plan for 2012–17, the Smart Grid Mission and the success of Smart Grid rollouts is critical to the wellbeing of the Power sector in India. While the technology behind the Smart Grids is expected to usher in a new era, revolutionize the industry and impact every point of the value chain from metering to distribution and transmission, technology can also be the Achilles heel, as the cyber world is as susceptible to security attacks as the physical world, a thought which endorses one of the core areas of this text. With the evolution of cyber threats/attacks over time, the motivation of the attackersalsoevolvedsignificantlydrivenbyfinancialgain–fromorganizedcrimewithwell-established market places for trading in malware and stolen credit card data to attacks that are designed to create mayhem and cripple the National Critical Infrastructure (NCI) [4, 12, and 13].

On 30 July 2012, the northern, eastern and north eastern parts of the country witnessed a blackout caused by a tripping of the regional electricity grids. It was the world’s largest blackout, with half of India’s population left without electricity, which resultedinlossesofapproximately$100million.Ittookthreedaysforthepowersupplyto be fully restored and for life to return to normal. The power companies had a lot to answer for. Fortunately, the committee set up by the Ministry of Power to examine the July 2012 grid collapse ruled out any possibility of cyber sabotage. However, it is realized that a real cyber-attacks on the power grid would have far reaching and detrimental effects on the country’s energy sector, national security, and economy as critical infrastructure in India, including oil pipelines, dams and steel plants, is susceptible to cyber-attacks because of outdated Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems, which manage their operations.

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SCADA is computer based industrial automation control system that makes factories and utilities run on their own. They monitor and control industrial and infrastructure processes, including power transmission, civil defence, communications, and air conditioning and space systems. They manage operations at facilities that are functional 24×7; Any disruption can impact human life, the economy, and national security. According to think tank Gateway House, the majority of computer controlled industrial control (SCADA) systems that monitor and control India’s power stations and grids, dams, oil and gas pipelines, steel plants are vulnerable to attack [31].

A majority of the SCADA systems used in India were installed 20-30 years ago, in the pre-internet era, now known as “legacy” systems, these older systems were standalones unconnected to remote users. They were therefore not built to deal with today’s network based threats or cyber-attacks. According to industry insiders, not only the legacy systems, but also the recently installed SCADA systems in a networked environment, are vulnerable to cyber-attacks. This is because devices running SCADA systems have limited computational power to implement security protocols. Moreover, information on how to breach SCADA systems is freely available on the internet!

Thedevastationthatcyber-attacksonSCADAsystemscaninflictisillustratedbythe 2010 Stuxnet virus attack. The virus was allegedly designed by the U.S. and Israel to target the Iranian nuclear programme, which runs on the Siemens designed SCADA system. It affected the uranium enrichment process, and succeeded in its goal of setting back Iran’s nuclear ambitions. Unfortunately, the virus infected computers in many other countries which also used the Siemens systems. After Iran and Indonesia, the country most affected by Stuxnet was India. The virus exploited the same Vulnerabilities in computers in India that it had exploited in Iran. Fortunately, apart from system infections, these locations did not report any other adverse impact.

India’s Computer Emergency Response Team reveals that hundreds of attacks on the SCADA systems of India occur annually. So far, these attacks have been small, but anecdotal evidence suggests that their scale and frequency is increasing over the years. The apparition of cyber-attack extends to other critical infrastructure too, spanning the private and public sectors. The pipeline networks of GAIL and ONGC, the dams of the Narmada Water Authority, the steel plants of SAIL and Tata Steel, are all susceptible to cyber-attack. Their vulnerability is primarily located in the weakness of the (SCADA) system, which is used to manage the operations of all these facilities.

A report in “Times of India of July 27, 2014”, went with rather dramatic heading,


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“An IT emperor with no clothes, India lays bare to cyber-attacks”. It went on with comments that India though presumed to be IT superpower; it is stunningly vulnerable to cyber-attacks. Exponential growth of cybercrime in the country is marked mostly by ignorance and indifference. This needs a change to avoid catastrophe. Real data on cyber-attacks is hard to come by but the subjective evidence is scary. India sees the second largest number of cyber-attacks on mobile devices mostly aimed at stealing banking details. India has also been targeted by global cyber espionage campaigns like GhostNet and Red October.The country believed to befifthmost spied upon nation by theUnited Statesunder the infamous PRISM programme. Considering the criticality of this threat to India’s economy and cyber security, efforts to counter the threat needs to be strong enough and both government and private institutions needs to join hand to meet the challenges.

A report in of the leading daily newspaper in India on January 21 2017, indicated power equipment manufacturers expressed security concern over entry of Chinese Companies into Indian SCADA system, which is being added to smarten national grids. In an Electrical System SCADA maintains demand and supply in the grid, as such involvement of a hostile nation with it is worrisome. It is felt sometimes that India’s telecom networks may also be exposed. In one planned test, engineers were able to gain complete control of the billing system of one of our largest telecom networks in a week by exploiting weak passwords and softwareflaws.Inanotherexercise,over10criticalvulnerabilitieswerediscoveredinthecorebankingsystemofamajorbank;littlehasbeendonetofixthese.

It is well-known that some senior functionaries in government and private sectors routinely use e-mail facilities for sensitive communications, which has servers located externally. A reliable national e-mail server for all concerned does not exist till date. It is not strange that gullible Indians lost nearly $900million in “Nigerian email” scamsalone. Digital Computing System at this moment appears to be at the mercy of state actors, terrorists and thieves. What have saved us so far are divine grace and the so-called “air gap”. Our low broadband connectivity and PC usage has been a blessing in disguise becausemuchofIndiaisstilloffline[30,31].

Analysis

Both Internet and devices functioning on it are growing exponentially, so are cyber and phishing attacks, many of which are aimed at stealing money or intellectual property. As more individuals use mobile phones for banking and shopping, the government creates 100 smart, connected cities and uses more technology for e-governance and welfare

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programmes, the attacks and losses expected to sky rocket.

Figure – 4

Thecircumstanceshaveevolvedwherewithout a single shotfiredor adropofblood trickled a country can be crippled. At the outset it may be clear that scope of cyber-attack is vast, yet in an effort to give it a structural view a look into seven layer OSI model and in its shorter form in TCP/IP model of four layers, which is the standard for digital communication may provide better understanding for defense.

Figure – 5

In the followings explanations on functioning of each layer are provided for better


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comprehension.Eachlayerasshowninfigure4aboveandtable5belowhasindependentfunctionalities though, to complete a network packet transaction, they function collectively. Itisthusessentialthateachlayerfunctionsandcommunicateswithothersefficientlyandsecurely.

Inter and Intra system Protective measures needs to be taken meticulously at each stagetomakeoverallenvironmentssafeandefficientlyfunctional.Amissinthisaffectmay have far reaching effect keeping in view the vast usages of technology.

Preventive Measures

Thus risk remains. Human being the creator and user of technical systems, it is the men behind the machine that matters, whom technology is now netting closer. The question ‘Who is on the other side of the wire’ is constantly growing in size with every passing day. Computing systems across the world broadly swing around centralized and decentralize access modes. During Mainframe days it was centralized access, which followed distributed and decentralized computing and at the advent of Cloud Computing the access mode is again getting shifted to technically advance centralized one, with mesh of servers being accessed byclientsystems,whicharealsocapableofveryefficientdatahandling.Technicallyevergrowing smart phones capable of audio, video, text and photograph processing comes as the caseinpoint,thankstoscientificadvancesandstandardizationthathelpsdataconsolidationat all level. The phenomena also allows scrupulous hackers over internet to indulge into illegal access like

1. Individual or Institutional Bank accounts to transfers funds illegitimately,

2. IndividualorInstitutionalFinancialDocumentstocreatemicroormacrofinancialcrisis,

3. Mobile Numbers for making unethical calls,

4. Digitized Health information to disturb personal or public health plans,

5. Implanted devices to put life at risk,

6. Home network for unwanted surprises,

7. Embedded Systems to Create Chaos,

8. Industrial network like SCADA to disturb production,

9. Public network to create nationwide disaster,

10. Traffic(Air,Water,Terrestrial)networktodisruptsmoothmovements,anymany

Avijit Dutta

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scenarios stretching to horizon.

The government of India does have a National Cyber Security Policy – unveiled on 2 July 2013. It aims to strengthen regulatory, legal, and monitoring mechanisms for cyber security. Additionally, the government has also formulated a Crisis Management Plan – a set of measures in the eventuality of cyber-attacks on critical infrastructure. The National Critical Information Infrastructure Protection Centre (NCIIPC) was created and placed under the technical intelligence agency, the National Technical Research Organization (NTRO), to roll out counter-measures in cooperation with other security agencies and private corporate entities that man critical security institutions. To ensure national security government and private sector must work collectively without any reservations. Information on security system and breach therein needs to be shared on real time between institutions without any fear for getting exposed and losing business interests. A collective view on security threat and its mitigation process is required and well concerted strategy needs to be worked out to evolve a National Security Framework at institutional level with definedstandardandspecifications.Timelyauditwillensureconfirmationtothedefinedstandard. SCADA security needs attention to preserve overall interest.

Collaboration with the private sector is critical both to secure critical infrastructure and to build skills and technology capability for digital security. India’s IT companies are a huge asset; they must treat cyber security as a threat but also as a massive opportunity and build world leading capability. There needs to be a major public awareness campaign, to educate people on the threats and precautions to be taken. The observation “The emperor ofIThasnoclothes”needstobefixedearly,beforetheworldfindsitoutwithfollowingsteps wherever possible.

1. Compliance

2. DLP (Data Loss Prevention)

3. Authentication

4. Encryption

5. Security Management

5.1 Cloud

5.2 Virtualisation


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5.3 Application

5.4 Mobile

5.5 Web Application

5.6 Endpoint

5.7 Cyber

6. Vulnerability Management/Pen Testing

7. Threat Management

7.1 Threat Intelligence

7.2 Web Threats(Application and 2.0)

7.3 APT (Advanced Persistence Threats)

8. SIM/Log Management

Conclusion

To use smart devices for smart output users need to be really smart in updating systems, following operational procedures, and applying discretion in service requests. At a time when India’s regional environment is hostile and the country is the target of increasing cyber-attacks, it is important to promote greater Public Private Participations. Without such measures, the next Stuxnet attack could be the one which cripples our businesses and critical nationalinfrastructureforlongerthanwecanimagine.Anfictionlikescenariohavinghugeblackouts,trainsrunningintoeachother,airtrafficandweaponssystemsthatmalfunction,bankingdataerased,explosionsat refineries,comingstraightoutofHollywoodmoviescould be a reality if the present situation moves of control and we should not wait this kind ofcyber-attacktopushustoaction.Cyberspacemusttreatasafifthdimensionofwarfarealong with land, sea, air and space. A national cyber security doctrine is essential because cyber security is an enormously complex matter with many actors. Like the US, India may need a Cyber Command and a competent “Cyberczar” to lead our cyber security strategy, planning and implementation efforts across multiple agencies.

Avijit Dutta

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References

1. Cortada J. W, Gupta A.M. Le Noir Marc; How Nations thrive in the Information Age, IBM Institute for Business Value, IBM Global Business Services,

2. Dutta Avijit; Knowledge Ubiquity in WEB 2.0 Paradigm; Innovation in Information System and Technology, ITCDC, 09 Macmillan Publications; Page 234-238,

3. Dutta Avijit; Digital Security: A Moving Target International Journal of Electrical Electronics & Computer Science Engineering Special Issue - TeLMISR 2015, ISSN : 2348-2273,

4. INSEAD, Global Information Technology Report, 2014.

5. ITU,GlobalCyberSecurityIndex&CyberwellnessProfile,report,2015.

6. Jeffrey O. Kephart, David M. Chess, Autonomic Computing, IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center, IEEE Computer Society 2003,

7. Kalle Lytinen, Youngjin Yoo, The Next Wave of Nomadic Computing: A Research Agenda for Information Systems Research, Working Papers on Information Systems, Sprouts, ISSN 1535-6078

8. Karlene C. Cousins, Daniel Robey; Human agency in a wireless world: Patterns of technology use in nomadic computing environments; Information and Organization; Science Direct.

9. Krishna Venkatasubramanian and Sandeep K.S. Gupta, Security Solutions for Pervasive Healthcare P1: BINAYA DASH, December 8, 2006 11:58 AU7921 AU7921˙C015

10. L. Kleinrock ; Nomadic Computing; Computer Science Department Los Angeles, California, USA

11. Leonard Kleinrock NOMADIC COMPUTING - AN OPPORTUNITY CCR 4/95

12. Mark Burgin and Eugene Eberbach, Evolutionary Computation And the Processes of Life; an ACM publication August, 2012;

13. Mario Ballano Barcena, Candid Wueest; Insecurity in the Internet of Things; Symantec, Security Response;Version 1.0 – March 12, 2015

14. Mobility Management and Wireless Communications; Bell Laboratories

15. Mark Burgin and Eugene Eberbach, Evolutionary Computation And the Processes


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of Life; an ACM publication August, 2012;

16. Ruth M Davis, Evolution of Computers and Computing, Science Vol. 195

17. Saikat Datta , The Deadly New Age War; APRIL 03, 2016 04:53 IST

18. Satyanarayanan M, .Pervasive Computing: Vision and Challenges; School of Computer Science Carnegie Mellon University

19. Symantec, ISTR, April 2015, Vol 20

20. Symantec, Insecurity in internet of things Version 1.0, March 12 2015

21. TechTarget, Security Media Group, Information Security, October 2014, Vol 16, No 8.

22. Tim Oreille and John Battelle; Web Squared:Web 2.0 Five Years On;Special Report

23. Thomas F. La Porta, Krishan K. Sabnani, Richard D. Gitlin; Challenges for Nomadic Computing: Mobility Management and Wireless Communications; Bell Laboratories

24. WeiserM.TheComputerforThe21stCentury,ScientificAmerican,September1991, Pages 94-104

25. Weiser M, Brown J.S. The Coming Age of Calm Technology, TECHNOLOGY1 Xerox PARC October 5, 1996,

26. https://bensontao.wordpress.com/2013/10/06/vivante-internet-of-things

27. http://securityaffairs.co/wordpress/34974/cyber-crime/iot-security-symantec.htm.

28. http://streetfightmag.com/2015/09/04/how-local-marketers-can-harness-the-internet-of-things/

29. http://freebeacon.com/national-security/nsa-details-chinese-cyber-theft-of-f-35-military-secrets/

30. http://www.gatewayhouse.in/gatewayhouseinupenn2016globalgotothinktankindexforthethirdtime

31. http://www.gatewayhouse.in/indias-vulnerable-scada-systems/

Avijit Dutta

https://bensontao.wordpress.com/2013/10/06/vivante-internet-of-things/

http://securityaffairs.co/wordpress/34974/cyber-crime/iot-security-symantec.htm

http://streetfightmag.com/2015/09/04/how-local-marketers-can-harness-the-internet-of-things/

http://streetfightmag.com/2015/09/04/how-local-marketers-can-harness-the-internet-of-things/

http://freebeacon.com/national-security/nsa-details-chinese-cyber-theft-of-f-35-military-secrets/

http://freebeacon.com/national-security/nsa-details-chinese-cyber-theft-of-f-35-military-secrets/

http://www.gatewayhouse.in/gatewayhouseinupenn2016globalgotothinktankindexforthethirdtime

http://www.gatewayhouse.in/gatewayhouseinupenn2016globalgotothinktankindexforthethirdtime

20

Work- Life Balance of Women Managers With Special Reference to Child Care

P. Sundara Pandian1 S. Muthulakshmi2 J. Kamatchi Eswaran3

Abstract

The concept of work life balance is based on the notion that paid work and personal life should be seen as competing priorities than as complementary elements of full life. In recent years, full time employment of mothers has become the norm in India. Even though most of the jobs in India have a maternity leave for first four to six weeks of Childs’s life the reality is most of the mothers return to duty when their child is still young. Women managers have to be an ‘ideal worker’ or ‘grateful slaves’ by still performing the double shifts at work and home. Balancing both the personal and professional life is considered to be a serious problem of today’s busy people especially women. Moreover, the increasing number of nuclear families and dual earner couples has made child caring a crucial concern for women managers.

Keywords: Child Care, Dietary habits, Obesity, Work- life Balance

Introduction

Women have worked as long as men. This is evident from the cave drawings that showwomentoilinginfieldsandoverfires.Theconceptofworklifebalanceisbasedonthe notion that paid work and personal life should be seen as competing priorities than as complementary elements of full life. In recent years, full time employment of mothers has

1 Dr. P.Sundara Pandian, Principal, VHNSN College (Autonomous), Madurai Kamaraj University, Tamil Nadu. E-mail Id - priyasridar @yahoo.co.in

2 Dr. S. Muthulakshmi, Assistant Professor, VHNSN College (Autonomous) Madurai Kamaraj University, Tamil Nadu. E-mail Id - [email protected]

3 Dr.J.Kamatchi Eswaran, Assistant Professor, VHNSN College (Autonomous), Madurai Kamaraj University, Tamil Nadu. E-mail Id - kamatchij73 @yahoo.com




mailto:[email protected]

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becomethenorminIndia.Eventhoughmostofthejobshavematernityleaveforfirstfourto six weeks of Childs’s life the reality is most of the mothers return to duty when their child is still young. This involves mother needing to return to full or part-time work while theirchildrenarestillyoungandthefinancialdemandsoftenmakeitnecessaryforbothparents to work.

In Figure 1, the chart shows that 69% of the women are engaged in farming activities, 11% are engaged in manufacturing activities, 5% are involved in construction activities, 4% are working in school, 3% in personal services, 2% in Housework and grocery stores, 1% in Health care and Bureaucracy and 5% in other activities.

Statement of the Problem

India has a strong traditional social expectation, and not all women can easily juggle between both family obligations and a professional career. Maternal instinct ensures that in the initial crucial weeks; the baby is mostly, if not entirely, in the mother’s care. During this period mother-child bonding becomes very strong and sees many women happilyoptingoutofpursuingacareer.Later,financialimplicationsoflivingonasingleincome and economic aspirations compel a majority of women to get back to work. Career ambitions are also a big driving force for a mother choosing to work, especially one who iswellqualified.Womenwhoresumeworkafterafewmonthsaretornbetweencareerambitions and natural childrearing instincts.

Figure – 1: Working Women in India (% terms)

P.Sundara Pandian, S. Muthulakshmi and J.Kamatchi Eswaran

22

The state of Tamil Nadu is mostly industrialized and urbanized but a traditional one in terms of structure and culture of the family. Women in Tamil Nadu are confronted withvariousissuessuchastofulfilltheexpectationsofone’sdomesticrolesasawifeandmother and also in meeting the obligations and requirements of these two separate spheres. In case ofmarriedwomenmangerswork life conflict occurs to a greater extentwhichcreates work life imbalance.

The time issue is also a particularly relevant arena of concern for women managers. Women managers have to be an ‘ideal worker’ or ‘grateful slaves’ by still performing the double shifts at work and home. Balancing both the personal and professional life is considered to be a serious problem of today’s busy people especially women. Moreover, the increasing number of nuclear families and dual earner couples has made child caring a crucial concern for women managers.

Therefore, the problems faced by the women managers made the researcher to analyze the child care prospects of working mothers.

Scope of the Study

Thepresentstudyisconfinedtowomenmanagersworkinginservicesectors inTamilNadu.InthisresearchworkservicesectorsareconfinedtoBanking,Insurance,IT& BPO, Hotel and Communication Sectors.

Research Design

The present study attempts to examine the family and career life of the women managers and identify the factors that lead to work life imbalance and child care prospects. Empirical research is carried in the present study to know the association between the dependent variable and the independent variable.

Primary data was collected and used in the present research. The primary data was collected from women managers in Tamil Nadu by using the interview schedule method by structured questionnaire. The secondary sources of data for this study were collected from journals, souvenirs, books and publications in newspapers and articles presented in workshops and seminars.

With the rapport of the researcher, with the study companies, 273 women managers were selected and the selection of the respondents was made only to the convenience of


23

the researcher for the timely collection of data. Hence, convenience sampling technique is applied in the collection of data.

Review of Literature

Theworkingwomenstillfindthemselvesinaverydifficultpositiontoadjustwiththe work and home, since each one demands greater attention. The problems regarding pregnancyandmaternityleavestillenragemanyofficebosses;sometimestheyfinditanexcuse for sacking of their female staff. The raising of children, teaching and education of thechildrendemandsgreatertimeandenergy.Theofficegoingwomenisunabletocopewith these demands.

Preschoolersexperienceasignificantdeclineintimespentwiththeirmotherswhentheir mothers go to work and total time spent with the child has shown to decrease by as much as 2 hours per day. A trade off is found between time and money, as family income increases whereas mother’s time with child decreases. Hence these two may offset each other. Mothers may often compensate for this by decreasing social, educational and personal activities that do not involve the children.1

The incidence of childhood obesity was found to increase with increase in maternal employment as the number of hours spent with the child decrease, thus decreasing access to healthy food and increasing dependence on junk food.2. The Millennium Cohort Study Child Health Group stated that long hours of maternal employment, rather than lack of money, may impede young children’s access to healthy foods and physical activity. Children were more likely to be overweight for every ten hours a mother worked per week and this relationshipwassignificantforchildrenfromhouseholdswithahigherannualincome.

In contrast, it was noted that, for pre-adolescent children (Greenberger and O’Neill, 1992), maternal employment (typically, conditioned by mothers’ level of education and child gender) was more strongly associated with fathers’ and teachers’ perceptions of children than with mothers’ perceptions, and, in some cases, especially with fathers’ and teachers’ perceptions of daughters. Fathers perceived their 5-6-year-olds as having more problem behaviours when mothers were currently employed full time. Fathers and teachers viewed children’s behaviour as more problematic when less educated mothers had been

1 Chase-LansdaleP.L,MoffittR.A,LohmanB.J,CherlinA.J,ColeyR.L,PittmanL.D,RoffJ.,Votruba-Drzal E.(2003) ,” Mothers’ Transitions from Welfare to Work and the Well-Being of Preschoolers and adolescents Science”. Vol. 299, pp 1548–1552.

2 Hawkins, T. (2007), “The elusive work-life balance five steps to achieving harmony with workforcemanagement”, Customer Interaction solutions, vol. 25, no. 9, pp 24-27. Pg no 4.


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employed during more years of the child’s lifetime.

Distribution of the Respondents According to the Sectors

The present study is based on the responses elicited from the selected managerial women in Tamil Nadu. For the purpose of identifying the target population, the researcher hasselectedfiveindustriesnamelyBanking,Insurance,IT&BPO,HotelandCommunicationsector. With the rapport of the researcher, with the study companies, 273 women managers were selected from among all the 100 companies and the selection of the respondents was made only to the convenience of the researcher for the timely collection of data. Hence, convenience sampling technique is applied in the collection of data.

Thedetailedaccountoftheselectionofrespondentsinallthefiveindustrialsectorsis shown.

Table – 1 Distribution of the Respondents According to the Sectors

Sector Companies Number of Respondents Percentage

Banking 20 59 21.6

Insurance 20 57 20.8

IT and BPO 20 56 20.6

Hotel 20 54 19.6

Communication 20 47 17.4

Total 100 273 100.0Source: Primary Data

Different service sectors were chosen for the study. The respondents of the present studybelongtothefieldsofBanking,Insurance,IT&BPO,HotelandCommunicationsector. In regard to sectorwiseclassificationof the respondents, it is evident that21.6percent of the respondents belong to banking sector, 20.8 percent of the respondents are working in the Insurance sector, 20.6 percent of the respondents are working in IT & BPO sectors, and 19.6 percent are in Hotel sector and 17.4 percent are working in Communication sector.


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Child Care Problems

In families where both the mother and father are equally involved in child rearing, the woman can experience more guilt and dissatisfaction while being a working mother. Mutual understanding between the spouses are absent in many families which leads to number of problems and ultimately it is the child who suffers.

Increasing Penetration of Preschool Education

The day care centre paint a picture like serene place where the child will laugh and play all day. Many day cares show no interest in the welfare of the children. The day care often humiliate the children, sometimes hitting the child and showing absolute no concern towards the children. The women who are underpaid in the day care centers show their frustrations towards the children whom they take care.

Figure 2: Increasing penetration of Preschool education

will drive the market in India

Figure 2 shows the percentage increase in the preschool children education. The figureshowsthatIndianpreschoolsectorishighlyunderpenetratedmarket.Thegrowingpenetration levels is one of the major drivers for preschool in India. Working women opt to send their children to school as early as possible. Mothers should keep their kids in


26

childcare centers as there is no one to take care of them. Those kids remain void of love and motherly affection. In such cases mother feels guilty for not sparing quality time to raise their kids and must compromise in the development of the kids.

Pre-School Education

Balancing both career and family is an arduous task for working women especially when they have small children and there is no well-equipped day-care/crèche facility where they can leave their kids without any tension while they are at work. Women often suffer from the guilt-complex of not spending enough time during the tender age of their children and being forced to leave their children in the hands of the maids on whom they have little faith.Evidence indicates thatworkerswhotakeadvantageoffamilyfriendlybenefits totakecareofthechildren,suchascareerbreaksorflexiblehourcontracts,arestillperceivedas adversely affecting their future careers by doing so (CIPD 2003). Women managers adopt various work-life strategies keeping the organizational norm in mind (Guillaume & Pochic 2009).

It is evident that out of 273 married working women 145 (53.1 percent) of them agreed that they sent their children to play school and 128 (46.9 percent) do not send their children to play school.

From the table, it is inferred that among the married working managers 53.1 percent of the respondents sent their children to preschool and 46.9 percent of the respondents do not sent their children’s.

Table – 2 Pre-School Education

Pre school educationNo. of

respondentsPercentage

Children sent 145 53.1

Children Not sent 128 46.9

Total 273 100Source: Primary data

From the above table, it is conferred that 53.1 percent of the respondents sent the children to pre-school at an early age. Therefore, the children are deprived of their mother’s care at an early age.


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Obesity among the children

Obesity is the main determinant of preventable burden of diseases. It results from excess consumption of calories. Globally, children are gaining weight, which tracks into adulthood thus increasing the risk of adult diseases such as type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease (CVD), hypertension and polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) later in life.

In the young, psychological and behavioral factors manifesting as unhealthy dietary habits and sedentary behavior are probably the most important determinants of obesity. K.R.Palaniswamy, consultant gastroenterologist at Apollo Hospitals says that, “It can have huge, long -term impacts on the health of children”. Working mothers due to their heavy work risk their children. Most of the children of working mothers in take junk food and have uncontrolled eating habits.

Hindu reports 2 or 3 of every 10 children are overweight. The health complication can be immense and scary: “We have found that 12 percent of girls above the age of 12 who are overweight, and who have family history of diabetes are pre-diabetic” says Dr. Mohan. Obesity could cause hormonal problems including polycystic ovarian syndrome, lower tolerance to respiratory problems and an increased risk of cardiovascular and orthopedic problems. It may also lead to high blood pressure levels. (The Hindu, Sunday, January 17, 2016)

Working mothers should concentrate in the diet and physical activity of their children.

Dietary habits

Childhoodobesity is largely influencedby the increased intakeof energy-densefoods that are high in fat and sugars but low in proteins, vitamins, minerals and other healthy micronutrients. The variety of convenience foods available in the market and the role of media in sensitizing the parents and children to these changes, could have also undoubtedlycontributedtochildhoodobesity.Oneofthefactorsthatcouldsignificantlyaffect children’s energy intake is the increasing availability of energy-dense, high-calorie foods/snacks and drinks in school canteens.

Working mothers or single-parent families may also increase the demand for take away foods or increase the frequency of eating out and cause reliance on pre-prepared foods. The higher per capita income also increases the family’s economic capacity and thus


28

the affordability to buy high calorie foods from restaurants.

Psychosocial problems

Numerous psychosocial problems have been shown to be strongly associated with obesityinchildren’s.Theseincludedepression,poorself-image,andadjustmentdifficultiesin both the home and social environment. Psychosocial factors work against the child with a weight problem and thus hamper the overall growth and development. Among obese children, appearance related teasing is more frequent and is associated with higher weight concerns, more loneliness, and poor self-perception of physical appearance, higher preference for sedentary or isolated activities and lower preference for social activities. Social isolation and stress could interfere with their learning and lead to depression, anxiety, and/or emotional instability. Unfortunately the working mothers are unaware of their child problems due to heavy workload and have no time to hear to the problems of their children.

Causes of obesity of children

Children whose mother work are six times likely to be overweight. Children eat fatty ready meals and snacks unsupervised after school, is causing them to pile on the pounds. Scientists claim the effect is the greatest amongst the youngsters aged 11-12 the so-called latch -key children who let themselves into the house while parents are at work. To identify the relative problems, it was decided to use Garett’s ranking technique. Each respondent in my study area were instructed to indicate the most recurring symptom by assigning rank 1 to the obese problem, rank 2 to the next important factor and so on. By referring the Garett’s table the present position is estimated and converted into scores.

Fromthetable,itcanbeseenthatdietarytrendsaregiventhefirstrank,followedby physical inactivity which ranks 2nd, Build environment which ranks 3rd, Socio-economic status ranks 4th and Genetic factors secures the 5th rank.

It is inferred from the table that dietary trends are given the 1st rank, Physical activity is given the 2nd rank and the lowest rank is given the genetic factors. The problems which arise due to obesity are cardiovascular disease, Sleep amnesia, type II diabetics and polycystic ovarian. Therefore, working mothers should be very careful and see that their children are not obese.


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Table: 3 Causes of Obesity

OBESITy FACTORS TOTAL SCORES RANK

Dietary Trends 7384 1

Physical Inactivity 6104 2

Build Environment 5847 3

Socio-Economic Status 5357 4

Genetic Factors 5015 5Source: Primary Data

Many factors contribute to obesity. The following factors highlights the causes and effects of obesity related issues.

Figure 3:

Love and care towards the children

Mothers who must go to work are not happy leaving their child at such a young age. They feel guilty and anxious and often their anxiety transferred to their children. When themotherisatworkshewillphonehometentimestofindoutwhatishappeningandtryto give instructions over the phone. When the mother is anxious the whole family becomes anxious. Often what the working mothers give away to the children’s demands very easily because they feel guilty. The mothers feel that they can compensate their absence by giving their children money. The working mothers should have understood that the child’s needs


30

are not material. Children want warmth and emotional security.

Changes in the behavior of the children

Studies show that children of working mothers are more likely to do worse at school, become unemployed and suffer mental stress. It has been observed that the children betweenoneandfivewhosemothersworkedforthelongestperiodstendedtohavelowereducational attainment, greater risk of unemployment as a young adult, and a greater risk of psychological distress.

Children may feel alone and fall in a bad company. Children get freedom in excess when they don’t see mothers around to stop them from vices. This way they may fall in badcompanyandinculcatevicesinthem.Notonlythis,theymightfeelaloneandfindforcompany as mothers are not available for kids due to work. Devoting quality time for a mother is very important, some researchers have revealed that mothers who return to work after their baby is born risk cause serious damage to the child’s prospects in later life. The women must strengthen the bond with the child. A working mother must rely on others for help. It is like paying a person to love the child. Care and love are synonyms for what mothers have given their children since the beginning of time.

From the survey, it is found that many of the children face behavioral change if they are not properly cared. The following table shows changes in the behavior of the children due to their dual roles. From the table, it is known that among 273 respondents, 32.6 percent of the respondents feel that their children’s face psychological change, 23.8 percent of the respondents felt emotional change, and 22.7 percent of the respondents felt behavioral change in their children. These changes may lead to dreadful situations in the children’s future. Other type of changes felt by the respondents were children (20.9 percent) secured low marks if they are not properly cared and health of the children get effected due to low care shown to their children.

Table – 4 Changes in the behavior of the children due to dual role

ChangesNo. of

respondentsPercentage

Psychological Change 89 32.6

Behavioral Change 62 22.7


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Emotional change 65 23.8

Low marks and health of the children affected 57 20.9

Total 273 100.0Source: Primary data

From the table, most of the respondents feel psychological change (32.6 percent) intheirchildren.Duetoofficework,workingmothersarenotabletoattendtheschoolmeetings, functions etc. which may develop feelings of inferiority and guilt in them. Such cases may end children going into depression, thus affecting their health.

Impact of work life balance factors towards child care satisfaction

To examine the satisfaction towards child care by the respondents, a multiple regression analysis was undertaken. The dependent variable taken was child care satisfaction. The independent variable selected were time based factor, strain based factor, supportive network, and stress related factor, dependent care and leave strategies. These variables selected were based on the previous studies referred in the literature. The results of multiple regression are presented below.

Y=3.426 + 0.091x1 + 0.113x2 + .193x4 - 0.481x5 - 0.621x6.

a) Predictors (Constant): Time based factor, strain based factor, supportive network, and stress related factor, dependent care and leave strategies.

b) Dependent Variable: Satisfaction level towards child care.

Table – 5 Regression model summaries for work life balance factor satisfaction level towards child care

R SquareSource of variation

Sum of Squares

DfMean

SquareF

Significant Value

.662 Regression 91.384 6 15.231 9.128 .000Residual 822.616 493 1.669

Total 914.000 499Source: Computed data

The power of the regression model is represented by the R2. It is healthy with .662,andtheFtestofthemodelshowsthatthesignificanceofthemodelishighasthe


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significanceofFis.000whichislessthan.05.

Table – 6 Regression co-efficient for work life balance factors of the respondents and satisfaction level towards child care

Demographic factors

Un standardised coefficients

Standardised coefficients

t Sig.B

Std Error

Beta

Constant 3.426 .429 7.994 .000*

Time based factor .091 .040 .112 2.270 .023*

Strain based factor

.113 .042 .116 2.701 .007*

Supportive Network

.006 .051 .005 .123 .003*

Stress related factor

.193 .075 .111 2.581 .010*

Leave strategies -.481 .145 -.175 -3.313 .001*

Dependent care -0.294 0.028 -0.427 -10.691 0.000*Source: Computed data

*= Significant at the level of 5 %

Fromtheregressionequation,allworklifebalancefactorsarestatisticallysignificantat5percentlevelofsignificance.Itcanbeconcludedallthesefactorshaveagreatinfluenceon the child care.

From the above table, it can be inferred that all the work life balance factors have asignificantinfluenceonchildcare.Onexaminingthedata,thesignificantvalueisbelow.05(P<0.05). Thus it can be concluded that all the factors such as time based factor, strain based factor, supportive network, stress related factor, dependent care and leave strategies havesignificantroleonthesatisfactionleveltowardschildcareofworkingwomen.

Suggestions

1. The children of working mothers should be made smart and active. The children


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should be made to understand the responsibilities and must be guided to manage to do all their tasks without being dependent on others.

2. The children to become independent must be taught to do their homework, eat their breakfast, packing bags for school, preparing uniforms and all such things of their own. Doing all those little tasks that a child can do on his own makes the children independent and responsible. The child no longer depends on others for their work and become co-operative to their mothers.

3. The working mothers should insist on their spouse to help them in household chores after returning from work. By seeing the fathers being a helping hand to mothers, children learn good habits and inculcate manners of helping others as well as their mothers, thus in this way good habits are inculcated in them.

4. The mothers who are working ought to remain away from home and their children for long hours and could not devote quality time with them. Mothers should plan a proper time schedule to devote quality time with their kids.

5. The mothers when work, should be made as an inspiration for their kids as they look up to their mom and say that they aspire to be like their moms soon.

6. Children should be taught to learn socializing, communicating and behaving in front of others.

7. The employers should recognize the feeling of the working mothers and avail leave when the children are sick.

8. The strategies of the organisation should be changed to provide a friendly atmosphere at the working place.

9. Children should be taught about healthy foods so that obesity among the children could be reduced.

Conclusion

The way mothers and fathers spend their time has changed dramatically in the past half century. In many Asian countries where joint family systems are prevalent, grandparentsandothernonworkingfamilymembersfulfilltheneedofchildcarewhenthechildisatwork.Thisbenefitprovidesnecessarysupportforawomantoperformthedualroleefficiently.Butthisisabsentinanuclearfamily.


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Stressisalsohighamongsttheworkingmothersandoftenreflecttheirrelationshipat home. When a woman reaches home one becomes stressed to send the child to school and to reach all the children’s deadlines on time including food and dress. A woman is also pressed to look after ones home simultaneously in fulfilledmanner.Housework isstill considered the woman’s sphere of influence.Working women shoulder additionalaccountability of the work place as well as at their domestic front. Unexpected sickness of thechildrenisoftenconsideredasacalamitythatcanbedifficulttohandle.Thereisoftena need to use and avail unpaid leave and leads to cause unexpected absences for work. The employers would consider the needs of sudden leave requirements in working women with young children.

Nutritional requirements of the child may be neglected due to the quest to complete all the targets at home as well as at work (Finn, 2000). To provide gender equity and greater paternal involvement in child rearing, some part of the leave should be shared by theparents.Workplacesalsoneedtobemorefamily-friendly.Parttimeworking,flexiblehours and the ability to take leave when the child is sick can make a big difference to parents seeking to reconcile work and family life.

References

1. Chase-LansdaleP.L,MoffittR.A,LohmanB.J,CherlinA.J,ColeyR.L,PittmanL.D, Roff J., Votruba-Drzal E.(2003) ,” Mothers’ Transitions from Welfare to Work and the Well-Being of Preschoolers and adolescents Science”. Vol. 299, pp 1548–1552.

2. Hawkins,T.(2007),“Theelusivework-lifebalancefivestepstoachievingharmonywith workforce management”, Customer Interaction solutions, vol. 25, no. 9, pp 24-27. Pg no 4.

3. Greenberger E., O’ Neill R(1992), “ Maternal employment and perceptions of young children: Bronfenbrenner et al. revisited. Child Dev. Vol. 63, pp 431–488.

4. Goyal RK, Shah VN, Saboo BD, Phatak SR, Shah NN, Gohel MC, et al( 2010), “Prevalence of Overweight and Obesity in Indian Adolescent School Going Children: Its Relationship with Socioeconomic Status and Associated Lifestyle Factors” JAPI. Vol. 58, pp 151–8.

5. De Cieri, H, Holmes, B, Abbott, J & Pratt, T (2005), ‘Achievements and challenges


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for work/life balance strategies in Australian organization’, The International Journal of Human Resource Management, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 90-103.

6. Dinesh Varma, M (2007), ‘”Working Women and work-life Conundrum”, The Hindu, June Vol. 24, pp.16-17.

7. Ezzedeen, SR & Ritchey, KG 2009, “Career advancement and family balance strategies of executive women”, Gender in Management, vol. 24, no. 6, pp. 388-411.

8. Farhat, J 2004, Women in India, Anmol, Delhi.

9. Farmer, B (1970), “Women’s Motivation Related to Mastery, Career Salience, and Career Aspiration: A Multivariate Model Focusing on the Effects of Sex Role Socialization”, Journal of Career Assessment, vol.5, no.2, pp. 355-38.

10. Friedman, SD & Greenhaus, JH (eds) 2000, Work and family – Allies or enemies? What happens when business professional confront life choices, Oxford University Press, New York.

11. Gatrell, CJ & Cooper, CL (2008), “Work-life balance: Working for Whom?, European J”, International Management, vol. 2, no.3, pp. 71-86.

12. Goan, N (2008), “Social support, Job attitudes and job outcome across gender”, The ICFAI University Journal of organizational Behavior, vol. 17, no. 4, pp.67-75.

13. Goode, WJ (1960”, “A Theory of Role Strain’, American Sociological Review”, vol.25, no.4, pp. 483-496.


36

International Terrorism: Issues and Challenges

Arya. A. Kumar*

Abstract

Terrorist attack raises great concern and invokes fear in the mind of world community and it is the fierce truth in the world right now. In the present scenario, most of the nations in the world are facing terrorist attacks. Some countries are facing terrorism due to religious conflicts and the others are facing due to political conflicts. Terrorism became an alarming threat to the human rights of the people as it targets innocent lives to achieve their political ends. It is a manifestation of increased lawlessness and cult of violence and an issue of concern to all. In terrorist attacks, the indiscriminate use of violence to achieve political objectives results in grave Human Rights violations. In the present era, ‘terrorism’ has spread all over the world and there were only very few countries immune from it. It has become a formidable challenge to national security and International peace. The fight against terrorism is the patriotic duty of a state since it is duty bound to ensure national security. These two connotations were incorporated in the values of the various domestic laws with a determination to secure national security and International peace simultaneously.

Introduction

The attack1 of World Trade Centre on September 11, 20012 have been marked as the biggest terrorist strike in the history of terrorism as it has caused large number of causalities

* Arya. A. Kumar, Assistant Professor, The Indian Law Institute, New Delhi. Email: [email protected]

1 The terrorist attack of September 11, 2001 (9/11) on the World Trade Centre in New York and the Pentagon in Washington D.C.

2 This terrorist attack brought about the death of approximately 3,000 men, women and children from nations around the world.




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and maximum economic loss. After the traumatic experience3 and the shock of the dark days of the two world wars, a global awareness to protect human rights has grown to such an extent that it has been measured as yardstick for civilization of societies. After the terrorist attack of September 11, 2001 (9/11) on the World Trade Centre, the international community felt the need to curb this social menace through stringent international laws. In the same year, the United Nations adopted a Resolution4 which has been marked as the strongest ever drafted international document on terrorism. In that resolution, several legal measures were recommended for the states to prevent terrorist attacks.

About an important question why terrorist always targets to innocent peoples by taking the law into their hands and thereby threatening the government for achieving their political ends the only answer lies in the various socio-economic political conditions prevailing in many parts of the world. The only remedy to tackle the terrorist attacks through legal means is to give an inclusive definition to terrorism. There are variousreasons for terrorism. Being an international issue and a burning Human Rights concern5 for the countries, ‘terrorism’ has been addressed by various countries in their national legislations. But it is also true that little research has been done on the conceptual aspects of terrorism.Various governments havemade laws andmany significant anti-terrorisminternational legislations to tackle the issue of terrorism. Still terrorism rampant across the globe and have become a powerful instrument of international politics. This point out the ineffectiveness of the existing anti-terrorism laws and the need for the countries to enact effective domestic laws to tackle the menace of terrorism. This paper is an attempt to analyse the existing international legal instruments enacted to prevent the act of terrorism. Italsoattemptstoanalysetheproblemsrelatingtothedefinitionofterrorism.

Analysis of various causes of Terrorism

By its very nature terrorism is anti-human and anti-social. Although there are many reasons for the occurrence of terrorism, it is always associated with negative connotations like immoral act of violence, extra normal, illegal political activity by non-state actors, wicked category of human behavior etc. In the similar vein, terrorism also treated as a

3 Attack on World Trade Centre and Pentagon in Washington in the year 2001 had wrecked the security concern of the American Government. After that they raised the war against Taliban in Afghanistan, which iscontinuingtillthedate.WashingtonattackwasanexampleofterrorismbackedbyreligiousconflictwhileAmerican attack in Afghanistan was an example of terrorism backed by a political State. And, the worst kind of terrorism is that when it is backed by a political State and the example is Iraq war

4 Security Council’s Resolution No.1373 of 2001.5 Terrorism is affecting the international relations, peace and security of nations.

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positive act of self-defence. Only by understanding the real reasons behind terrorist resort to unlawful activities it can be prevented. As it is a known fact that all terrorists began their lives as peace loving citizens. Terrorist always have a common aim or a political end at the same time there may be individual reasons why terrorist resort to terrorism. Although terrorism is often experimented with political motives, mostly it is driven by some ideology. There are hardened terrorists known as extremist who appear to have no moral conscience and do not want the peace process as they have made a livelihood out of intimidating others.

Regarding the origin of ‘terrorism’ internationally, there were problems of public disorder and acute confrontations between various governments and organized labour which was not systematically political in its intention. The ultimate end of terrorism is to create fear for a political communication and it becomes effective in many situations. The advantage of this kind of terrorism is that through heinous attacks terrorist able to gain the world’s attention and thereby achieve their goals.

The world community in many international platforms discussed about the contributing factors of since the mid of 20th century. The subject has been explored and discussed in many platforms and reached into the conclusion that there are many reasons for the rise of terrorism. Although, the term of terrorism has been used as negative human behaviors in many contexts, it is always interpreted as forms of violence, ethnic expression ofself-determinationandanactofself-defence.Butno ideology justifiesviolence.Theterrorist act is aimed at producing impacts far beyond the physical damage. There are revolutions6 against the bad governance. Similarly, there are many writers7 considered that terrorismas a justified formofviolence and since its inception terrorismhasbeenconsidered as a systemof violence against the rulerswhichhas been confirmedby thecontemporary legal and sociological theories.

Ideology behind Terrorism

To remedy a situation, one must know the real reasons behind the problem. Likewise, only by understanding the real reasons why terrorists resort to terrorism and unlawful activities then only it can be prevented. It is a known fact that all terrorists been their lives as peace loving citizens. Terrorists always have a common aim or a political

6 There is a huge difference between revolution and terrorism. Revolutions always gain support from the public and usually public raises it for a good future of the society. While terrorism is against the people, it has no support from the ‘general’ public and it always do harm to the general public.

7 For example, a French writer, Jules Roman considered that terrorism may be a system of ruling; whereas EI Fattah considered that in ancient time terrorism was resorted to combat tyranny and tyrants.


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end and may also have individual reasons for the terrorist attacks. Although terrorism is often experimented with political motives, mostly it is driven by some ideology. There is hardened terrorist known as extremist who does not have any moral conscience and do not want the peace process as they are in the habit of intimidating others.

Terrorismisanorganizedactoftencarriedoutwithadefinitemotivetoachieveapoliticalobjective.Theseideologiesarealwaysdifficulttounderstandthoughjustifiedbythe terrorist groups. Having driven by a political motive to achieve freedom or to show oppression against nations is not a crime always. But when it is associated with brutal killing of poor civilians should be termed as an offence of terrorism. The need to differentiate between the legitimate struggle of oppressed groups and the unlawful terrorist activities was aptly pointed out in Fifth Islamic Summit held in 1987 in Kuwait. It observed:

“the Conference reiterates its absolute faith in the need to distinguish between the brutal and unlawful terrorist activities perpetuated by individuals, groups, states from the legitimate struggle of oppressed and subjugated nations against foreign occupation of any kind”.

To understand the real ideology behind terrorism there are two divergent opinions expressed by two prominent persons. Firstly, Salah Khalef while attempting to compound ‘terrorism’8 with national liberation and self-determination opined that “Even on Ideological Grounds,Iamfirmlyopposedtopoliticalmurderandmoregenerallytoterrorism”.Hereheisconsideringterrorismasajustifiedactofself-expression.WhereasaboutterrorismChe Guevera says: “it is a measure that is generally ineffective and indiscriminate in its impact, since it often makes victims of innocent people and destroys a large number of lives that could be valuable to the revolution”. The main difference between Salah and Che Guevera’ positions were that while both seek to carry wars of liberation, Salah avoided committing against attacks on civilians and Che resorted to Terrorism. The generally acceptednotionofterrorismisthatirrespectiveofthejustificationprovidedtoterrorismnoideologyjustifiesviolencealthoughaterroristactisaimedatproducingeffectsfarbeyondthe physical image. Terrorism spouts from the existence of pressure groups/dissatisfaction groups9 who shares the necessary characteristics10 and also shares the common view that it is only through violence and putting pressure on the ruling government their political ends can be achieved. Few states have adopted a neutral strategy regarding the different

8 Baader-Mainhof in Germany was the original terrorists. 9 Samir Gandhi, “State Sponsored Terrorism and the International Legal Reigme”10 Student Advocate,

58(1998). 10 Fali S.Nariman, “Terrorism –a Threat to Human Rights”, Journal of NHRC, Vol 3, 2004, p. 1-18.

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aggrieved groups as they may extend material assistance to one group and perpetuate the violence to another.

Essential Features of International Terrorism

Terrorism is always associated with negative connotations as it is an illegal act of violence. Often terrorism is confused or used interchangeably with the other forms of organizedviolence,likewar,insurgencyetc.Sincethereexistsnocomprehensivedefinitionfor the term terrorism, it is essential to narrate the basic features of terrorism in order to name an organized form of violence as ‘terrorism’.

Firstly, terrorism is always aimed at political ends. Being political activity terrorism is aimed to pressurize the government in achieving the political ends. In terrorist attacks, though criminal acts like murder, kidnapping, bombing are involved, its ultimate aim is to achieve the political ends. In that way, it is differentiated from other forms of organized criminal behaviors.

Secondly, though terrorism is always involving criminal acts, it is more than a criminal activity. All the methods of terrorism are politically motivated and it is illegal and prohibited under the domestic criminal law. For example, criminal activities like bombing, hijacking, murder, kidnapping are addressed as illegal in all the states.

Thirdly, by creating an atmosphere of terror terrorists always targets to achieve political ends.

Fourthly, in terrorist attacks the targeted groups are the civilian population. The terrorist attacks are always carried out against the civilian population who are the innocent victims. Fifthly, terrorism is a systematic organized crime aimed to bring down the government to attain political objectives.

Sixthly, terrorism is a means of political communication to gain attention of the administration. In this context, it is necessary to point put the views of Lacquerer11 regarding terrorism. He observed that “the media are the terrorist’s best friend as the terrorist activity is to get the publicity at all”.

Lastly, the involvement of the state in terrorist activities has proved that terrorism isajustifiedformofviolenceinsomecountries.

11 Walter Laqueur, the Age of Terrorism, (1987), P.132.


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Definition of Terrorism: Need for Conceptual Clarity

“What looks, smells and kills like terrorism –is terrorism.12” This connotation is relevant in the context that there exists no conceptual clarity for addressing the issue of ‘terrorism’. Although this is a much-overused connotation with regard to terrorism, it revealstheneedtoestablishacommondefinitionfortheterm‘terrorism’.Though,terrorismisrampantallovertheworld,thereisnouniversaldefinitiontothetermterrorism.Thedefinitionsofterrorismvaryfrompeopletopeopleduetothedifferencesinstandpoint.Definingterrorismisthedifficulttaskandoneofthemajorissuessincethestateandthesub-stateactorsareusingterrorismininter-stateconflicts.Despitetheuniversalacceptancetoterrorismasaninternationalcrime,theproblemsofdefiningterrorismhavehamperedthe development of anti-terror measures both nationally and internationally. Not having a cleardefinitiontoterrorismmanytimesleadstoitsmisuseandresultsinblatanthumanrights violations13.

Generally, it is difficult to define terrorism if we confine within the ordinarydefinitions of terrorism. The definitions of terrorismmainly depend upon the politicalsituationandsocialconditionofacountry.Thetwomainapproachestodefineterrorismwere the western approach which is accepted by most of the western states and the Third world approach accepted by the third world states. The western approach uses the nature of theoffenceasthecriteriatodetermineterrorism.Inthisapproach,theargumenttodefineterrorismwasthat“evenwhentheuseofforceislegallyandmorallyisjustified,therearesome measures as in every form of human violence which must not be used, the legitimacy of a cause does not itself legitimize the use of certain forms of violence especially against the innocent”.

The major obstacles hindering14theformationofauniversallyaccepteddefinitionof terrorism is due to the association of negative connotations. Although, some countries aretreating‘terrorism’positivelyasa justifiedformofviolence,anactofself-defense,or an ethnic expression of self-determination, the concept of Terrorism has always been associated with negative connotations like immoral, extra normal, illegal political activity by non-state actors, wicked category of human behavior etc.

12 AmbassadorJeremyGreenstocks’s,work-a-daydefinitionofferedtoUNDelegatesduringadebateintheSecurity Council soon after September 11th 2001.

13 Sharma P.C. “Combating terrorism and organised crimes: Strategies and Areas of Cooperation”, (2002), CBI Bulletin, Feb: 10, Pp.4-6.

14 The main objective of terrorism is to terrorize the people and society with a view to disrupt the peace and tranquility of the society and create a sense of fear in the society, helplessness in the minds of the people at large. About Terrorism Mao Tse Tung pointed out “Kill one, frighten Ten Thousand”.

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Terrorism: An Analysis of various Definitions

Forthefirsttimetheterm‘terrorism’wasdefinedundertheConventionforthePrevention and Punishment to Terrorism (Geneva, 1937). Indeed, it defines “acts ofterrorism” as “criminal acts directed against a State or intended to create a state of terror in themindofparticularpersons,orgroupofpersonsorthegeneralpublic.”ThisdefinitionwasopposedbymanystatesbecauseofitsextremelybroaddefinitiontoTerrorism.GreatBrittan opposed this definition of terrorism on the ground that it classified all form ofpolitical behaviors ranging from assassination or dealing in the sale of arms and ammunition as terrorist behavior. Another ground of opposition was that it would restrict the free expression of public opinion which is especially in the political sphere and this freedom had for centuries been zealously safeguarded in Great Britain. However, presently, to restrict the definition of terrorism to offences against a Statewould not be proper as itwouldoverlook the realities of contemporary life.

The Convention on the Suppression of Financing of Terrorism15attemptedtodefineterrorism.ItdefinesTerrorismas:

“any other act intended to cause death or serious bodily injury to a civilian or to any other person not taking an active part in the hostilities in a situation of armed conflict, when the purpose of such act by its nature or context is to intimidate a population or to compel a government or an international organization to do or to abstain from doing any act”16.

ThetwoelementsrelyonthisdefinitionaredeclaringcertainactsorprohibitingspecificactionsintheConventionthatwerebroughtaboutfromthe1960stothe1980sasterrorismacts.Inordertoincludecertainactswithintherealmofthisdefinition,itrequiresphysical violence17 directed against human beings. In this definition neither requires apolitical, religious or ideological motivation on the part of terrorists nor does it requires the several persons act collectively.But thedefinition to terrorismunder theFinancingConventionwaswidelyacceptedwheremostcommentatorsinthefieldregarditasthemostadvanceddefinitionofterrorism.

Fortunately,majorityofthestateshaveunilaterallydefinedterrorisminnational

15 Signed in Newyork on 9th December, 1999. 16 Article 2, para.1.b. 17 SimilarapproachcanbeseeninthedefinitiongiventoterrorismintheDraftComprehensiveConvention

international terrorism UN Doc.A/57/37, Annex II.


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laws permittingwide domestic definitions.Different states have different views on thedefinition of terrorism and it is difficult to get a universally accepted definition to theterm.Thefirstinternationalattempttoaddressthelegaldefinitiontotheterm“terrorism’occurred in 1930s in response to the First World War. After this a series of meetings were heldandfinallytheterm‘terrorism’wasfirstusedintheinternationalpenalinstrument.Aseriesofactsofviolencewereincludedintheunificationofpenallawserieswhichhadadopted a model law for ‘terrorism’.

Themainelementsofthedefinitiontoterrorismusedintheinternationallawrequirea subjective element18 and an objective element19.Thesedefinitionsgenerallyrequiretwoelements20 actual or threatened violence against civilians and secondly persons indirectly taking part in the hostilities and the main objective of the act to intimidate fear and thereby compelling the population, government to achieve some political objectives. Some of the international lawyers expressed the opinion that terrorism is not a legal concept since it has notbeenaddressedspecificallyunderinternationalhumanrightslaw.

Brian Jem Kins opined that “terrorism is the use or threatened use of force designed to bring about political change”. James M. Poland defined terrorism “as hepredominated, deliberate, systematic murder… and threatening of the innocent to create fearandintimidationinordertogainapoliticalortacticaladvantageusuallytoinfluencean audience”. Bruce Hoffman “observed about terrorism as “on one point at least everyone agrees; terrorism is a pejorative term. It is a word with intrinsically negative connotations that is generally applied to one’s enemies and opponents or this with which one disagrees and would otherwise prefer to ignore”.

Mostlyinstitutionsacceptandpreferaninclusivedefinitiontothetermterrorism.Different states have different views on the definition on terrorism difficult to get auniversallyacceptabledefinition. Firstly, IIIrdConference for theUnificationofPenalLaw at Brussels (1930)-:

“Deliberate use of means to produce common danger, employing against life Liberty & integrity of individuals or against government for a political idea. The essential components of a consensus definition of international terrorism may be given as follows: International terrorism

18 The subjective element is to create an atmosphere of terror within the population to coerce a government or an international organization.

19 The objective element is the use of physical violence against persons. 20 ThesetwoelementsarereflectedintheproposeddefinitionofterrorismdraftedbytheInternationalLaw

Association in 1994.

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is the purposeful use of threat of violence, individual or group acts, designed primarily to terrorize the government.

The major reasons why the International Community failed to give a uniform definitiontotheterm‘terrorism’are:

a) Firstly,themajorreasonfortheabsenceofauniformdefinitionto‘terrorism’liesin the fact that while most people would agree that terrorism is the most wicked, extra-normal and immoral category of human behavior, there are many who interpretitasanactofself-defence,andajustifiedformofviolenceinthenameofreligion.Indeed,itisdifficulttoarriveinacommondefinitiontoterrorismasthedefinitionofterrorismcanvaryfrompeopletopeopleduetothedifferencesinstandpoint. For example, one country’s terrorist may be another country’s freedom fighter.

b) Secondly, in many contexts ‘terrorism’ used as a synonym for many concepts associated with ‘terrorism’ like rebellion, insurrection, and guerrilla warfare, and civil strife, street battle, war and armed rebellion etc.

c) Thirdly, being a diverse concept consists of multiple characteristics; it is too arduous toarriveatacommondefinitionofterrorism,whichcansatisfactorilycoverallthevaried analyses.

d) Fourthly, state reluctance to identify certain behavior as terrorist behavior due to large national interest. For example, majority of the Afro-Asian states in United Nations conferences have adopted the stand that the struggle of National Liberation Movements for upholding the right to self-determination cannot be equated as terrorism though it was carried out with political motives.21 Studies reveled that states have recognized terrorism as a useful medium of furthering their own foreign policy objectives.

e) Fifthly, theinterfaceofthelaw,politics,andmoralitycreatesdifficultproblemsindefiningterrorism.Forinstance,iftheobjectiveoftheterroristorganizationistoachieveajustifiedactlikerighttoself-determinationitiscarriedoutthroughanactof violence which is totally prohibited by law.

f) Lastly, oneofthereasonswhyterrorismisdifficulttodefineisthatitadoptsan

21 S.R.Sharma,“ADefinitionalApproachtoTerrorism:NeedtoChange”,JournaloftheLegalStudies,Vol.XXXVI, P.117.


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arbitrary stand. Terrorism cannot be equated with the other forms of violence like war as it is predictable whereas terrorism is not predicable and cannot be anticipated. In addition to this, in case of warfare terms and conditions of war is already determined by the parties and in terrorist attacks they can adopt any methodology to create fear in the mind of the people and they are more concerned about the impact of terrorism.

Differentstateshavedifferentviewsonthedefinitiononterrorismasitisdifficulttogetauniversallyacceptabledefinition to the term. In fact, ‘terrorism’ isdifficult todefineprecisely,objectivelyandscientificallyduetovariousreasons.

International Response to Terrorism: An Analysis of the Legal Instruments

Though terrorism is rampant across the country the international response in this regard to combat terrorism has been complex as majority of the states have shown less concern about this social menace. Indeed, the states were overprotective about terrorism bygivingjustificationthatsovereignpowerofthestateissufficienttotackletheproblemof terrorism. An analysis of the measures taken internationally to combat terrorism reveals thattheinternationalcommunity’seffortwasconfinedmainlytoidentifythecharacteristicsofTerrorismratherthanfindingoutthebasiccausestoremedyterrorism.Inadditiontothis,majorityoftheinternationalcommunity’sattempttocombatterrorismwasconfinedmainly to certain kinds22 of terrorism by avoiding newer forms of terrorist attacks.

During the inter-war period the international community has shown concern about the terrorist attacks. At that time, the assassinations of certain international personalities of high stature and the frequent cases of political crimes23 necessitated the international community to take initiatives for the suppression of political crimes. The term terrorism wasforthefirsttimementionedintheinternationallevelwasatthethirdconferenceheldatBrusselsfortheunificationofpenallawsorganizedbytheinternationalassociationofpenallawsin1930.Asubcommitteeofthisconferencedefinedterrorismas“adeliberateuse of means capable of producing a common danger”. Later, with the initiative of League ofNations,theinternationalcommunitygroupedtogetherforthefirsttimein193724 which gavebirth to thefirstUnitedNations’Convention25 against Terrorism. This Convention criminalized incidents involving heads of state and diplomats. This international Conference

22 The international response was mainly for certain terrorist activities like bombing, kidnapping etc. 23 The assassination o King Alexander 1 of Yugoslavia. 24 It was an aafter effect of the assassination of King Alexander I and Louis Bartyho in Marseilles in 1937. 25 It was called the “the 1937 Convention for the Prevention and Punishment of Terrorism’.

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held in Geneva in 1937 adopted one more Convention26 for the establishment of International CriminalCourt.Afterthis,thefirstlegalmeasurestartedwaybackin1972whereinUnitedNations, General Assembly adopted the resolution27 to combat measures for International terrorism.

Following to this28, many countries made a serious attempt to enact legislations topreventterrorismswithintheirnationaljurisdictions”.Duringthefirsttwodecadesofthe United Nations, international terrorism received only tangential attention in General Assembly and Security Council. The measures taken by United Nations to combat Terrorism was with the adoption of two significant International legal instruments:Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) in the year 1948, and the adoption of Convention for the prevention and punishment of crime of genocide shortly known as the Genocide Convention in 1949. The establishment of International Law Commission in 1949 mandated for the draft of the code of offences against peace and security of the mankind and a statute for the international criminal court. Unfortunately, the emergence of the concept of ‘individual responsibility’ rather than ‘state responsibility’ diluted the efforts of the international community to combat terrorism. The aspect of individual responsibility in terrorism cases was supported in the Nuremburg International Military Tribunal Judgment in 1946: Article 1 of the Draft Code of Offences states:

“Crimes against International law are committed by men, not by state entities and only by punishing individuals who commit such crimes can be the provisions of International law be enforced”.

A historical examination about the international legal measures adopted to combat terrorism reveals that their attitude has always been ‘complex’ and inconsistent. Although, the majority of the countries in the world have turned to international law to seek a refuge against terrorism, the response of the International community to ‘terrorism’ has been sporadic. Firstly, the international community has never thought of adopting any measures to eliminate the root/basic causes of ‘terrorism’ but has rather concentrated in identifying the different kinds of terrorism and the various characteristics of terrorist acts by prescribing the legal measures to deal with terrorist acts. Secondly, the international responsehasgenerallybeenspecificandtypicalinnature.Theapproachadoptedbysome

26 Convention for the Creation of International Criminal Court. 27 UN General Assembly, A/C, 6/418, 2 November, 1972 at 1. 28 The resolution stated that “Measures to prevent international terrorism which endangers or takes innocent

human lives or jeopardizes fundamental freedoms and study of the underlying causes of those forms of terrorism and acts of violence which lie in misery, frustration, grievance and despair and which cause some peopletosacrificehumanlivesincludingtheirowninanattempttoeffectradicalchanges”.


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ofthecountriestoresolveterroristactivitiesmainlycorrespondingtothespecificfeaturesof certain manifestations of terrorism. Thirdly, many of the Terrorist regimes have been promptedbytheneedtoprotecttheinnocentvictims.Mostsignificantly,theinternationalcommunity has not come to grips with the problems of effective implementation of these regimes.

At this juncture, it is important to analyses the role of United Nations, the responsible organization established to maintain peace and security in the nation.

United Nations Efforts to combat Terrorism

During that period, the occurrence of certain terrorist attacks29 compelled the United Nations general Assembly to come up with an agenda for anti-terrorism measures. At that timesomeofthethirdworldcountriescamewiththeproposaltofindouttherealcausesfor terrorism rather than concentrating on the anti-terrorism measures. The United Nations anti-terrorism measures can be seen in three ways: Firstly, by encouraging the specialised agencies30 involved in international civil transportation to evolve effective responses to combat terrorism that is endangering international civil transportation. Secondly, by adopting International Conventions combating terrorism and norm setting and by thirdly, by adopting resolutions condemning state participation in terrorism.

The ICAO has catalyzed six treaties31 on aviation terrorism among which the Tokyo Convention 1963, The Hague Convention for the suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft 1970 and the Montreal Convention on the International Marking of Plastic Explosives for the purpose of Detection 1991 was appreciated by the international community on the ground that it had laid down foundation for international law on terrorism. The Tokyo Convention 1963 laid down foundation of all other subsequent conventions dealing with terrorism affecting civil aviation. The Hague Convention for the suppression of Unlawful Seizure ofAircraft 1970was enactedwith a definite objective to prevent hijacking byestablishing the offences of hijacking and obligates states to impose severe penalties against persons who commit the offence. The application was limited to offences committed on

29 The killing of 26 tourists at international airport Israel. 30 They are the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO), International Maritime Organisation (IMO)

and International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).31 Tokyo Convention on the Crimes on Board the Aircraft 1963, the Hague Convention for the suppression of

Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft 1970, The Montreal Convention for the suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Civil Aviation 1971, the Montreal Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts of violence at Air ports Serving International Civil Aviation 1988, and the Montreal Convention on the International Marking of Plastic Explosives for the purpose of Detection 1991.

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board aircraft and does not include acts committed outside the aircraft.

Accordingly, the International Maritime Organisation adopted the Rome/Maritime Convention32, 1988 for the suppression of unlawful acts against the safety of maritime navigation and Rome Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Fixed Platforms located on the Continental Shelf, 1988. The International Atomic Energy Agency adopted the physical protection of Nuclear Materials in 1980 which obligates the state parties to ensure the protection of nuclear material during transportation within their territory or on board heir ships on aircraft. .

During this period, the occurrence of certain terrorist attacks33 necessitated the United Nations General Assembly to adopt stringent measures to prevent international terrorism. This was opposed by some of the countries34 which argued that emphasis should begiventofindoutthevariouscausesofterrorismratherthanfocussingonthemeasuresto combat terrorism. At that time, the United Nations debates centred on mainly on certain important issues on international terrorism. The Norm setting process of United Nations General Assembly was mainly on

i) issues on the principles International friendly relations on terrorism

ii) debates on the inadmissibility of the policy of state terrorism35

iii) the general debates to combat International Terrorism.

The International friendly relations were implemented manly through the General Assembly approved a Declaration36 in principles of International Law Concerning Friendly Relations and Cooperation among States Montreal Convention, 1974 which narrates act of violenceagainstapersononboardanaircraftinflightifthatactislikelytoendangerthesafety of that aircraft and destruction or damage to aircraft in service. Whereas, Montreal Protocol 1988 applied to acts of violence at international airports using any devise, substance or weapon to commit an act of violence against a person at an airport or destroy or seriously damage the facilitiesofanairportoffencesare specific tooffencesnot in servicewhen

32 Article 3 creates the offence Seizing or exercising control over a ship by force or threat of force or other form of intimidation. Acts of violence against a person on board a ship where the act is likely to endanger the safety of navigation, etc.

33 Twenty six tourists were killed at the international airport at Israel, coldblooded massacre at Munich etc. 34 Mainly opposed by the Third World countries. 35 Resolution 39/159 of 1984. Which characterise state terrorism as a violation of Article 2 (4) of the UN

Charter and the Principle of non-intervention.36 Resolution 2656 (XXV) as approved by the General Assembly on October 24 1970.


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located at an airport.

Subsequently one resolution37 two declarations38 to eliminate International Terrorism was enacted that imposes state responsibility to all states to cooperate for the progressive elimination of international terrorism and urged the states to become parties to the various conventions to combat terrorism. To combat a single offence the international community was not successful to enact a uniform Convention to tackle the menace of terrorism, so the countries has to resort back the number of conventions which covers wide range of terrorist activities. The period from 1970 to 2000 has seen the passage of number of conventions to combat terrorism.

The Vienna Conventions on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material 1977 to 1979 (Nuclear Convention, 1979) regulates the non-military uses of nuclear materials and the State parties were obligated to take appropriate measures to ensure protection during domestic use, storage transportation of nuclear materials. Between 197 and 199 the International Atomic Energy Association (IAEA) drafted a Convention on the physical protection of nuclear material. Articles 3, 7 and 14 are the core articles in this Convention. Article 3 requires the states Party to the treaty to take steps to protect nuclear materials according to technical set forth in the annexure to the agreement and also states that nations are required to take special precaution with receivers and senders of such materials including protection by escorts in touch with response forces. Article 7 through 14 requires “states to make such offences of theft of nuclear materials nuclear threats by terrorists, punishable under their law”. These articles also state that a state shall either prosecute the offenders, or extradite them for prosecution. The Vienna Convention represents a positive step in dealing with the threat of nuclear terrorism.

Convention on the Prevention and Combating of Terrorism, 1994 : Considering the purposes and the principles enshrined in the Charter of the organization of African Unity adopted this Convention in order to ensure peace, security and stability among the nations, and for the development of the friendly relations and co-operation39 among members states in the thirteenth ordinary session of the assembly of the head of the states and government of the organization of the African Unity held in June 1994. The International Convention for the Suppression of the financing of Terrorism, 199940 criminalizes the financing of

37 UN Resolution 44/29 adopted on 4 December, 1989. 38 Declaration on measures to eliminate international terrorism, 1994 and he declaration to supplement 1994

declaration. 39 Article 4 of the OAU Convention 1994. 40 AsofJuly2015,thetreatyhasbeenratifiedby187states.

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50

Terrorism under Articles 2 and 3 and establish liability criminal, civil, or administrative of corporationsforfinancingofTerrorism.

Drawbacks of the Conventions

Theseconventionscouldnotgetsufficientnumberofratificationsandcouldnotenter into force.Also, the definition given to International terrorismwas not sufficientto combat terrorism. Also, the descriptions of terrorist activities mentioned under these International conventions were not adequate to address the issue of terrorism and the existence of number of conventions confuses the member states. The imposition of state obligationforprosecutionbutthereisnospecificobligationtopunishtheoffender.Theadvantages of these conventions were that except Civil Aviation Conventions domestic law must provide for extraterritorial jurisdiction over offences by nationals and in some instanceswhere thevictim is anational.Certain international crimeswere identified inwhich victims are innocent Human Beings. Finally, the international community realized that to evolve a concept of coordinating the various state criminal jurisdictions within nationality principle will be a big challenge to combat terrorism.

Unfortunately, it is revealed that the United Nations efforts to mobilize the international community tofight against terrorismand reinforce internationalpeaceandsecurity, for which it took birth was not effective to curb the menace of terrorism. Several legislations have been enacted at the regional level also attempting to curb the menace of terrorism. Majority of these domestic measures failed in carrying out the enforcement action. Firstly, almost all the Conventions dealing with the subject of international terrorism, while defined theactswhichconstitute international terrorism, fail todefine inprecise terms,the criminal acts which are purely to be regarded as ordinary offences and are outside the purview of political offences. Secondly there has to be extradition treaty between the states in question, to initiate the proceeding and thirdly, the concept of sovereignty often makes a state helpless to take any steps to combat terrorism.

Conclusion

While on the regional levels some concrete steps have been taken up besides adoption of the Conventions to prevent and punish the acts of terrorism taking the form ofcrimesagainst thepersonsandrelatedextortionthatareofinternationalsignificance.There is no worldwide Convention to tackle the problem of terrorism in an effective way. Since this is a matter of vital importance to everybody and there are, sincere and joint


51

efforts should be made to take this problem on a world wide scale keeping aside for the time being, all their political, ideological or other differences. It is high time for the globe to understand that terrorism is not a private matter of any state. It has become universal by crossing the borders of the states. Terrorism in all its forms and manifestations has proved to be the scourge to the humanity. The human rights movement cannot survive andflourishwherethereareterroristactivitiesbecausetheyhaveposedaconstantdangerto life and liberty of individual and to security and integrity of the nation. Human rights are the basic rights of individual without which they are not able to develop to their full potential. The State parties to the UN Charter and other UN Conventions have undertaken to help UN in maintaining international peace and security. The state parties to the human rights of individual within their states, hence they should help UN by taking all the possible measures to overcome this challenge.

Thereisanurgentneedtoevolveafunctionaldefinitiontoterrorismwhichfixesresponsibility/liability on states. Some forum should be set up under the aegis of UN which can gather information pertaining to terrorist activities. The traditional concept of ‘state sovereignty’ should not be a hurdle for taking measure for preventing terrorism should not be considered as a matter of domestic jurisdiction as it effects International Peace & Security ICC should be conferred jurisdiction in cases of International Terrorism. The principle of ‘Universal Jurisdiction’ should be made applicable rather than state nationality. There is an urgent need to review the existing legal Conventions on Terrorism.

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Steganography Technique using Chess Puzzle & Block Mapping

Abhishek Bansal*

Abstract

In this paper, a secure data hiding scheme has been proposed using chess puzzle and random block mapping. A substitution cipher algorithm is adopted to select random block in the cover. The mapping is applied on Least Significant Bits (LSB) of randomized pair of block and the difference of multiple eight queen solutions obtained from random blocks. The selection of eight queen solutions in cover block is based on pseudorandom number generator. The proposed method revealed that the nature of algorithm is highly randomize therefore it is difficult to detect the presence of hidden data. The RC4 encryption algorithm provides another layer of security. It is used for encrypting the secret message. The experimental results are shown that the quality of the embedding result will not be degraded. This approach also supports different digital image file formats such as bmp, png and tiff.

Keyword: Information hiding, Steganography, 8-Queen’s puzzle, Pixel Mapping Method, Least Significant Bit (LSB)

Introduction

Nowadays, The Internet is one of the most popular networks to the transmission of a large amount of data. However, it also increases the risk of illegal access and unauthorized tampering with content while transmission data. There are some mechanisms that are useful to guard important data against illegal interception. One of the most important techniques is steganography [1].

* Abhishek Bansal, Assistant Professor, Department of Computer Science, Indira Gandhi National Tribal University, Amarkantak, Madhya Pradesh. Email: [email protected]




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The major goal of steganography is to be hiding a secret information into a covert channel so that no one apart the intended user can conceal the information [2, 3]. A famous steganography model presented by Simmons is the prisoner’s problem [4] as shown in Figure 1. Here, two prisoner Alice and Bob in a jail and plan to escape together. All communication between Alice and Bob is monitored by a warden Wendy. Therefore, they want to hide all communication in innocuous-looking medium (Cover) to obtain the stego object. The stego object is send through a public media where Wendy is free to monitor the stego object.

Figure 1: A Classical Steganographic Model

Therearevarioussteganographytechniquesfordatahiding.Thismaybeclassifiedin two categories based on their algorithms i.e. spatial domain methods and frequency domain methods. In spatial domain, the most widely used data hiding techniques is LSB (LeastSignificantBit)method[5,6].Inthismethod,secretmessagebitsaresubstitutedintotheleastsignificantbitofcoverimagepixels.Thistechniqueiseasiertoimplementbut it can easily have detected. Wang et al. [7] proposed an algorithm to embed secret messages inmoderately significant bit of the cover-image and further proposed a datahiding scheme [8] by the optimal LSB (OLSB) substitution and genetic algorithm. The focus of this scheme not only prevents the quality of processed image from being seriously degraded, but also can simultaneously distortion tolerance. Cheng et al [9] proposed hiding scheme by simple LSB substitution with an optimal pixel adjustment process (OPAP) and further proposed a novel image hiding scheme based on block difference [10]. It is mainly exploring the block correlation between the cover image and secret image. Potdar et al. proposedapixelmappingtechniquebygraylevelmodificationmethod[11].Graylevelmodificationisadatahidingmethodinwhichthesecretdata(nodirectlyembedorhideit)

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are mapped by modifying the gray level values of the image. Muttoo et al. proposed a data hiding method [12] based on pixel mapping using eight queen solutions. This method helps in randomizing the bit selection in cover image for data hiding purpose. Further, proposed another hiding approach based on eight queen’s problems and pixel mapping method [13] for hiding a large capacity into the cover.

Most of the existing methods of steganography focus on the embedding capacity without concern the complex detection of embedded message and security. The proposed work presents a novel technique for Image steganography based on the pixel mapping. The pixel mapping is depending on randomize blocks of the cover image and difference of eight queen’s solutions. The randomize mapping provides high level of security as extraction of secretmessageintothestegoimage.Itisverydifficulttoextractsecretmessagewithoutthe knowledge of pixel mapping rules.

We proposed a new data hiding algorithm which is based on pixel mapping between randomized 8×1-byte block and difference of eight queen solutions. An 8-Queens problem is mathematical puzzle which is to place 8 queens on an 8 x 8 chessboard in such a way that noqueenattacksotherqueens,i.e.findingaconfigurationinwhichthereexistsexactlyonequeen on the same row, same column or along same diagonals [14, 15, 16]. The 8-queen’s problem of placing 8 non-attacking queens on an 8x8 chessboard yield 92 solutions.

The cover image is divided into blocks of 8x1 bytes which is equivalent to 8x8 binarybit planes.ExtractMSBbit positionoffirst 8x8binarybit plane and convert itinto decimal numbers, say it D. For privacy, we take a large positive integer K as a key. Determine mod (K, D) and let the result be R

1 is considered as seed for pseudorandom

numbergenerator.Again,findtherandomnumberS1 using pseudo random generator and calculate mod (S1, 92). Let the result be Q1. Further, Q

1 solution for 8-queen’s problem

isappliedineachbitplaneexcepttheLSBplaneofablock.Similarly,findothersevensolutions form 8×8 binary bit plane, thereby getting 8 patterns each of 7-bits in the range 0 to 127.

Similarly,findother seven randomly selectedqueen solution for8x8binarybitplanes into the cover. Now find the difference in such a way that if difference of 1st Queensolutionpatternfromfirst8x8bitbinaryplaneandsecond8x8bitbinaryplaneisnegativeorzerothenconsiderbit0otherwiseconsideritas1.Afterfindingqueenpatterndifferences in eight-queen solutions, we receive 8 bits. Further, LSB bits from selected blocks are extracted and perform mapping with secret message using pixel mapping rules. Schematic diagram of the proposed algorithm is given in Figure 2. The proposed algorithm


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has been tested with images stored in BMP [17], PNG [18] and TIFF [19] format.

Figure 2: Schematic diagram for data hiding method

The paper is organized in six sections. Section 2 introduces the basics of eight queen problem in 8×8 binary bit block and substitution cipher method for selection block randomly from the cover. Description of proposed embedding and corresponding extraction algorithm is provided in the Section 3. Section 4 illustrates experimental results and observation on the proposed algorithm. Section 5 contains an analysis of algorithms. Finally, section 6 is introducing the conclusions.

Eight Queens Problem

The 8-queen’s problem is the placement of 8 queens on 8×8 chessboard such that none of them is able to attack any other using the standard chess queen moves. Thus a solution requires that no two queens share the same row, column, or diagonal. This is a one of the famous chess-puzzle to putting eight non-attacking queens on a chessboard, which was originally introduced in 1850 by Carl Gauss. Solutions to the 8-queens problem can be represented as an 8-tuples (t1, t2, t3, t4, t5, t6, t7, t8) since each queen must be on a different row and column. The position of a number in the tuple represents the row position of a queen while the value of the number represents the column position of the queen from

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the right in 8x8 Chessboard. Figure 3 shows an 8-tuples, which represents a solution to the 8-queens problem.

Figure 3: One tuple from 8-queens solutions (5, 2, 6, 1, 2, 4, 8, 3)

from top to bottom and right to left

The 8-queen’s problem has 12 unique solutions. A unique solution usually has eight variantsobtainedbyrotatingasolutionby90,180,or270degreesandthenreflectingeachofthefourrotationalvariantsinamirrorinafixedposition.In12uniquesolutionstotheproblem with eight queens on an 8x8 board, exactly one is equal to its own 180-degree rotation, and none is equal to their 90 degree rotation, thus the number of distinct solutions is 11*8 + 1*4 = 92 (where the 8 is derived from four 90-degree rotational positions and theirreflections,andthe4isderivedfromtwo180-degreerotationalpositionsandtheirreflections).Empiricalresultsof8×8queensolutionsareshowninTable1.

1 6 8 3 7 4 2 5 3 7 2 8 5 1 4 6 5 2 4 6 8 3 1 7 6 3 7 2 8 5 1 4 1 7 4 6 8 2 5 3 3 7 2 8 6 4 1 5 5 2 4 7 3 8 6 1 6 3 7 4 1 8 2 51 7 5 8 2 4 6 3 3 8 4 7 1 6 2 5 5 2 6 1 7 4 8 3 6 4 1 5 8 2 7 3 2 4 6 8 3 1 7 5 4 1 5 8 2 7 3 6 5 2 8 1 4 7 3 6 6 4 2 8 5 7 1 3 2 5 7 1 3 8 6 4 4 1 5 8 6 3 7 2 5 3 1 6 8 2 4 7 6 4 7 1 3 5 2 8 2 5 7 4 1 8 6 3 4 2 5 8 6 1 3 7 5 3 1 7 2 8 6 4 6 4 7 1 8 2 5 32 6 1 7 4 8 3 5 4 2 7 3 6 8 1 5 5 3 8 4 7 1 6 2 6 8 2 4 1 7 5 3 2 6 8 3 1 4 7 5 4 2 7 3 6 8 5 1 5 7 1 3 8 6 4 2 7 1 3 8 6 4 2 5 2 7 3 6 8 5 1 4 4 2 7 5 1 8 6 3 5 7 1 4 2 8 6 3 7 2 4 1 8 5 3 6 2 7 5 8 1 4 6 3 4 2 8 5 7 1 3 6 5 7 2 4 8 1 3 6 7 2 6 3 1 4 8 5


57

2 8 6 1 3 5 7 4 4 2 8 6 1 3 5 7 5 7 2 6 3 1 4 8 7 3 1 6 8 5 2 4 3 1 7 5 8 2 4 6 4 6 1 5 2 8 3 7 5 7 2 6 3 1 8 4 7 3 8 2 5 1 6 4 3 5 2 8 1 7 4 6 4 6 8 2 7 1 3 5 5 7 4 1 3 8 6 2 7 4 2 5 8 1 3 6 3 5 2 8 6 4 7 1 4 6 8 3 1 7 5 2 5 8 4 1 3 6 2 7 7 4 2 8 6 1 3 5 3 5 7 1 4 2 8 6 4 7 1 8 5 2 6 3 5 8 4 1 7 2 6 3 7 5 3 1 6 8 2 43 5 8 4 1 7 2 6 4 7 3 8 2 5 1 6 6 1 5 2 8 3 7 4 8 2 4 1 7 5 3 6 3 6 2 5 8 1 7 4 4 7 5 2 6 1 3 8 6 2 7 1 3 5 8 4 8 2 5 3 1 7 4 6 3 6 2 7 1 4 8 5 4 7 5 3 1 6 8 2 6 2 7 1 4 8 5 3 8 3 1 6 2 5 7 43 6 2 7 5 1 8 4 4 8 1 3 6 2 7 5 6 3 1 7 5 8 2 4 8 4 1 3 6 2 7 5 3 6 4 1 8 5 7 2 4 8 1 5 7 2 6 3 6 3 1 8 4 2 7 5 3 6 8 1 5 7 2 43 6 8 1 4 7 5 2 5 1 4 6 8 2 7 3 6 3 5 7 1 4 2 8 6 3 5 8 1 4 2 7

Table 1: 92 solutions for the 8-queens problem

Proposed Scheme

The proposed algorithm consists of four parts: determination of random-block using substitution cipher method, selection of eight queen solutions in each block using pseudorandom generator methods, embedding algorithm based on pixel mapping rules and extraction algorithm. The main objective of this paper is to develop a secure hide hiding approach so that the detection of secret message is become complex for steganalyst. We divide the image into various blocks, each block of size 8×1 bytes. This is to be equivalent to 8 × 8 binary bit planes as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4: 8×8 binary bit plane using 8×1 pixel block from cover image

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Substitution cipher method for selection of blocks randomly

Before presenting the steganography, technique using pixel mapping method, the substitution cipher method is applied for selection of randomized block from the cover. The selection of randomize blocks is based on bisection (one-to-one and onto) mapping function presented as follows. Let us assume that 8×1 blocks into the cover are numbered sequentially from 0 to n-1, where n is the total number of 8×1 blocks in the image. Let the size of the cover image is R×C, where R is number of rows and C is the number of columns. Then n can be calculated as n= (R×C) / 8. The embedding sequence in 8×1 blocks of the cover is started on randomized location which is calculated by substitution cipher method such as -

F(x) = (k0 + k1×x)modn where0≤x<nand

gcd(k1, n) =1

where k0 and k1 are two constants which are considered as keys and gcd means greatest common divisor.

The difference between eight queen solutions in randomized block

To achieve a better embedding complexity, eight queen solutions are recognized from 8×8 binary bit plane using pseudorandom number generator as discussed in Section 2. The number of eight queen solutions in 8×8 binary bit plane is 92. Therefore, we select 8solutionsofeightqueenproblemineachblockrandomlyandthenfindthedifferencebetween queen’s solutions from randomly selected pair of block. The difference between eight queen solutions in randomized block is given by following characteristic equations –

>≤

=01

00

i

ii dif

difDQ

Afterfindingthedifferencein8solutionsofeightqueenproblem,thecorrespondingbits are collected as string and stored as DQi. The semantic diagram is shown in Figure 4.


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Figure 4: The block diagram to show how to choose bit by

inter-block difference in eight queen solution

Pixel Mapping Method

In the proposed method, the secret information is embedded using pixel mapping rules. The mapping is based on randomly selected blocks and the difference between randomly selected queen’s solutions discussed in Section 3.2. First Two random blocks are choosen using substitution cipher method. Let B1,i and B2,ibetheLSBbitsofthefirstblock and second block where i is the pixel position into the 8×1 blocks. The differences between queen solutions are represented as DQi. Then, the rules for pixel mapping are presented in Table 2.

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Information to be embedded

Pixel Mapping Rules Bit to be changed

00 0,0, ,21 =⊕=⊕ iiii BDQDQB No Change

1,0, ,21 =⊕=⊕ iiii BDQDQB Change in Second Block

0,1, ,21 =⊕=⊕ iiii BDQDQB Change in First Block

1,1, ,21 =⊕=⊕ iiii BDQDQB Change in Both Block

01 0,0, ,21 =⊕=⊕ iiii BDQDQB Change in Second Block

1,0, ,21 =⊕=⊕ iiii BDQDQB No Change



10 0,0, ,21 =⊕=⊕ iiii BDQDQB Change in First Block




11 0,0, ,21 =⊕=⊕ iiii BDQDQB Change in Both Block


0,1, ,21 =⊕=⊕ iiii BDQDQB Change in Second Block


Table 2: Pixel Mapping Rules

Embedding Algorithm

The proposed algorithm takes a digital image as cover and hides a secret message within the image. An image is a sequence of 8 x 1 bytes i.e. 8 x 8 bit planes as shown in


61

the Figure 4. An 8-queen problem has 92 solutions as explained in the Section 2. Solutions are stored in two-dimensional array of size 92 × 8. The 8x8 board is scanned from right to left. Rightmost column is indexed as 1 and leftmost column as 8. The way a solution is stored is shown in the Figure 3.

Let the message be M. M is a string of characters. While embedding messages M in an image cover C, C is divided into 8x1 bytes i.e. consider 8x8 bit plane blocks. Now, the substitution cipher method is used to select 8x1 bytes block randomly. Extract MSB bitpositionoffirst8x8binarybitplaneandconvert it intodecimalnumbers,say itD.For privacy, we take a large positive integer K as a key. Determine mod (K, D) and let the result be R

1isconsideredasseedforpseudorandomnumbergenerator.Againfindthe

random number S1 using pseudo random generator and calculate mod (S1, 92). Let the result be Q1. Further, Q

1 solution for 8-queen’s problem is applied in each bit plane except the

LSBplane.Similarly,findothersevensolutionsform8×8binarybitplane,therebygetting8patternseachof7-bitsintherange0to127.Nowfindthedifferenceinsuchawaythatif difference of 1stQueensolutionpatternfromfirst8x8bitbinaryplaneandsecond8x8bitbinaryplaneisnegativeorzerothenconsiderbit0otherwiseconsideritas1.Afterfindingthe difference of queen patterns, we receive 8 bits. Further, LSB bits from selected blocks are extracted and perform mapping corresponding to secret message M using pixel mapping rules proposed in this paper and shown in Table 2. The stego key can be either embed in image or send separately. The stepwise algorithm is outlined below.

Embedding Algorithm

Step 1: Take cover image C and divide it into 8×1 byte blocks which is equivalent to 8x8 bit planes c

iwhere1≤i≤n.Initializeiwith1.

Step 2: Initialize an array Q with all the 92 solutions of 8-queens problem in the way explained in the Figure 2.

Step 3: Take the secret message M and store each of its m characters Bj as 8-bit ASCII

number.

Step 4: Find two random locations by substitution cipher method and select corresponding two 8x8 bit planes.

Step 5: Take a large integer as a Key k1.

Step 6: Takefirst8x8bitsblockci of cover C and do following

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6.1 Extract MSB bit from 8x8 bits block ci and convert it into decimal number

di

6.2 Find mod (k1,

di) and store result in R1.

6.3 Find mod (R1, 92) and store result in R

2.

6.4 Let i = 1

6.5 For X = R2 to R

2 + 7

6.6.1 Extract 7 bits (except LSB) from ci corresponding to Q[X], let it be E

1[i]

6.6.2 i = i + 1

6.6.3 Next X

Step 7: Take next 8x8 random bits block ci of cover C and do following


di.

7.2 Find mod (k1,

di) and store result in R

1.

7.3 Find mod (R1,

92) and store result in R2.

7.4 Let i=1

7.5 For X = R2 to R

2 + 7


2[i]

7.5.2 i = i+1

7.5.3 Next X

7.6 For i = 1 to 8

7.6.1 Find diff = E1[i] – E

2[i] such as

7.6.1.1 if (diff <= 0) then Consider bit 0 and store it in QDi.

7.6.1.2 if (diff > 0) then consider bit 1 and store it in QDi.


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7.6.2 Next i

Step 8: Take two ASCII character from message Mj. Convert it into 16 bit binary sequence.

Let the result be Ai. Further, Extract LSB bits from both randomly selected 8×8 bit blocks ci and let the result be B1,i and B2,i .

8.1 Forpixelmapping,takefirsttwobitsfromAi, Let it be Wi

8.2 For k= 1 to 8

8.2.1. If Wi ==00

If B1,i ⊕ DQi == 0 && DQi ⊕ B2,i == 0

No Change

Else if B1,i ⊕ DQi == 0 && DQi ⊕ B2,i == 1

Flip the bit of B2,i


Flip the bit of B1,i


Flip the both LSB bit B1,i & B2,i

8.2.2. If Wi == 01

If B1,i ⊕ DQi == 0 && DQi ⊕ B2,i == 0

Flip the bit B2,i


No Change




Flip the LSB bit B1,i

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64

8.2.3. If Wi == 10

If B1,i ⊕ DQi == 0 && DQi ⊕ B2,i == 0

Flip the bit B1,i




No Change



8.2.4. If Wi == 11

If B1,i ⊕ DQi == 0 && DQi ⊕ B2,i == 0





Flip the both LSB bit B2,i


No Change

8.3. Take next two bits from Ai and store in Wi

8.4. Next k

Step 9: Go to step 4 and look for hiding next two characters Bj+2 in the next two 8x8 bits block c

i+2.

Extraction Algorithm


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Once the stego image is received at the receiver end, the extraction of hidden message is initiated by using the similar algorithm as outline below.

Step 1: Divide Stego image C into 8×8 bit block, say ci. Let the number of block in C be

n.

Step 2: Initialize an array Q with all the 92 solutions of 8-queens problem in the way explained in the Figure 3. Initialize message index j = 1 and message array M.

Step 3: Find two random locations by substitution cipher method and select corresponding two 8x8 bit blocks.

Step 4: Get Key k1.

Step 5:Takefirst8x8bitsblockci of cover C and do following


di.

5.2 Find mod (k1, di) and store result in R

1.

5.3 Find mod (R1,


5.4 Let i = 1

5.5 For X = R2 to R

2 + 7


1[i]

5.5.2 i = i + 1

Step 6: Take next 8x8 bits block ci of cover C and do following


di.

6.2 Find mod (k1,

di) and store result in R

1.

6.3 Find mod (R1,


6.4 Let i = 1

6.5 For X = R2 to R

2 + 7

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6.5.1 Extract 7 bits (except LSB) from ci corresponding to Q[X], let it be

E2[i]

6.5.2 i = i+1

6.5.3 Next X

6.6 For i = 1 to 8

6.6.1 Find diff = E1[i] – E

2[i] such as

6.6.2 if (diff <= 0) then Consider bit 0 and store in QDi

6.6.3 if (diff > 0) then consider bit 1 and store in QDi

6.6.4 Next i

Step 7: Extract LSB bit from both 8x8 bits block ci. Let the binary sequence be B1,i & B1,j.

Step 8: For each binary bit from B1,i & B1,j do the following

8.1. Find B1,i ⊕ DQi, Let the concatenate the result from Qi

8.2. Find B2,i ⊕ DQi and concatenate the result from Qi.

Step 9: Convert 16 bits result Qi into its equivalent two ASCII code then store it in M[j] &

M[j+1]; increment j+2 then repeat step 3 for next random binary bit blocks.

Experimental Results

The performance of the presented algorithm is evaluated by using number of image storedindifferentfilesformatslikeBMP,TIFFandPNG.Toassessthevisualqualityofan image after embedding, we use the Peak-Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR) as the measure ofdistortionduetodatahiding.ThePSNRisdefinedasfollows:

,255

log102

10dB

MSEPSNR ×=

,3

BGR MSEMSEMSEMSE

++=


67

21

0

1

0

)),('),(( jiIjiXMSE r

M

i

N

jrR −= ∑ ∑

−

=

−

=

where X𝑟 (𝑖, j) and I’r (𝑖, j) represent the pixel values on the original image and the stego image located at (𝑖, 𝑗) respectively. M and N represent the height and width respectively, of the images. The PSNR value of greater than 30dB is considered as safe value for retaining the similarity between cover and stego images. In this case, it is hard to distinguish stego images from its corresponding cover image through human eyes. Experiments have been performed using MATLAB 9.0. We have tested the algorithm on anumberofimagesofvariablesizes.Theimageswhichwehavespecificallyincludedinthis paper are from the website. Some of the many images which have been used for testing algorithm are shown in Figure 5. All of these test images are 256×256-pixel size. The summaries of experimental results obtained from the implementation of MATLAB based on proposed algorithms are summarized below:

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

(v) (vi) (vii) (viii)

Figure 5: Cover Image (i) Lena.bmp (ii) Baboon.bmp (iii) Papper.bmp (iv) Mountain.png (v) Parrot.png (vi) Jet.bmp (vii) Camramen.tif (viii) Fisherboat.bmp

Sl. No.

Image PSNR Embedding Capacity(bit per pixel)

1 Lena.bmp (24 bit) 51.3687 1 bpp

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2 Baboon.bmp (24 bit) 51.3902 1 bpp

3 Pepper.bmp (24 bit) 51.3284 1 bpp

4 Mountain.png (24 bit) 51.2451 1 bpp

5 Parrot.png (24 bit) 51.3698 1 bpp

6 Jet.bmp(24 bit) 51.3603 1 bpp

7 Camramen.tif (8 bit) 51.3624 1 bpp

8 Fisherboat.bmp (8 bit) 51.3423 1 bpp

Table 3: PSNR and Embedding Capacity of different tested image

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

(v) (vi) (vii) (viii)

Figure 6: Stego Image (i) Lena.bmp (ii) Baboon.bmp (iii) Papper.bmp (iv) Mountain.png (v) Parrot.png (vi) Jet.bmp (vii) Camramen.tif (viii) Fisherboat.bmp

Further, the comparison of the PSNR made from different LSB hiding algorithm [7] such as OPAP, LSB and OLSB. This is shown in Table 3.

Cover Image OPAP LSB OLSB Our MethodLena 51.1299 51.1299 51.1524 51.3687Baboon 51.1415 51.1415 51.1415 51.3902Pepper 51.1190 51.1191 51.1291 51.3284


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Jet 51.1448 51.1448 51.1448 51.3603Camramen.tif 51.0234 51.3742 51.1863 51.3110Fishermen 51.1670 51.1082 51.1295 51.3295

Table 3: PSNR Comparison of various data hiding method based on LSB

Steganalysis

Steganalysis and steganography techniques evolve side by side. A new stenographic technique is evaluated for its robustness, imperceptibility and capacity. Goal of Steganalysis is to detect the secret information and to break the security of its carriers [15]. As in modern cryptography, it is common to assume that Kerckhoffs’ principle [16] is obeyed in digital steganography. According to the principle, a stenographic algorithm for embedding a secret message into a cover and extraction algorithm from the corresponding stego should be known to public. Security and privacy of the hidden information is achieved solely through secret keys shared by the communication partners.

Though the presented hiding approach in this paper utilised LSB at some stage, the message is mapped with the LSB bits of two bit planes and difference between eight queen’s solutions. The selection for eight queen solution number is based on a secret key. Sincethekeyselectedisrandomanditisaverylargeinteger,itisverydifficulttofindeight queen’s solution number without knowing the key. Without knowing eight queen’s solutionnumberininter-blockpixel,itisverydifficulttodetectthemessagefromCover.

Conclusion

The pixel mapping based stenographic algorithm presented in this paper, randomizes the selection of 8-queen’s solution and then encrypts the given messages before hiding it. The process provides both security and privacy to the secret message. The hiding methodology presented in the paper hides relationship among secret message bytes, LSB bits of random pixel blocks and difference of eight queen solutions differences. Today various digital data formats are used in steganography. Most popular among them are bmp, doc, png, jpeg, mp3, txt and wav because of the relative ease by which redundant or noisy data can be removed from them and replaced with a hidden message. BMP, PNG and TIFF types of images are taken as cover in this paper for illustrative purposes. The proposed algorithm is tested with respect to retention of image quality in stego and robustness with respect to capacity of payload. Experimental result is provided in the Section 4. Our experimental

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results have shown that the proposed method provides good image quality. The proposed algorithm may be further extended to other types of images.

References

[1] Johnson, Neil F., and Stefan Katzenbeisser. “A survey of steganographic techniques.” Information hiding. Norwood, MA: Artech House, 2000.

[2] Katzenbeisser, Stefan, and Fabien AP Petitcolas. “Defining security insteganographic systems.” Electronic Imaging 2002. International Society for Optics and Photonics, 2002.Feng, J.B., Lin, I.C., Tsai, C.S., Chu, Y.P., (2006).

[3] Raja, K. B., et al. “A secure image steganography using LSB, DCT and compression techniques on raw images.” Intelligent Sensing and Information Processing, 2005. ICISIP 2005. Third International Conference on. IEEE, 2005.

[4] Anderson, Ross J., and Fabien AP Petitcolas. “On the limits of steganography.” Selected Areas in Communications, IEEE Journal on 16.4 : 474-481, 1998

[5] Mielikainen, Jarno. “LSB matching revisited.” Signal Processing Letters, IEEE13.5 (2006): 285-287.

[6] Chan, Chi-Kwong, and Lee-Ming Cheng. “Hiding data in images by simple LSB substitution.” Pattern recognition 37, no. 3 (2004): 469-474.

[7] Wang, Ran-Zan, Chi-Fang Lin, and Ja-Chen Lin. “Hiding data in images by optimal moderately-significant-bit replacement.” Electronics Letters 36, no. 25 (2000): 2069-2070.

[8] Lin, Iuon-Chang, Yang-Bin Lin, and Chung-Ming Wang. “Hiding data in spatial domain images with distortion tolerance.” Computer Standards & Interfaces 31, no. 2 (2009): 458-464.

[9] Chan, Chi-Kwong, and Lee-Ming Cheng. “Hiding data in images by simple LSB substitution.” Pattern recognition 37, no. 3 (2004): 469-474.

[10] Li, Suk-Ling, Kai-Chi Leung, Lee Ming Cheng, and Chi-Kwong Chan. “A novel image-hiding scheme based on block difference.” Pattern Recognition 39, no. 6 (2006): 1168-1176.


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[11] Potdar, Vidyasagar M., and Elizabeth Chang. “Grey level modificationsteganography for secret communication.” In Industrial Informatics, 2004. INDIN’04. 2004 2nd IEEE International Conference on, pp. 223-228. IEEE, 2004.

[12] Muttoo, Sunil Kumar, Vinay Kumar and Abhishek Bansal. “Secure Data Hiding Using Eight Queens Solutions.” IJISP 6.4 (2012): 55-70.

[13] Abhishek bansal, S. K. Muttoo, V. Kumar, Data Hiding approach based on Eight-Queens Problem and Pixel Mapping Method, International Journal of Signal Processing and pattern recognition, Vol.7 No. 5, pp 47-58, 2014

[14] Bell,Jordan and Stevens,Brett,(2009), ‘ A survey of known results and research area for n-queens’,Discrete mathematics, Vol. 309, No. 1, pp 1-31

[15] M.Reichling,(1987),“Asimplifiedsolutionofthenqueens’sproblem”,Inform.Process. Lett. 25, 253-255.

[16] C. Erbas, S. Sarkeshik, and M. M. Tanik. ,(1992),“Different perspectives of the n-queens problem”. In Proceedings of the ACM, Computer Science Conference.

[17] Staples, Tanya; Weinman, Lynda (2005), Adobe Photoshop CS2 for the web: hands on Training. Peachpit Press.

[18] Shih Y. Frank, (2008), “Digital Watermarking and Steganography”, CRC Press

[19] Muttoo, S.K. and Kumar, V., (2010) ‘ Hamiltonian Graph Approach to Steganography’, International Journal of Electronic Security and Digital Forensic, Inderscience, Vol.3, No. 4, pp. 311-332

[20] R. Bohme, (2010), “Advanced Statistical Steganalysis”, Springer

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Influence of Organizational Development on Financial Improvements

Madhu Arora1

Miklesh Prasad yadav2

Abstract

The greater competitiveness, uncertainty and customer’s preferences of today’s environment have compelled organizations to alter drastically the way in which they operate. The events of each day remind us that things are moving far more quickly and unpredictably than we could ever have imagined. Organizational Development (OD) is applicable to the changes in strategy, structure, and/or processes of an entire system of organization. OD is based on the utilization and transfer of behavioral science knowledge and practice, including micro concepts, such as leadership, group dynamics, and work design as well as macro approaches, OD is concerned with managing planned change. To a great extent, financial resource is the building block of these organizational development and change. The purpose of the present paper is to study the linkage between financial improvements and organizational development and changes. Perceptual data on organizational development towards business financial improvements were collected from 300 corporate employees through primary data – questionnaire survey. A composite measure of OD was obtained by aggregating survey questionnaire. Six factors have been extracted using Factor Analysis out of ten factors. These factors have been tested by using Structured Modeling Equation.

Keywords: Organizational Development, Financial Improvements, Employee Productivity, Change Management

1 Madhu Arora, Assistant Professor, Rukmini Devi Institute of Advanced Studies, New Delhi Email: [email protected]

2 Miklesh Prasad yadav, Assistant Professor, Rukmini Devi Institute of Advanced Studies, New Delhi Email: [email protected]




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Introduction

Organizationdevelopmentisbothaprofessionalfieldofsocialdeedandanareaofscientificinquiry.ThepracticeofODcoversawidespectrumofactivities,withseeminglyendless variations upon them. Team building with top corporate management, structural changeinamunicipality,andjobenrichmentinamanufacturingfirmareallexamplesofOD. Similarly, the study of OD addresses a broad range of topics, including the effects of change,themethodsoforganizationalchange,andthefactorsinfluencingODsuccess.ODis oriented to improving organizational effectiveness. Effectiveness is best measured along threedimensions.First,ODaffirmsthataneffectiveorganizationisadaptable;itisabletosolve its own problems and focus attention and resources on achieving key goals. OD helps organization members gain the skills and knowledge necessary to conduct these activities by involvingtheminthechangeprocess.Second,aneffectiveorganizationhashighfinancialandtechnicalperformance,includingsalesgrowth,acceptableprofits,qualityproductsandservices, and high productivity. OD helps organizations achieve these ends by leveraging social science practices to lower costs, improve products and services, and increase productivity.Finally,aneffectiveorganizationhassatisfiedandloyalcustomersorotherexternalstakeholdersandanengaged,satisfied,andlearningworkforce.Theorganization’sperformance responds to the needs of external groups, such as stockholders, customers, suppliers, and government agencies, which provide the organization with resources and legitimacy. Moreover, it can attract and motivate effective employees, who then perform at higher levels. Other forms of organizational change clearly differ from OD in their focus. Managementconsulting,forexample,primarilyaddressesfinancialperformance,whereasoperations management or industrial engineering focuses on productivity. OD is both a professionalfieldofsocialactionandanareaofscientificinquiry.Itinvolvesthecreationand the subsequent reinforcement of change by using four major interventions: techno structural, human process, human resource management and strategic intervention.

It is intended to improve how organizations relate to their external environments and function internally to attain high performance and high quality of work lifeSekeran (1989), view organization as a purposeful system with several sub- systems where individuals and activities are organized to achieve certain pre- determined goals through division of labour and coordination of activities. Robison (1990), in his view of organization, sees organization asconsciouslycoordinatedsocialentitywitharelativelyidentifiableboundarythatfunctionson a relatively continuous basis to achieve a common goal or a set of goals. In essence, thetermOrganizationDevelopmentidentifiesthestagesthroughwhichorganizationspassthrough in the process of their development. We could say that organization development

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is the way organizations change, evolve and achieve corporate goals.

Organization development is done to care so many aspects in any organization. Outofthem,financialimprovementisonepurpose.MajorityoforganizationsimplementODtomaximizetheirwealthconsideringthebettermentofshareholders.Simply,financialimprovement is nothing but outcome of efforts put by organization in order to make wealth maximization.Infinancialterm,itistheincreaseofprofitabilitythanexistingcondition.In current juncture of fast pace of development, every organization has started to develop theirorganizationadoptingcertainadditionalmodificationofitsorganizationalstructures.Inthisresearchpaper,ithasbeenshownhowODisassociatedwithfinancialimprovementof organization.

Organization Development

Financial Improvement

Competitive Advantage

Innovation

Literature Review

Worren & Ruddle & Moore (1999) explored about how over the year persons have moves from organizational development to a more holistic view which is change management. According to this research paper, the tools& techniques used in change management and organizational development are the same but the rationale behind it is different. For example, attitude surveys are used in both. In organizational development, it was used to gauge job satisfaction and the climate of the organization but in change management it is part of a strategy adopted and holistic change program.

Van de Ven & Poole (1995) through their research gave a theoretical overview of howdevelopmentandchangemanagementbasicallyoccurs.Theresearchpaperclassifiesfour types’ development theories namely; life- cycle theory, teleological theory, dialectical theory and evolutionary theory. The authors were of the opinion that these basic theories can be used to explain how change occurs in the organization. To explain that they developed a frameworkwiththesefourtheoriesandclassifiedcompaniesbasedonthemodeandunitof

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change at various levels of organizational development. It was concluded that organization grew in size the motors of change also get more complex because comes into play at once.

Bloodgood & Salisbury (2001) talks about that organizations’ can implement change and gain and secure a competitive advantage but this cannot be achieved by knowledge creation alone. Knowledge transfer and knowledge protection is quite important. The authors used the Resource-Based View (RBV) to explain how both types of information i.e. explicit and tacit can contribute in the change process and how they can be transferred toachievelong-termbenefit.Inthepaper,researcheridentifiedknowledgecreationasatool which is based on creativity and a shared knowledge between a group of people which can be used to make new products as well as management strategies. The authors went on to stress that it is not just creating knowledge. It would be of no use if other can get that information from your company easily or it can be altered. So the protection of the knowledge is equally important for a business to remain competitive. Therefore, security and legal measure should be used to ensure its safety.

Madsen et al. (2005) found positive relationships between employee readiness, organizational commitment and social relationships in the workplace in their Canadian study. Results also described the relationships between readiness and the number of children, social relationships and gender and organizational commitment and employee age, educational level and gender.

Robbins (2003), views Organization Development as collection of planned change interventions built on humanistic democratic values that seek to improve organizational effectiveness and employees’ well-being. In many sectors today, work processes are changing at a much f aster pace as organizations f ace the challenges and pressure of rapidly changing technology, globalization, uncertainty, unpredictability, and turbulent business environment, John (2012).

In an age of global competition, technological innovation, turbulence, discontinuity, even chaos, change is inevitable and necessary. The global economy seems so tightly inter-connected that a hiccup in one nation, or industry, creates a cough in another, Haines (2013).

Objectives of the Study

1. To study different outcome of organizational development in organization.


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2. To examine the relationship between organizational development and financialimprovement.

Research Questions

1. Is employee performance a result of sound organizational development strategy and policy?

2. IsOrganizationdevelopmentamechanismtoimprovefinancialoutcome?

Research Hypotheses

Ho:OrganizationalDevelopmentdoesnothavepositiveimpactonfinancialperformance.

Ha:OrganizationalDevelopmenthaspositiveimpactonfinancialperformance.

Research Methodology

Research Design

The current study assesses the influence of organization development onorganizationalfinancialperformanceaswellasemployeeproductivity.Hence,descriptiveresearch design is adopted to describe the relationship between OD and Financial improvements as it is concerned with collection of data for the motive of interpreting in course of drawing inference based on the data analysis obtained through a survey method.

Sample Size and Sampling Method

Respondents 300, convenience sampling method

Research instrument

Structured questionnaire instrument is used as research instrument which is divided into two sections. Section A covered personal information of respondents while section B consistedofitemsrelatedtothehypothesis.Afive-pointratingscalewasusedinordertoget respondents’ opinion on the items and issues.


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Research Framework

Organizational Development → Financial

Improvement →

Amount of investment

ImplicationofProfitability

Risk and Reward Momentum

Impact on Goodwill

Increase of return on investment

Competitive & Strategic advantage

Maximization of opportunity

Data Analysis and Interpretation

The present study is descriptive and empirical. The researchers intended to study theinfluenceofOrganizationaldevelopmentonfinancialimprovement;henceresearchercollected information from people who are working in different companies located in Delhi through questionnaire research instrument. Financial improvement has been studied withthehelpofemployeeproductivityandfinancialperformance.Thequestionnairewassegmented into three sections as per used dimensions; the first part was pertaining todemographic characteristics of respondents including name, age, education, marital status. Theremainingsectionincludedtwodifferentdimensionsindetail,firstlyquestionsrelatedto employee productivity which is composed of different 11 questions. The second part was relatedtofinancialperformancewhichiscomposedofdifferent10questions.Followingarethe tables which depict detail of different structure of questionnaire:

Table 1: Questionnaire Structure

Section Code Section Name No. of Questions

Scale Used

A - Respondents Demographics ----

B FP Evaluating perspective on Financial Performance

10 Likert


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Table 2: Numerical code for questions

Scale Strongly Disagree

Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

Numerical Code

1 2 3 4 5

Table 3: Respondent Demographics

Demographic Variables Number Percentage

Age

Between (20-30) years old 81 27




Above 60 years old 3 1

Gender

Male 209 69.66

Female 91 30.33

Educational Background

Higher Secondary Education 11 4

Bachelor Degree 163 54

PG Degree 126 42

Marital Status

Single 69 23

Married 231 77


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Figure 1: Factor Analysis Decision Diagram

Empirical Results from Financial Improvements Perspective

The purpose of applying factor analysis is to consider the interrelationships among demographic factors and later explaining them in terms of common factor. The advantage of using factor analysis is that it takes into account all the 10 variables simultaneously. Here, every variable is considered dependent variable which is function of a hypothetical set of factors. “R” factor analysis has been used. KMO and Bartlett’s test has been used to check the suitability of factor analysis for this question. KMO is more than 0.5, hence, it is suitable to run factor analysis and it should yield distinct and reliable factors. It can be said that the strength of the relationship among variables is strong. Hence, we have gone aheadwiththefactoranalysisofthedata.Figure1showstheflowchartofthediscussiononfactor analysis.


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Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. .729

Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity Approx. Chi-Square 426.234

Df 45

Sig. .000

Figure 2: KMO and Bartlett’s Test

Component matrix simply represents the correlation between variable and component whichrangesbetween-1to+1.Itisclearlyseenfromfigure3thatlongtermprofitability(0.752),shorttermprofitability(0.687)andMarketpricepershare(0.569),competitiveadvantage(0.50),Returnoninvestment(0.404)andwaysofopportunities(0.416)reflectthegoodcombinationinfinancialimprovementvariablebecausetheircomponentloadingfactor are more than 0.3It means rests of the factors are not good combinations that can reflectedintermsofloadings.

Component

1 2 3 4

Huge amount of investment -.792 .161 -.154 -.112

Longtermprofitability .752 .136 .153 .497

Shorttermprofitability .687 -.153 -.206 -.086

Risk Momentum -.679 .016 .605 .119

Market price per share .569 .283 .563 -.221

Increase of Goodwill .018 .898 -.138 -.218

Return on Investment .404 -.786 .048 .173

Competitive Advantage .0.50 .640 .044 .428

Misbalance in working capital -.447 -.032 .528 .397

Way of Opportunities .416 -.098 .465 -.698

Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.a. 4 components extracted.

Figure 3: Component Matrixa

Figure 4 lists the Eigen values associated with each of the 10 linear factors before extraction, after extraction and after rotation.Thefirst factor explains 32.17%of totalvariance. It canbe said that thefirst few factors (first to fourth) explain largeamountsof variance and subsequent factors explain only small portion of the total variance. After


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extraction, considering factors with Eigen values of greater than 1 leaves us with four factors which explain 77.35% of total variance. This can be seen under the heading “Extraction sums of squared loadings”. The values after rotation are shown under the heading “Rotation sumsofsquaredloadings”infigure4.Rotationoptimizesthefactorstructureandrelativeimportanceofthefirstfourfactorswhichearlierexplainedatotalof77.35%ofvarianceis now equalized. Before rotation, factor two accounted for considerably more variance than the remaining three factors. However after extraction it accounts only 41.63%. As we have seen, PCA assumes that all variance is common and hence one can observe initial communalities to be equal to 1. The communalities represented in the column named extractionreflectthecommonvarianceinthedata.

Figure 4: Total Variance Explained

Com

ponent

Initial EigenvaluesExtraction Sums of Squared

LoadingsRotation Sums of Squared

Loadings

Total% of

VarianceCumulative

% Total% of

VarianceCumulative

% Total% of

VarianceCumul-ative %

1 3.217 32.174 32.174 3.217 32.174 32.174 2.175 21.749 21.7492 1.991 19.910 52.084 1.991 19.910 52.084 1.988 19.883 41.6323 1.291 12.911 64.995 1.291 12.911 64.995 1.978 19.778 61.4104 1.236 12.355 77.350 1.236 12.355 77.350 1.594 15.940 77.3505 .836 8.359 85.7106 .656 6.559 92.2697 .264 2.645 94.9148 .230 2.296 97.2099 .183 1.832 99.04110 .096 .959 100.000Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.

After extracting the factors with the help of Factor Analysis, these factors have beentestedusingSEM.ChiSquare(CMIN)isthemeasureforevaluatingoverallmodelfidandassessthemagnitudeofdiscrepancybetweenthesampleandfittedcovariancematrices.AsperFigure4,CMINis2.770whichislessthan5hencethemodelisfittoapplyinthiscurrent study.

Model NPAR CMIN DF P CMIN/DF

Default model 14 .000 0

Saturated model 14 .000 0


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Model NPAR CMIN DF P CMIN/DF

Independence model 4 27.701 10 .002 2.770

Figure 4: CMIN/DF

Out of six extracted variables, four factors (Innovation, Market price per share, competitiveadvantageandlongtermprofitability)havebeentestedincurrentstudy.Asperfigure5,estimatepvalueofmarketpricepershareandinnovationis-.047whichlessthan0.05hence,innovationisnotcontributingtofinancialimprovementinthiscurrentstudy.As far as the relationship between markets price per share and competitive advantage is concerned, its p estimate value is 0.263 and composite reliability is 3.090 which are more than 0.05 and 0.7 hence, it can has been seen that market price per share is driven by competitiveadvantage.Thethirdoneismarketpriceandlongtermprofitwhosepestimateis .124 and composite reliability is 1.064 which are more than 0.05 and 0.7 hence it market pricepershareandlongtermprofitabilityissignificant.

Figure 5: Composite Reliability

Estimate S.E. C.R. P Label

Marketprice <--- Innovation -.047 .098 -.479 .632

Marketprice <--- Comptadv .263 .085 3.090 .002

Marketprice <--- LTprofit .124 .116 1.064 .287

Conclusion

Organization development is done to care so many aspects in any organization. Outofthem,financialimprovementisonepurpose.MajorityoforganizationsimplementODtomaximizetheirwealthconsideringthebettermentofshareholders.Simply,financialimprovement is nothing but outcome of efforts put by organization in order to make wealth maximization. In current juncture of fast pace of development, every organization has started to develop their organization adopting certain additionalmodification of itsorganizational structures. In current study, different ten factors have been constructed out of which six factors have been extracted by using factor analysis. Four factors have been taken care to test the hypothesis by using Structured Equation Modeling. It has been seen that Marketpricepershare,competitiveadvantage,longtermprofitabilityarebeingaffectedbyorganizational development. Hence it can be said that there is positive relationship between organizationaldevelopmentandfinancialimprovementonthebasisofstructuredequationmodeling test.


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References

[1] Banerjee Indrajit (2015) A strategic perspective on organizational change and development for sustainable growth, International Journal of Research volume II, Issue I ISSN: 2348-6112

[2] Bill Cooke (2012) The past, present and future of organization development: Taking the long view, Journal of Human Relation, Vol 65 no 11, 2012

[3] BloodgoodM.James(2001)Understandingtheinfluenceoforganizationalchangestrategies on information technology and knowledge management strategies, volume 31 issue 1, pages 55-69

[4] Bullock, R.J. and Batten, D. (1985) ‘It’s just a phase we’re going through: a review and

[5] synthesis of OD phase analysis’, Group and Organization Studies, 10, December, pp. 383-412

[6] Burnes, B. (1996) ‘No such thing as ...a “one best way” to manage organizational change’, Management Descision, 34, 10, pp.11-18.

[7] Burnes, B. (2004) Managing Change: A Strategic Approach to Organisational Dynamics, 4th edition (Harlow: Prentice Hall).

[8] Catherine L. Wang, Pervaiz K. Ahmed, (2004) “The development and validation oftheorganisationalinnovativenessconstructusingconfirmatoryfactoranalysis”,European Journal of Innovation Management, Vol. 7 Iss: 4, pp.303 - 313

[9] Dunphy, d. and Stace, D., (1993) ‘The strategic management of corporate change’, Human Relations, 46, 8, pp. 16-19

[10] Worren, N., Ruddle, K., & Moore, K. (1999). From organizational development to change management: The emergence of a new profession. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science,35 (3), 273-286.

[11] Kotter, J.P. and Schlesinger, L. A (1979) ‘Choosing strategies for change’, Harvard Business Review, 57, 2, pp. 106–114

[12] UdaiPareek & SushamaKhanna (2007), Understanding Organizational Behaviour, 3/e.

[13] Oxford University Press India.

[14] Van de ven Andrew H. (1995) Explaining development and change in organization, Journal of Academy of Management Review, Vol. 20, No. 3, 510-540.


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New Media Use of Older Adults

Debarati Dhar*

Abstract

In the present century, one of the most signifying characteristics of India is its increasing greying population. With the rapid change in the socio-economic and demographic scenario across the country, living conditions of the elderly have changed considerably. Quite significantly, older adults need family support and care. However, the concept of traditional joint family has been taken over with increasing popularity of nuclear family system because of continuous migration leaving the older people to fend for themselves. They are being constantly marginalized and isolated especially in urban areas. As a result, older adults face several problems ranging from social isolation to depression and lack of socialisation. Despite the growing share in population, aged people are not getting the due attention in the society. Hence, with the help of review of existing studies and substantive data collected from selected areas in Kolkata, this paper seeks to study how and in what ways new media can come to the aid in providing support and addressing the issues of older people.

Keywords: New Media, Older adults, Aged population, Socialisation, Internet

Introduction

The term aged or aging people is applied to different age groups and can vary from 60 years of age and upwards. Considering the present scenario of increased life expectancy and the age difference with almost 35 years between generations, it is important to understand

* Debarati Dhar, PhD Scholar, University of Burdwan, West Bengal. Email: [email protected]




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and recognize that the range of life experience, learning ability and knowledge will vary extensively. It is equally important to understand that chronological age is not the same as thatthebiologicalage.Toputinsimplerwords,itcanbesaidthatafitandactive75year-old may be chronologically older but biologically younger and healthier than a 65 year-old with prolonged health and mobility issues. So, all these points need to be understood and recognized properly when thinking about what is meant by ‘older people’. The term aged is not very precise as the ageing experience reveals class and gender differences.

Indian society is experiencing a rapid demographic shift because of the impact of globalization, urbanization, industrialization and at the same time because of technological changes. In urban areas, the concept of nuclear families is considered to be the present trend because of children moving away for better educational and job opportunities as a result the traditional joint family system and values are in the process of erosion causing in the weakening of intergenerational ties. Nuclear families are characterized by independence, individuality and desire for privacy and precisely these are some of the factors that are replacing the joint family that emphasizes deference to age and authority (Shettar, 2013). Care of ageing people is becoming an important issue because of the sudden changes of disintegrationof joint familiesand thegrowing influenceofmodernizationandnewlifestyles due to rapid technological changes. New media use for addressing the needs of the older adults is emerging as one of the discussed topics in social science and communication studies. Functional capacity, concerning requisites, as well as some basic knowledge about the information communication tools is necessary for adapting to social media. For the older adults, new media can be used as a medium for overcoming depression and social isolation by providing the scope of receiving and giving social support. It can really enhance the feelingsofself-efficacyandwellbeingamongtheagedpeoplethroughmeaningfulsocialexchange.

It is easier to say that smart phones and computers and internet can really provide communication support and emotional outlet to the aged people especially those who have mobility issues and whose children have moved to other place for better job opportunities but at the same time it is hard to ignore the potentially negative consequences of social media use in older age. There is abundance of information online and with it comes the possibilities of falling into the trap of online fraudulence via the virtual communities. Aged peopleareavulnerablesectiontoonlinedeceitfulnesshoweverwithsufficientinitialtrainingand proper understanding such treachery can be avoided making the online communication experience a pleasant and enriching one. Learning a new skill or technology can be an unnervingtaskforadultsofanyage,butthisisspecificallytrueincaseofseniorcitizens.

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Thus, the main research questions this paper tries to explore are: what new media usage does the older people have in their daily lives, what are their attitudes and perceptions towards the new media and what are the emerging patterns of new media usage by the aged people? The paper is based on in-depth interviews of 80 respondents (all above the age of 60 years) randomly selected from select areas of Kolkata. Most of the respondents interviewed were retired and some of them were engaged in part time vocational works. Thesocio-economicprofileoftherespondentswasfoundtobestable.

Scope of New Media Interventions for the Aged

Livingstone & Bovill, (2001) discussed that ‘new media are not necessarily those that were technically initiated most recently, but rather those that recently experienced a fastphaseofdiffusion’.Ageingpeoplearebecomingasignificantpopulationtoconsiderwith regard to new media technology as aged population make up for a big segment of the populationinthecity(Sen,2015).Therearelong-rangebenefitsofthenewmediainthelives of the elderly. For instance, a study noted that adapting to new media technology can provide long-distance caregiving (Kinney, Kart, Murdoch, & Ziemba, 2003). Another study pointed out that accessing to new media and internet can let the older people have access to tele-health care (Czaja & Lee, 2003). Further, new media with its immense scopes of connecting and sharing experiences can lead to the overall well-being of the aged (Mitzner et al., 2010). Report shows the Internet has become a vital way of exercising the minds of the seniors (Morris, 2014). The research shows that training older adults to use social media can help in improving cognitive capacity and in increasing a sense of self-competence leading to overall impact on mental health and physical well-being of the aged (Morris, 2014).

Overcoming the risks of isolation and loneliness among the elderly has become much easier through the new media and Internet (Kamiel, 2016). With increasing age, as moreandmoreoftheelderlypeopleareconfinedmostlytohomebecauseoffailinghealthand mobility issues, the new media and internet comes as a support and educational tool. Undoubtedly new media technology has greatly enhanced the potential of the aged making them feel less isolated and alone in this nuclear family age (Kamiel, 2016). Currently there exists a digital divide concerning the older users of the new media technology. In this context, one research study has noted that because of this digital gap existing between young and old users, the elderly adults are less likely to accept and use the new media technology (Olson, O’Brien, Rogers, & Charness, 2011). Further, as stated by Brown (2003), a digital divide is believed to occur when a gap in technology use exists between


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different sections of the population. It is a fact that there are differences considering the technology adoption between the young and the old population, though not much has been notedaboutthespecificindividualcharacteristicsthatinfluencetheadoptionoftechnologiesbytheusers.Itissignificanttoconsiderindividualcharacteristicsinordertohelpnarrowdown the digital divide among the aged users.

New Media Experiences of Aged People

Unlike their younger counterparts, the elderly use the new media in a very sensitive way as they are concerned about the privacy issues and basically use the social networking tools to connect with like-minded persons. Apart from social networking, the aged people use the new media and internet for extracting health information and to give and provide support with others who are experiencing the same ageing challenges. The aged people are adapting to the new media because they have recognized that others in their age group are gradually going online and have creatively used it to start discussion groups on issues related to life and health relevant to them. The new media offers them the initial support and comfort on issues such as depression, dementia, anxiety or diabetes within the convenience of their homes. The elderly use these tools to bridge the geographic gap between them and their loved ones living far away and as a way to re-connect with friends from a far off time. Previous research shows that the internet has become an important portal for reducing isolation, loneliness and other depressive symptoms among the older adults (Kamiel, 2016).

Majority of the elderly respondents interviewed share that new media has given them the prospect to remain connected with their children who have moved to other places. The elderly respondents, who live alone with spouses and have their children and close relatives settled inotherplaces,happilyadmit that thenewmediahadnullified thegeographicaldistance. Apart from the communication aspect, they emphasize on the informational and educational facets of the internet and added that they use it in an encyclopaedic way for gettinganyinformationrightfromgovernmentsitesforlatestschemestofinancialbankingsites. Many of the older adults have discovered the online travelogue and some of them have shared a different experience of exploring the unseen places across the globe through digital travel pieces. An elderly lady of around 67 years, who lives alone and have retired from a teaching job few years back shared how she had enjoyed travelling different places during her earlier days. She confesses that because of increasing pain and failing health she could not travel anymore which she misses immensely. However, the digital travelogue lets her explore the many unseen places across the world and she feels blessed that she has learnt to use the computers and internet. Just like her, this gateway to the outside world is vital to

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those who have become completely homebound. In a similar context, May (2015), noted that senior travellers not only search for information but also increasingly share information through social networking sites. Older adults, just like their younger counterparts, heavily depend on various travel websites for information and supplement their information search through the social media sites.

The older generation believe social networking sites and applications serve them quite well. The aged respondents have discovered that video chatting is a great way to bring children, friends and relatives from faraway destinations right into their homes. One elderly woman reported feeling “invigorated” after she started using the smart phone and internet. She explained that the social media has become a major part of her life and it has helped her from slipping into a slower pace. Her grandchildren insist her to upload pictures andasaresultofwhichsheadmitsthatshefindsherselfcaringmoreaboutherappearanceandstayingfit.AsnotedbySmith,(2014),oncetheelderlypeoplejointhevirtualworld,digital technology becomes an integral part of their daily existence. During the survey, this was observed that most of the senior citizens who became internet users have been found visiting the web world quite frequently. Results from the interviews show that aged people in the city go online predominantly with their mobile phones (smart phones). The elderly people specially enjoy the chat feature and photo sharing applications offered by new media and internet. Some of them remain ‘online’ most of the time and feel that there are so many activities to do online that even 10 to 12 hours a day appears less. Such older internet users have strong positive attitudes and perceptions about the advantages of online information thatcanbeobtainedinstantlybenefittingtheirpersonallives.Olderadultswhoareactiveinternet users believe people without new media or internet access are depriving themselves ofthebenefitsofall theonlineinformation.Theyalsoopinedthat theinternetmakesitmuch easier to access information at any time, which was impossible in earlier times.

Conclusion

The ageing population is one of the major challenges the society is facing today. New media and internet have the potential to support aged people in several ways like helping them in staying connected to their near and dear ones through chat, call or email. For some reason, when new media users are discussed, it is always about the celebration of the young generation. However, silver surfers though might appear reluctant initially and often require assistance to use the new media and internet yet this is the group who perform better cognitively and experience improved mental and physical well-being. New media technology is constantly developing and as a result the existing forms of technology


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will continually be replaced or converged with more modernized versions. There are differences of attitudes and perceptions regarding the new media and internet among the aged people. Although some aged people still think of technologies such as televisions and the basic cell phones to be relatively new, there are others who perceive those to be the technologies of the past. It is very unfortunate that the elderly are frequently perceived as mentally and physically weak and less competent, resistant to change and generally lessflexibleoradjustabletonewsituations.So,insuchascenarioitbecomesevenmoresignificanttobreakthesekindsofstereotypesandconsiderwaysinwhicholderadultscouldbe encouraged to use the new media more and more for their overall physical and emotional wellbeing. New media has the potential to bridge this digital divide in terms of adequacy of access and capability of use and knowledge among the senior citizens.

References

[1] Czaja, S. J., Charness, N., Fisk, A., Hertzog, C., Nair, S., Rogers, W., et al. (2006). Factors Predicting the Use of Technology: Findings From the Center for Research and Education on Aging and Technology Enhancement (CREATE). Psychology & Ageing, Volume 21, Issue 2, 333-352.

[2] Czaja, S. J., & Lee, C. (2003). The impact of the internet on older adults. In N. Charness, & K. Warner Schaie (Eds.), Impact of technology on successful aging (pp. 113-133). New York, NY: Springer Publishing Company, Inc.

[3] Gurumurthy, K. (1998). The Aged in India. New Delhi: Reliance Publishing House.

[4] Kamiel, A. (2016, July 3). A Hot Trend: The Internet, Social Media & The Elderly. RetrievedMarch15,2017,fromTheHuffingtonPost:http://www.huffingtonpost.com/anita-kamiel-rn-mps/older-people-social-media_b_9191178.html

[5] Kinney, J.M., Kart, C.S., Murdoch, L.D. et al. (2003). Ageing International, 28: 295. doi:10.1007/s12126-002-1009-x

[6] Livingstone, S., & Bovill, M. (2001). Children and their Changing Media Environment: A European Comparative Study. Hillsdale, N.J: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

[7] Madden, M. (2010, August 27). Older Adults and Social Media. Retrieved December 14, 2016, from PewResearchCenter: http://www.pewinternet.org/2010/08/27/older-adults-and-social-media/

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[8] May, K. (2015, October 1). Understanding the older generation and its tech-savvy relationship with travel. Retrieved March 14, 2017, from Tnooz Reports: https://www.tnooz.com/article/understanding-the-older-generation-and-its-tech-savvy-relationship-with-travel/

[9] Mitzner, T. L., Boron, J. B., Fausset, C. B., Adams, A. E., Charness, N., Czaja, S. J., & Sharit, J. (2010). Older adults talk technology: Technology usage and attitudes. Computers in Human Behavior, 26, 1710-1721. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2010.06.020

[10] Morris, S. (2014, December 12). Study finds social media use beneficial to overall health of elderly. Retrieved March 16, 2017, from The Guardian: https://www.theguardian.com/media/2014/dec/12/study-finds-social-media-skype-facebook-use-beneficial-overall-health-elderly

[11] Olson, K. E., O’Brien, M. A., Rogers, W. A., & Charness, N. (2011). Diffusion of technology: Frequency of use for younger and older adults. Ageing International, 36: 123-145. doi: 10.1007/s12126-010-9077-9

[12] Rogers, E. M. (2003). Diffusion of innovations. New York, NY: Free Press.

[13] Selwyn, N. (2004). The Information aged: A Qualitative study of older adults’ use of information and communication technology. Journal of Ageing Studies.

[14] Sen, S. (2015, October 27). Kolkata is ageing faster than other metros. Retrieved March12,2017,fromTheTimesofIndia,City:http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/Kolkata-is-ageing-faster-than-other-metros/articleshow/49546289.cms

[15] Shettar, S. (2013, August 1). Problems of Aged in Changing Indian Scenario. Retrieved March 9, 2017, from Yojana: http://yojana.gov.in/problems-of-aged.asp

[16] Smith, A. (2014, April 3). Older Adults and Technology Use. Retrieved March 2,2017, fromPewResearchCenter: http://www.pewinternet.org/files/2014/04/PIP_Seniors-and-Tech-Use_040314.pdf

[17] Zickuhr, K., & Madden, M. (2012, June 6). Older adults and internet use. Retrieved December 19, 2016, from Pew Internet & American Life Project: http://www.sainetz.at/dokumente/Older_adults_and_internet_use_2012.pdf


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Fuel cell, an alternative energy conversion device: Perspectives and Future

S. Karthikeyan*

Abstract

Hydrogen fuel cell generate electricity from electrochemical reactions without emitting any harmful gases. It is considered as the future energy device in various applications from portable electronics, automobile and space industries. This report gives an introduction to fuel cells, types of fuel cell and discusses briefly the challenges in front of us to commercialize fuel cell in everyday life.

Keywords: fuel cell, greenhouse gases, electrolyte, polymer, anode, cathode

Introduction

World’s consumption of fossil fuels is projected to increase rapidly and fossil fuels (mainly coal and oil) will continue to dominate the global energy supply for another 25 years. An increase in the rate of consumption of fossil fuels causes a large emission of greenhouse gases. It causes rising in the sea level due to the melting of ice in the polar region. Combustion of fossil fuels also emits gas like NOx, SOx, CO2, O3, etc and they pollute the environment and also create health problems to living organisms. World has to do a lot to reduce CO2 emission to stop major climate changes. In order to reduce the harmful gas emission, we have to concentrate on energy production technology which is renewable and environment friendly. Fuel cell is considered as one of the potential candidates as the alternative energy source for portable and automobile applications.

Future demand of pollution-free power generation has motivated studies on fuel

* S. Karthikeyan, Assistant professor, Department of Physics, Madras Christian College, Madras University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India. Email: [email protected]




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cell. It is attractive in many applications such as backup power, transport and consumer electronics. It has the advantages of pollution free operation, high energy density, high energyconversionefficiency,lownoiseandlowmaintenancecost.Worldisinvestingloton commercializing low temperature fuel cell.

Basic components of Fuel cell and its function

Fuel cell is an electrochemical device which directly converts chemical energy into electrical energy. It works as long as fuel is supplied externally. The main components of a Fuel cell are an anode, a cathode and an electrolyte, as shown in Figure1.11. For a hydrogen fuel cell, hydrogen gas is fed as the fuel at the anode and it splits in to hydrogen ion (proton) and electron. Protons are passing through the electrolyte while electrons take the external path via a load. At the cathode, externally supplied oxygen reacts with the electrons and protons to form water.

The reactions at the electrodes are given below:

Anode reaction: 2H2 → 4H+ + 4e-- ----- (1a)

Cathode reaction: O2 +4H+ +4e– → 2H2O ----- (1b)

Since water and heat are the byproducts of a fuel cell, it is known as the pollution free energy device.

Advantages of fuel cell are listed below

1. Higher efficiency than any other energy conversion devices due to the directconversion of chemical energy into electrical energy

2. Noise free operation (no movable parts)

3. Continuous operation as long as fuel is supplied.

4. Suitable for wide range of applications

5. Simplicityandflexibilityindesign

6. Low or zero emission


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Figure 1. Schematic cross-section of a hydrogen fuel cell

Controlling fuel cell reactions and extracting electrical energy from fuel cell needs a proper arrangement of its components. Single fuel cell produces 0.6 to 0.7 volt under operation. For useful application, it is required to connect many cells in series or parallel to provide enough power.

Types of fuel cell

Fuelcellscanbeclassifiedbasedonthefuelused,typeofelectrolytes,operatingtemperature used. Types of fuel cells under active research are summarized below.

Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell or Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC): It contains an ion (proton) exchange membrane as the electrolyte. Catalyst (Platinum) loaded porous carbon sheet as electrodes. Charge carriers through the electrolyte are H+ ions. It uses hydrogen as the fuel at the anode and oxygen as the oxidant at the cathode. It operates at 0.7 volt with the current density of 1 A/cm2. Operating temperature is from 303K to 350 K. The cell reactions are given in equations (1).

Direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC):IthassimilarcellconfigurationlikePEMFC.It uses liquid fuel (methanol) at the anode. It has same type of electrolyte as in PEMFC. Platinum alloys are used at electrodes. Fuel cell reactions are given below.

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Anode reaction: CH3OH+ H2O → CO2 + 6H+ + 6e-- ----- (2a)

Cathode reaction: 3/2 O2 +6H+ +6e– → 3H2O ----- (2b)

Its power density is lower than that of PEMFC.

Alkaline fuel cells (AFC): It is the first fuel cell used in space crafts. It usesconcentrated KOH solution as the electrolyte. OH- ion is the charge carrier in the electrolyte. Electrodes are combination of platinum, palladium and gold dispersed in porous carbon. Nickle is also used as catalyst at high temperature. It operates from 353K to 373K. Its chemical reactions are as follows.

Anode reaction: 2H2 + 4OH- → 4H2O + 4e-- ----- (3a)

Cathode reaction: O2 + 2H2O +4e– → 4OH- ----- (3b)

Phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC): It is one of the well-developed fuel cell in which concentrated phosphoric acid is used as the electrolyte and Platinum based materials are used as electrodes. It is operating at moderating temperature (373-493K). Its chemical reactions are the same as equations (1). This fuel cell system is commercially available in the power range 100 kilo watt to 400 kilo watt. It is used in countries like US to supply electricity to hospitals, banks and schools.

Molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC): They operate at high temperature (873-973K). Here CO3

-2 is the mobile charge carrier in the electrolyte. Nickle based materials are the catalyst at anode and cathode. This fuel cell system commercially available and is used in industries to provide power up to 3 Megawatt. It is governed by the following reactions.

Anode reaction: CO3-2 + H2 → H2O + CO2 + 2e– ----- (4a)

Cathode reaction: CO2 + ½ O2 + 2e– → CO3-2 ----- (4b)

Solid Oxide fuel cell (SOFC): It operates at very high temperatures, between 973 to 1273K. Both MCFC and SOFC eliminate the use of high cost Platinum based catalyst due to their high operating temperature. It is available in the power range from 10 Kilowatt to 2 megawatts. Chemical reactions involved in this fuel cell systems are

Anode reaction: H2 + ½ O2 → H2O + 2e– ----- (5a)

Cathode reaction: ½ O2 + 2e– → O2- ----- (5b)


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Challenges in Low temperature fuel cells

Among the different types of fuel cells, Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) and the Direct Methanol fuel cell (DMFC) are the low temperature fuel cells, in which Proton conducting polymer is used as an electrolyte. The heart of a Practical PEMFC system is the Membrane electrode assembly (MEA) which contains a Polymer electrolyte, catalyst layers and Gas diffusion layers. Other components which are used to incorporate MEA in a fuel cell are gaskets to prevent gas leak, unipolar or bipolar plates to provide gas distribution channels at both anode and cathode sides and current collectors. PEMFC is being seriously studied for portable and automotive applications. Main problems in this type of fuel cell is the cost and durability which prevent the commercialization of PEMFC. According to the breakdown of the cost released by Department of energy, US in 2016, for the production of 1000 PEMFC systems (each of 80Kw) per year, membranes, catalystsandgasdiffusionlayersconsumes70%ofthetotalcostasshowninfigure2.

Figure 2. Break down of the 2016 projected fuel cell stack cost at 1000 systems per year released by DOE, US.

Hence cost reduction by reducing the loading of platinum in MEA, developing cheaper bipolar plates and inexpensive polymer electrolyte membranes are necessary to reduce the cost. Another important factor which is to be improved is the durability. For

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instances, fuel cell requires 5000 operating hours for its application in car, 20000 hours for bus application and 40000 hours for stationary applications.

To improve the durability and utilization of catalyst, Various catalyst support materials (graphene, carbon nanotube, conductive metal oxides, conducting polymers and mesoporous carbon have been studied. Reduction in platinum loading of 0.134 mg/cm2 was achieved without affecting the fuel cell performance. The electrolyte which is the most studiedforthelowtemperaturefuelcellistheNafionmembrane.ThoughNafionhashighchemical stability and high ionic conductivity, at temperature beyond 800 Celsius, it suffers from dehydration and loss in mechanical strength and it causes a large reduction in the fuel cell performance. A broad range of membranes of various polymers, polymer blends, gel polymers, nano-composite polymers have been studies for improving the electrolyte performance beyond 800 Celsius. Still intensive research is underway to develop better membranes.

Conclusion

Fuelcellspoweredbyhydrogenprovideshighenergyconversionefficiency,loworzero greenhouse gas emission and zero air pollution. Many industries are installing fuel cell power systems. Fuel cell powered cars and buses are under development by different car manufactures like Honda, Daimler, Toyota and Mercedes. 17 fuel cell buses in Germany and 18 in UK are in operation. There is a huge market available for fuel cells in cell phones and other portable applications. In order to compete with the conventional energy conversion technologies, Fuel cell technologies must show high performance with low cost and long durability. Innovations are needed to achieve all requirements for the successful applications of fuel cell in day to day life.

References

[1] Energy Sources: Fundamentals of Chemical Conversion Processes and Applications By Balasubramanian Viswanathan

[2] FUEL CELL FUNDAMENTALS by RYAN O’HAYRE, SUK-WON CHA and WHITNEY G. COLELLA

[3] Materials for Low-Temperature Fuel Cells Edited by Bradley Ladewig, San P. Jiang, and Yushan Yan


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[4] Fuel for thought: Will 2017 be the year of the zero-emission fuel-cell vehicle? 17 January 2017, source: edie newsroom

[5] https://www.wbdg.org/resources/fuel-cells-and-renewable-hydrogen

[6] www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/16020_fuel_cell_system_cost_2016.pdf, Adria Wilson, Jason Marcinkoski, and Dimitrios Papageorgopoulos, Fuel Cell System Cost – 2016.

[7] Multi-Year Research, Development, and Demonstration Plan released by Fuel Cell TechnologiesOffice,U.S.DepartmentofEnergy.

S. Karthikeyan

https://www.wbdg.org/resources/fuel-cells-and-renewable-hydrogen

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Socio Economic Impact of Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme

P. Sundara Pandian1 M.Suresh2

Abstract

Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme is a landmark legislation aimed at strengthening livelihood security for the rural poor. The Act has prescribed that MGNREGS is the largest wage employment programme in the world. The primary objective of the Act is augmenting wage employment and its auxiliary objective is strengthening natural resource management through works that address causes of chronic poverty like drought, deforestation and soil erosion and so encourage sustainable development. The main aim of this research paper is to assess the study the socio-economic impact of the MGNREGS beneficiaries before and after joining of MGNREGS. To examine the level of satisfaction about the MGNREGS in rural people and to analyses the status of MGNREGS members after joining the MGNREGS. For this study, 400 MGNREGS members were selected from the Virudhunagar District by convenient sampling method. Even though MGNREGS has brought changes in the quality of life of beneficiaries especially from economically and socially backward community, a lot more has to do to achieve the expectations of the society at large. It can be concluded that the success of this Act depends upon its proper implementation and in this scenario, the community participation is very important to make this programme more effective. The researcher has dealt with the impact of MGNREGS in Virudhunagar District.

1 P.Sundara Pandian, Principal, VHNSN College, Madurai Kamaraj University, Tamil Nadu. E-mail: [email protected]

2 M.Suresh, Assistant Professor in Commerce, VHNSN College, Madurai Kamaraj University, Tamil Nadu. E-mail: [email protected]




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Keywords: Social Impact, Economic Impact, Wage Policy, Women Empowerment, MGNREGS.

Introduction

MGNREGS is a landmark legislation aimed at strengthening livelihood security for the rural poor. The Act has prescribed that MGNREGS is the largest wage employment programmed in the world. MGNREGS plays a vital role as a social change instrument which facilitates changes in the village. This scheme has the potential to transform the lives of millions of rural poor by guaranteeing wage employment through the creation of productive assets. The scheme can also substantially improve the quality of governance in rural areas, in particular the capacity and responsiveness of the Panchayat Institutions. The MGNREGS has reduced distress migration from poor regions, provided secured incomes for women, supported agricultural wages and increased incomes for wage workers who are arguably amongst the poorest in the country.

The primary objective of the Act is augmenting wage employment and its auxiliary objective is strengthening natural resource management through works that address causes of chronic poverty like drought, deforestation and soil erosion and so encourage sustainable development. There are three overarching goals in MGNREGS: i) employment creation; ii) regeneration of the natural resource base and creation of productive assets in rural areas; and iii) strengthened grassroots processes of democracy through transparent and accountable governance. Another important aspect of MGNREGS is the increasing participation of women in it. It not only provides employment to them but by giving wage rate equal to that of a man, it has empowered the women economically as well as socially. It aims at creating sustainable rural livelihood through regeneration of the natural resource–base, i.e. augmenting productivity and supporting creation of durable assets and strengthening rural governance through decentralization and processes of transparency and accountability.

The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme was launched on 1st April 2008 in Virudhunagar District. In the year 2008-2009 was 4851.737 lakhs, 2009-2010 was 8,064.960 lakhs, 2010-2011 was 7,708.885 lakhs, 2011-2012 was 8.312.810 lakhs, 2012-2013 was 11,233.96 lakhs, 2013-2014 was 9,679.80 lakhs, 2014-2015 was 8081.34 lakhs and 2015-2106 was 9,829 lakhs allotted by the Central and State Government for MGNREGS. In the year 2015-2016, 9,815 households completed hundred days’ employment under this scheme 2,60,158 of rural people are getting employment under MGNREGS and 7,959 works are taken under MGNREGS. In Virudhunagar District,

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a portion of 3,246 works were completed and the remaining 4,713 works are in progress.


Prattoy Sarkar, Jagdish Kumar and Supriya, in their research paper titled “Impact of MGNREGA on Reducing Rural Poverty and Improving Socio-economic Status of Rural Poor: A Study in Burdwan District of West Bengal”, examined the socio-economic impact of MGNREGA on the rural poor who are mainly comprised of small and marginal farmers andagriculturallabourers.Thestudyhasbeenfoundthatsignificantchangeshavetakenplace in the socio-economic variables like annual per capita income, monthly per capita food expenditure, annual per child expenditure on education, per capita savings, condition of the dwelling houses, access to healthcare facility and possession of other assets or luxury items for those households which are regularly working in the scheme. The study has revealed that the socio-economic conditions have been improving gradually, but to fasten the rate of improvement some developmental initiative can be integrated with the scheme mainly targeting those households who are working regularly under the scheme for long periods.

SamikShome, Ramanna Shetty, T., Joseph,J., and Mihir Dash have made conducted a study titled “Impact of Workfare Programmes on Quality of Life: A Case Study of National Rural Employment Guarantee Act in India”, This study attempts to analyse the effectiveness of implementation of The National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005 in India and its impact on quality of life in the Anekaltaluk of Bangalore District in the Indian State of Karnataka. To measure the quality of life, two dimensions were considered. First, the household-level quality of life, comprising the variables of income, housing conditions, education level and health condition; and, secondly, village-level infrastructural development,includingdrought-proofing,landdevelopment,ruralconnectivity,renovationof traditional water bodies, irrigation, and drainage/sewerage. The study found that there was a widespread variation in the effectiveness of implementation of NREGA among differentpanchayatsinAnekaltaluk.TheresultssuggestthattheNREGAhasasignificantimpact in both village-level infrastructural development and also in household quality of life.However,thereisalsoanurgentneedforimmediaterectificationsofsomeoftheflawsobserved during the survey to make NREGA more effective and responsive to the needs of the underprivileged citizens.

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Objectives of the study

Tostudythesocio-economicimpactoftheMGNREGSbeneficiaries.

To examine the level of satisfaction about the MGNREGS in rural people.

To analyses the status of MGNREGS members after joining the MGNREGS.

Research Design and Methodology

In view of considerable data – from survey research as well as secondary sources – collected and presented in this research report, ‘descriptive research’ is considered the most appropriate for the present study. Hence, the study has been descriptive and analytical.

Sampling Design

In this study, the sample comprising of 400 respondents (N = 400) selected from Virudhunagar District by the convenient sampling technique.

Impact of MGNREGS on the Members

The main objective of launching MGNREGS is to uplift the backward socio-economic conditions of rural people in India. It indicates that the socio-economic backwardness of rural India has profound impact in launching of MGNREGS and the Central Government has implemented the scheme with a lot of enthusiasm. The scheme not only generates productive assets, it also protects the environment, empowering rural women, reducing rural- urban migration and fostering social equity.

ItisprobablethatmanyfactorsinfluencetheMGNREGSsuchasImpactinfamilies,Social impact, Wage policy, Women empowerment, Economic impact, Ill-effectiveness of MGNREGS and Awareness about MGNREGS.

KMO and BARTLETT’S TEST

Kaiser-Meyar Olkin measure of sampling Adequacy value is 0.692. Bartlett’s Test ofSphericityissignificantat0.000.


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TABLE 1 KMO AND BARTLETT’S TEST

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. 0.692

Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity

Approx. Chi-Square 8091.087

Df 300

Sig. .000

Source: Computed data

There are two main stages in factor analysis. As the first stage in the factoranalysis, Principal Component Analysis was used for the initial extraction of the factors. Principal Component Analysis is a technique for forming a set of new variables that have linear combinations of the original set of variables. The new variables are called ‘principal components’.

It is necessary that the scale constructed and the factors/components extracted should be able to explain the variance in the data. For the analysis of this variance, one has to calculate the eigen values, which will explain the variance among the factors. A low eigen value (less than 1) contributes very little to the explanation of the variances in the set of variables being analyzed. The sum of eigen values, as expected, is equal to the number of variables being analyzed. There are 25 variables that can be extracted. But only those factors can be extracted which have eigen value more than one. The eigen value for a given factor measures the variance in all the variables which is accounted for by that factor. The higher the eigen value of a factor, the larger is the amount of variance explained by the factor. By retaining only, the variables with eigen values greater than one, one can infer that 18.446 percentage of variance is explained by factor 1, 12.102 percentage of variance is explained by factor 2, 9.689 percentage of variance is explained by factor 3, 9.394 percentage of variance is explained by factor 4, 8.782 percentage of variance is explained by factor 5, 7.749 percentage of variance is explained by factor 6 and 6.293 percentage of variance is explained by factor 7. These factors are presented in table 2.


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TABLE 2: Total Variance Explained

Com

pone

nt

Initial EigenvaluesExtraction Sums of Squared

LoadingsRotation Sums of Squared

Loadings

Total% of

VarianceCumulative

% Total% of

VarianceCumulative

% Total% of

VarianceCumulative

%

1 4.994 19.978 19.978 4.994 19.978 19.978 4.611 18.446 18.446

2 3.630 14.520 34.498 3.630 14.520 34.498 3.026 12.102 30.548

3 3.001 12.006 46.504 3.001 12.006 46.504 2.422 9.689 40.237

4 1.950 7.800 54.304 1.950 7.800 54.304 2.349 9.394 49.632

5 1.879 7.516 61.820 1.879 7.516 61.820 2.195 8.782 58.414

6 1.410 5.642 67.462 1.410 5.642 67.462 1.937 7.749 66.163

7 1.248 4.993 72.455 1.248 4.993 72.455 1.573 6.293 72.455

8 .970 3.882 76.337

9 .876 3.505 79.842

10 .834 3.334 83.176

11 .683 2.733 85.909

12 .603 2.411 88.320

13 .558 2.232 90.552

14 .480 1.919 92.471

15 .437 1.749 94.221

16 .349 1.397 95.617

17 .329 1.315 96.932

18 .246 .983 97.916

19 .189 .758 98.673

20 .086 .344 99.017

21 .083 .334 99.351

22 .061 .244 99.595

23 .045 .182 99.777

24 .032 .129 99.906

25 .023 .094 100.000


From the above table 2, one could see that seven factors show a cumulative variance


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explanation of 72.455%.

Factor Analysis for Impact Of MGNREGS On The Members

The factors and issues regarding impact of MGNREGS on the members are analyzed using Principal Component Factor Analysis. To ensure the suitability of the instrument and to increase its validity and reliability, the 25 statements were subjected to pretest. Respondents were asked to rate their level of satisfaction with each statement from 1(Highlydissatisfied)to5(Highlysatisfied).

The study was composed to find the Impact of MGNREGS on the membersin Virudhunagar District’, convenient sampling technique was adopted. A total of 400 MGNREGS members participated in this survey. The selection of the respondents was made to the convenience of the researcher.

The Rotated Factor Matrix for the variables relating to the impact of MGNREGS among the overall sample respondents is given in Table 3.

TABLE 3 Rotated Component Matrix

Variables Component

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Avoid Hungry .917 .033 .056 .111 .066 -.053 -.103

Satisfy regular needs .901 .010 .053 .111 .058 -.030 -.115

Reduced family burdens .886 .055 .077 -.018 .130 -.067 -.131

Families health .856 .025 .043 -.052 .120 -.081 -.140

Self-confidence .803 -.042 -.107 -.052 .012 .010 .392

Equality in the family .769 -.065 -.113 -.069 .005 .007 .436

Avoid migration -.007 .783 .055 .101 .035 -.045 .314

Reduced unemployment .072 .752 -.058 -.009 .184 .026 .121

Infrastructure facilities improved -.032 .744 .125 -.092 .095 -.054 -.084

Additional employment opportunity

-.017 .681 .085 -.022 .227 -.007 -.047

Feeling of security -.056 .564 .097 -.010 .073 .003 -.092

Delay in wage payments .101 .018 .934 .002 -.058 .026 .063


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Cannot understand wage payment system

.071 .016 .918 -.027 -.046 .030 .061

Women are more involvement then men

.050 .095 .008 .888 .157 .003 .036

Equal wages .128 -.007 -.104 .851 .120 -.030 .073

Recognition in society -.216 .085 .538 .605 -.136 .056 -.266

Standard income -.186 .046 .539 .595 -.152 .029 -.261

Debt repayment .156 -.204 -.074 .068 .820 .079 .190

Purchasing power increased -.082 -.225 .164 -.018 .676 .003 .032

Market wages increased .022 .368 .034 .021 .629 -.152 .103

Saving habits .175 .440 .013 .234 .570 .057 -.080

Agriculture heavily affected -.057 .018 .039 -.003 .004 .969 -.010

Non-availability of continuous employment

-.109 .020 .036 .005 -.014 .968 -.018

Aware about job card .054 -.053 -.011 .028 .029 .033 .679

Aware about Complaints -.030 .237 .048 .017 .342 .025 .607


Table 3 exhibits the rotated factor loading for the 25 statements (factors) on the impact of MGNREGS on members. It is clear from the above table that all the 25 statements had been extracted into seven factors, namely F1, F2, F3, F4, F5, F6, and F7. These factors wereidentifiedwiththenewnamessuchasimpactinfamilies,socialimpact,wagepolicy,women empowerment, economic impact, ill-effects of MGNREGS and awareness of MGNREGS and had been presented in the following tables.

Impact in families

Families or family wellbeing may be affected economically in a variety of ways byawiderangeoffactors.Familywellbeingisnoteasytodefinepreciselybutisusuallyviewed as going beyond economic prosperity to include physical and emotional, health and safety,foodsecurity,continuesemployment,self-confidence,equalityinthefamily,socialconnectedness and the quality of relationships. The MGNREGS policies and the design of programs give changes on spending pattern of families and thus the family’s level of economic wellbeing is increased.


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TABLE 4: FACTOR- 1: IMPACT IN FAMILIES

S. No Variables Factor Loading

Eigen Value

Percentage of Variance

1 Avoid Hungry .917

4.611 18.446

2 Satisfy regular needs .9013 Reduced family burdens .8864 Families health .8565 Self-confidence .8036 Equality in the family .769


Among the impact of MGNREGS, the factors regarding ‘Avoid hungry’, ‘Satisfy regular needs’, ‘Reduced family burdens’, ‘Families health’, ‘Self-confidence’, and‘Equality in the family’, are the factors with higher positive loadings on factor I which is characterized as “Impact in families”. Hence, F1 is termed as Impact in Families. The eigen value for the above Factor I was 4.611 and the percentage of variance was 18.446. It could be concluded that MGNREGS have an impact in families and it has ranked as the firstimportantfactor.

Social Impact

Social impact is the effect of an activity on the social fabric of the community and well-being of the individuals and families. Social impact refers to how the organization actions affect the surrounding community. Social impacts can link to areas such as health and community development. The MGNREGS made lot of changes in the society such as reduce unemployment, women empowerment, asset creation to rural area and also reduce migration.

Table 5: Factor- 2: Social Impact


Eigen Value


1 Avoid migration .783

3.026 12.1022 Reduced unemployment .7523 Infrastructure facilities improved .7444 Additional employment opportunity .6815 Feeling of security .564



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From the Table 5, the factors regarding ‘Avoid migration’, ‘Reduced unemployment’, ‘Infrastructure facilities improved’, ‘Additional employment opportunity’, and ‘Feeling of security’, are the factors with higher positive loadings on factor II and it could be characterized as “Social Impact”. Hence, F2 is termed as Social Impact. The eigen value for the above factor II was 3.026 and the percentage of variance was 12.102. It could be concluded that the MGNREGS has social impact and it has ranked as the second important factor.

Wage Policy

MGNREGS provides payment ofwages to the beneficiarieswithin a period offifteendays.Inordertoensuretransparencyandtimelypaymentofwagestotheworkers,wagepaymenthasbeenmademandatorythroughworker’saccountinPostOffices/Banksaccounts. However, delay in payment and incorrect payments are common problems under MGNREGS. In some places, they are getting less than minimum wages which is mentioned under MGNREGS.

TABLE 6: FACTOR- 3: Wage Policy


Eigen Value


1 Delay in wage payments .9342.422 9.6892 Cannot understand wage

payment system.918


From the Table 6, the factors regarding ‘Delay in wage payments’, and ‘Cannot understand wage payment system’, are the factors with higher positive loadings on factor III and it could be characterized as “Wage policy”. Hence, F3 is termed as Wage Policy. The eigen value for the above factor III was 2.422 and the percentage of variance was 9.689. It could be concluded that the wage policy ranked as the third important factor under MGNREGS.

Women Empowerment

The statutemandates that atleast one-third of the beneficiaries shall be women(Section 4(6)9 of the NREGA). Moreover, women representation in the employment under the Act has been reported as 79% during the year 2014-2015, showing that the law has


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been used as an instrument to reduce gender inequality and foster women empowerment. In this programme, one-third of the beneficiaries should be women and it providesequal opportunities for SCs, STs and other weaker sections. Another important aspect of MGNREGS is the increasing participation of women, not only provides employment to them but by giving wage rate equal to that of a man, it has empowered the women economically as well as socially.

TABLE 7: FACTOR- 4: WOMEN EMPOWERMENT


Eigen Value


1 Women are more involved than men .888

2.349 9.3942 Equal wages .851

3 Recognition in society .605

4 Standard income .595


From the Table 7, the factors regarding ‘Women are more involved than men’, ‘Equal wages’, ‘Recognition in society’, and ‘Standard income’, are the factors with higher positive loadings on factor IV and it could be characterized as “Women empowerment”. Hence, F4 is termed as Women Empowerment. The eigen value for the above factor IV was 2.349 and the percentage of variance was 9.394. It can be concluded that women participation is more than men and women empowerment has ranked as the fourth important factor.

Economic Impact

An economic impact is a change on employment, or incomes produced by a decision, event or policy and schemes. Economic impact assessment focuses on evaluating the impacts, development and economic well-being. This analysis relies on both quantitative and qualitative measures of impacts. The MGNREGS helps the rural people to increase their household expenditure, ability to repayment of debts, and improve the economic status in their society.


http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/employment.html

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/income.html

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/decision.html

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/event.html

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/policy.html

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TABLE 8: FACTOR- 5: Economic Impact


Eigen Value


1 Debt repayment .820

2.195 8.7822 Purchasing power increased .676

3 Market wages increased .629

4 Saving habits .570Source: Computed data

From the Table 8, the factors regarding ‘Debt repayment’, ‘Purchasing power increased’, ‘Market wages increased’, and ‘Saving habits’, are the factors with higher positive loadings on factor V and it could be characterized as “Economic Impact”. Hence, F5 is termed as Economic Impact. The eigen value for the factor V was 2.195 and the percentage of variance was 8.782. It could be concluded that the MGNREGS has created aneconomicimpactamongtherespondents,ithasrankedasthefifthimportantfactor.

ILL-Effects of MGNREGS

MGNREGS has raised rural daily wage rates, reduced migration and led to several other positive social effects in rural India. But at the same time it has also contributed to rising farm input costs, withdrawal of labour from the farm sector and therefore, impacted agricultural operations and food prices.

TABLE 9: FACTOR- 6: ILL-Effects Of MGNREGS


Eigen Value


1 Agriculture heavily affected .969

1.937 7.7492 Non-availability of continuous employment

.968


From the Table 9, the factors regarding ‘Agriculture heavily affected’, and ‘Non-availability of continuous employment’, are the factors with higher positive loadings on factor VI and it could be characterized as “Ill- effects of MGNREGS”. Hence, F6 is termed as Ill-effects of MGNREGS. The eigen value for the above factor VI was 1.937 and the


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percentage of variance was 7.749. It could be concluded that the MGNREGS activities were affected by many problems. Therefore, ill-effects of MGNREGS has ranked as the sixth important factor.

Awareness of MGNREGS

Awareness plays an important role in each and every activity. Awareness is needed to survive in the modern competitive world.

TABLE 10 FACTOR- 7: Awareness of MGNREGS


Eigen Value


1 Aware about job card .6791.573 6.293

2 Aware about complaints .607


From the Table 10, the factors regarding ‘Aware about job card’, and ‘Aware about Complaints’, are the factors with higher positive loadings on factor VII and it could be characterized as “Awareness of MGNREGS”. Hence, F7 is termed as Awareness of MGNREGS. The eigen value for the above factor VII was 1.573 and the percentage of variance was 6.293. It could be concluded that members are aware about MGNREGS and it has ranked as the seventh important factor.

Inordertotesttheimpactofthesevenfactorsidentifiedinfactoranalysis,multiplelinear regression analysis has been employed to analyze the level of satisfaction about MGNREGS. Impact in families, social impact, wage policy, women empowerment, and economic impact, ill-effects of MGNREGS and awareness of MGNREGS are related to the impact of MGNREGS on the members and it was tested by multiple regression analysis.

Multiple Regression Analysis for Level Of Satisfaction About MGNREGS

The following analysis shows the relationship between level of satisfaction about MGNREGS and seven independent variables that were studied. In order to measure the interdependence of independent factors and their total contribution to level of satisfaction, the results of the analysis were put into Multiple Regression Analysis.


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TABLE 11 Regression Model Summary for Level of Satisfaction about MGNREGS

R R Square

Source of variation

Sum of Squares

DF Mean Square

F Sig.

.851 .724 Regression 16.003 7 2.286 4.342 .000

Residual 206.387 392 .526

Total 222.390 399Source: Computed data

Level of satisfaction about MGNREGS = a + b1X1+ b2X2+…..+ b7X7

a. Predictors: (Constant), Awareness of MGNREGS, Ill-effects of MGNREGS, Economic Impact, Women Empowerment, Wage Policy, Social Impact, Impact in Families.

b. Dependent Variable: Level of satisfaction about MGNREGS

TABLE 12 Regression Coefficient Summary for level of satisfaction about MGNREGS

FACTORS

Unstandardized Coefficients

Standardized Coefficients

BStd.

ErrorBeta t Sig.

(Constant) 4.155 .036 114.526 .000

Impact in Families -.147 .036 .196 4.037 .000

Social Impact .087 .036 .116 2.388 .017

Wage Policy .028 .036 .038 .782 .435

Women Empowerment

.069 .036 .093 1.905 .041

Economic impact -.021 .036 -.028 -.586 .558

Ill-effects of MGNREGS

-.068 .036 -.091 -1.861 .063

Awareness of MGNREGS

-.022 .036 -.029 -.594 .553


The model’s ‘t’ test shows that the predictors, namely Impact in Families and Social ImpactandWomenempowermentarestatisticallysignificantat95%confidence


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level as their significance levels are less than .05.WagePolicy,Economic Impact, Ill-effectsofMGNREGSandAwarenessofMGNREGS,are statisticallynot significant at95%confidencelevelastheirsignificancelevelsaremorethan.05.Therefore,itindicatesthat Impact in families and Social impact and Women empowerment that contribute to the levelofsatisfactionaboutMGNREGSarestatisticallysignificant implyingthat theirinfluenceisstrongerthantheothervariables.

Status of MGNREGS Members: An Analysis Using MCNEMAR Test

Inordertotestwhethertherewasanysignificantdifferenceinstatusamongthesample respondents before and after joining the MGNREGS, the following null hypothesis wereframedandtestedusingMcNemartestsettingthelevelofsignificanceat5%(i.e.,0.05).

1. There is no significant difference in avoid hungry among the samplemembersbefore and after joining the MGNREGS.

2. There is no significant difference in satisfy regular needs among the samplemembers before and after joining the MGNREGS.

3. Thereisnosignificantdifferenceinfamilyburdensamongthesamplemembersbefore and after joining the MGNREGS.

4. There is no significant difference in recognition in society among the samplemembers before and after joining the MGNREGS.

5. There is no significant difference in family health among the samplemembersbefore and after joining the MGNREGS.

6. There isnosignificantdifference inself-confidenceamong thesamplemembersbefore and after joining the MGNREGS.

7. There is no significant difference in social responsibilities among the samplemembers before and after joining the MGNREGS.

8. There is no significant difference in equality in the family among the samplemembers before and after joining the MGNREGS.

9. Thereisnosignificantdifferenceinmigrationamongthesamplemembersbeforeand after joining the MGNREGS.


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10. Thereisnosignificantdifferenceinreductionofunemploymentamongthesamplemembers before and after joining the MGNREGS.

11. Thereisnosignificantdifferenceindebtrepaymentamongthesamplemembersbefore and after joining the MGNREGS.

12. Thereisnosignificantdifferenceinimprovementofinfrastructurefacilitiesamongthe sample members after implementation of MGNREGS.

13. Thereisnosignificantdifferenceinadditionalemploymentopportunityamongthesample members before and after joining the MGNREGS.

14. Thereisnosignificantdifferenceinintuitionofsecurityamongthesamplemembersbefore and after joining the MGNREGS.

15. Thereisnosignificantdifferenceinequalwagesamongthesamplemembersbeforeand after joining the MGNREGS.

16. Thereisnosignificantdifferenceinstandardincomeamongthesamplemembersbefore and after joining the MGNREGS.

17. Thereisnosignificantdifferenceinpurchasingpoweramongthesamplemembersbefore and after joining the MGNREGS.

18. Thereisnosignificantdifferenceinsavingsamongthesamplemembersbeforeandafter joining the MGNREGS.

19. There is no significant difference in women empowerment among the samplemembers before and after joining the MGNREGS.

20. There is no significant difference in risk bearing capacity among the samplemembers before and after joining the MGNREGS.

The P values are found out to identify a region of rejection. The P values and the results of the McNemar Test are given in the following table.


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TABLE 13 Result of Mcnemar Test for Status of MGNREGS Members

Status of Members Calculated Chi-square

value

P value

Level of Significance

Remarks

Avoid Hungry 151.007 .000 0.05 H0 Rejected

Satisfy regular needs 114.036 .001 0.05 H0 Rejected

Family burdens 182.005 .000 0.05 H0 Rejected

Recognition in Society 2.833 .092 0.05 H0 Accepted

Family health 107.901 .003 0.05 H0 Rejected

Self-confidence 62.694 .004 0.05 H0 Rejected

Social Responsibilities 2.449 .118 0.05 H0 Accepted

Equality in the family 86.348 .000 0.05 H0 Rejected

Migration 158.438 .000 0.05 H0 Rejected

Reduction of unemployment 141.485 .002 0.05 H0 Rejected

Debt repayment 2.535 .111 0.05 H0 Accepted

Improvement of infrastructure facilities

125.855 .000 0.05 H0 Rejected

Additional employment opportunity

105.571 .000 0.05 H0 Rejected

Intuition of Security 103.278 .001 0.05 H0 Rejected

Equal wages 1.805 .179 0.05 H0 Accepted

Standard income 112.775 .000 0.05 H0 Rejected

Purchasing power 108.045 .004 0.05 H0 Rejected

Savings 95.921 .000 0.05 H0 Rejected

Women empowerment 133.058 .003 0.05 H0 Rejected

Risk bearing capacity 2.361 .124 0.05 H0 Accepted Source: Computed data

It is clear from the above table that remarkable improvement is noticed after joining theMGNREGSinfifteenoutoftwentyvariablesgoverningstatus: avoid hungry, satisfy regular needs, family burdens, family health, self-confidence, equality in the family,migration, reduction of unemployment, improvement of infrastructure facilities, additional employment opportunity, intuition of security, standard income, purchasing power, savings


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and women empowerment. In all these cases, the P value is less than the 5% level of significance.Hence, thenullhypothesis isrejectedimplyingthat thereisaconsiderableimprovement in respect of these variables as a result of joining the MGNREGS.

Inthecaseofotherfivevariables–recognitioninsociety,socialresponsibilities,debt repayment, equal wages and risk bearing capacity the P value is more than the 5% level ofsignificance.Hence,thenullhypothesisisacceptedimplyingthatthereisnoconsiderableimprovement in respect of these variables as a result of joining the MGNREGS.

Findings

TostudytheimpactofMGNREGSamongthebeneficiaries,factoranalysiswasused.Using 25 statements, seven factors and a five-point scale, a convenient samplingsurvey was conducted to study the impact of MGNREGS on members in Virudhunagar District. All the 25 statements had been extracted into seven factors, namely F1, F2, F3, F4, F5, F6, and F7. These factors were named such as impact in families, social impact, wage policy, women empowerment, and economic impact, ill-effects of MGNREGS and awarenessofMGNREGS.Inordertotesttheimpactofthesevenfactorsidentifiedinfactoranalysis, multiple linear regression analysis has been employed to analyze the level of satisfaction about the MGNREGS. All the seven factors (predictor variables) were accepted inthemodelassignificant(R=.851,R2=0.724). From the multiple regression analysis, it isconcludedthatthreefactorshavesignificantimpactonMGNREGSinfamilies,socialandwomen empowerment in determining the variation in satisfaction rating for the satisfaction level ofMGNREGS at 5% level of significance. The remaining four variables are notsignificant indicating that thesevariablesdonot contributemuch to thevariation in thedependent variable.

In order to ensure the efficiency of MGNREGS McNemar test was used tounderstand the functioning of MGNREGS which shows the results and status of members before and after joining the scheme. All the 20 statements, which relate to the status of the beneficiariesbeforeandafterjoiningthescheme,havebeenstudiedtakingthevariablesinto consideration. The result shows that 15 statements have a positive impact to the beneficiariesafterjoiningMGNREGS.Amongthe15variables,11variablesareconsideredextremely impact among the sample respondents. These factors have greater influenceon thebeneficiariesofMGNREGSdue to itsuniquenature in termsof itsconceptandimplementation to enhance the livelihood security of the rural poor and thereby eradicating poverty.


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Conclusion

Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) is considered as a “Silver Bullet” for eradicating rural poverty and unemployment, by way of generating demand for productive labour force in Indian villages. Even though MGNREGS hasbrought changes in thequalityof lifeofbeneficiaries especially fromeconomicallyand socially backward community, a lot more has to do to achieve the expectations of the society at large. People are still not empowered to use their right to demand and ensure transparency in the implementation of this scheme. The MGNREGS can actually be seen moving towards its short term and long term objective of food and livelihood security and long term sustainable development through ecological regeneration. It calls for interventions by authorities to ensure smooth functioning of this programme, free from malpractices and corruption so that it can act as a tool to rejuvenate the socially backward areasofourcountry.However,thereisalsoanurgentneedforimmediaterectificationsofsomeoftheflawsobservedtomakeMGNREGSmoreeffectiveandresponsivetotheneedsof the underprivileged citizens. It can be concluded that the success of this Act depends upon its proper implementation and in this scenario, the community participation is very important to make this programme more effective.

References

[1] http://planningcommission.gov.in/aboutus/committee/wrkgrp12/rd/wgrep_mgnrega.pdf

[2] http://www.ijoart.org/docs/Livelihood-Security-Of-MGNREGA-an-Analysis.pdf

[3] http://nrega.nic.in/NREGA_VISION-version_4-%282%29.pdf

[4] www.nrega.ac.in

[5] Prattoy Sarkar, Jagdish Kumar&Supriya., 2011, ‘Impact of MGNREGA on Reducing Rural Poverty and Improving Socio-economic Status of Rural Poor: A Study in Burdwan District of West Bengal’,Agricultural Economics Research Review, pp.437-448.

[6] SamikShome, Ramanna Shetty, T.J., Joseph, &Mihir Dash, 2012, ‘Impact of Workfare Programmes on Quality of Life: A Case Study of National Rural Employment Guarantee Act in India’, Stirling International Journal of Postgraduate Research, vol. no.1, pp.17-44.


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[7] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Rural_Employment_Guarantee_Act_2005

[8] http://www.dpmc.gov.au/guidelines/familyimpactstatements/docs/economic_impacts.rtf

[9] http://www.socialenterprise.org.uk/advice-services/topic/social-impact

[10] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact

[11] http://www.im4change.org/docs/692mgnrega_report.pdf

[12] http://nrega.nic.in/CEGC/Wages.pdf

[13] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Rural_Employment_Guarantee_Act_2005.

[14] Srikantha Murthy, P.S, & Indumati, S, 2011, ‘Economic Analysis of MGNREGA in the Drought–prone States of Karnataka, Rajasthan and Irrigation–dominated State of Andhra Pradesh’, Agricultural Economics Research Review, vol.24, pp.531-536.

[15] Usha Rani Ahuja, Dushayant Tyagi, Sonia Chauhan & Khyali Ram Chaudhary, 2011, ‘Impact of MGNREGA on Rural Employment and Migration: A Study in Agriculturally-backward and Agriculturally-advanced Districts of Haryana’, Agricultural Economics Research Review, vol.24, pp.495-502.

[16] http://www.lic.wisc.edu/shapingdane/facilitation/all_resources/impacts/analysis_intro.html

[17] h t t p : / / w w w . p o l i c y p r o p o s a l s f o r i n d i a . c o m / a r t i c l e . p h p ? a r t i c l e _id=169&languageid=1


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* V. Sudesh, Professor, Department of Studies in Law, University of Law College, Banglore University, Bangaluru. Email: [email protected]

Monopoly of ownership of property: The Case of owning intellectual property

V. Sudesh*

Introduction

Since the beginning of time, ‘property’ was considered to be a valuable tool in the hands of an individual and also for the community ownership. Owning property by an individual or a community furthered progress towards dominance in the group. The ancient civilization has numerous examples in history of this ‘property power’ dominance. As human intelligence advanced towards understanding of the natural phenomena i.e air, space, light and water, he progressed towards developing tools (knowledge) to directing his will (invention) to control the natural resources. This created a new concept in property known as Intellectual Property. Historically, rights to intellectual property have been interpreted to mean monopoly rights over intangible property. The industrial revolution brought about a tremendous awareness about the potential of property in generating wealth i.e. property generating property (wealth).

Legal protection to secure intellectual property

The first industrial exhibition brought the need for protecting the propertyinvented by application of intellectual ability to create wealth. The Statue of Monopolies, 1624 and the Statute of Anne, 1710 are the precursor to modern intellectual property protection legal regime. In 1883, the Paris Convention came into being.

It was an international agreement through which inventors could protect their innovations even if they were being used in other countries. Writers came together in 1886 for the Berne Convention which led to protection on an international level for all forms of written expression as well as songs, drawings, operas, sculptures, paintings and more. Trademarks began to gain wider protection in 1891 with theMadrid Agreement while the officescreated by the Paris and Berne Conventions eventually combined to become the United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property, the precursor of today’s WorldIntellectualPropertyOrganization,whichisanofficeoftheUnitedNations.




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Intellectual Private Property

The intellectual property regime that developed subsequent to the Paris Convention promoted private property and unleashed the race for monopolising ownership of property. Economic theories do justify such private ownership of property. The underlying principle of economics of property is that it is a reward for one’s labour and must be held by the individual and free to dispose at his convenience. The theory of private intellectual property does not regard morality of holding property or social use of property. Patent right, copy right and trademarks ownership work towards maximising private wealth. The jurisprudential life cycle of a property consists of creation, use and destruction by the owner. While there is no disagreement over the advantages of intellectual property regime in promoting the development of science and technology to solve myriad problems faced by human beings, there is a concern over its monopoly trend at the cost of promoting social good. This concern is more in the case of patenting of life saving drugs and pharmaceutical products. Despite the inbuilt mechanism in the regulatory regime such as compulsory licensing, non-patentability etc., to overcome the monopoly trend, it is a well-illustrated fact that there is longdrawncourtbattleandpublicoutcrytotakethebenefitofconcessioninfavourofthepublic. The Novartis Ag v. Union of India, (2013) 6 SCC 1 may be referred to highlight thelongdrawncourtbattlebetweenthecompanyandtheIndianpatentoffice,wheretheSupremeCourtupheldtheIndianpatentoffice’srejectionofthepatentapplication.

Monopoly over life as an intellectual property

In the well-illustrated case of Chakrabarty,1theUSPatentandTrademarkOffice(PTO) rejected claims to a genetically engineered bacterium on the ground that living organismsarenotpatentable.TheUSSupremeCourtdisagreed,decidingbyafive-to-fourmajority that a patent may be obtained on “anything under the sun that is made by man.” TheSupremeCourtdecisionopenedthefloodgatesforprotectionofbiotechnology-relatedinventions and helped spark the growth of an industry that no one, regardless of his or her moral or philosophical views, can deny is capable of modern-day miracles. Ownership of life forms as property becomes a reality thanks to the US Supreme Court.

The decision of the US Supreme Court set out a chain reaction towards claiming patent rights over several species of human life. The “Harvard Mouse,”2 developed by Harvard University researchers Phillip Leder and Timothy Stewart. US Patent No.

1 Diamond v. Chakraborty, 447 U.S. 303 (1980) 2 Harvard College v Canada (Commissioner of Patents), 2002 4 S.C.R 45

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4,736,866 received a great deal of attention when it was issued in April 1988, because it was thefirstUSpatenttoissueforatransgenicanimal(i.e.,ananimalcreatedbyinjectinggenes from another species into a fertilized animal egg and then surgically implanting the egg into the mother). The injected genes were oncogenes that triggered cancer growth, making the “oncomouse” a particularly valuable tool for testing the effects of cancer-fightingdrugsandsuspectedcarcinogens.

US Patent Nos. 4,940,835 and 5,188,642 are two key patents in the area of genetically engineered crops. Issued to Dilip Shah of the Monsanto Company on July 10, 1990, and February 23, 1993, these patents are directed to a technique for genetically altering plant seeds so that the plants are resistant to glyphosate-containing herbicides. Theseherbicidescan thenbesafelyapplied incropfields toselectivelykillandcontrolweeds without also killing the crops. In fact bio-technological patents have widened the scope of ownership of various forms of life,

The above examples of patenting of life forms bring out issues of morality of proprietary rights of ownership. Ethical questions of have been raised on the issue of granting patent rights over property which is essentially nature derived.

Similarly, in the case of copyrights, a monopoly in favour of the author or the creatorisjustifiedonaccountofhumaneffortandcostoflabour.Thecommercialisationofliteraryworkcreatesprivatepropertybenefittingtheauthor/publisher.CopyrightwascreatedbecausetheprintersinEnglandwereunabletomakeprofit,theyinsistedthatunlessthey were given the right to stop others from copying they would not print. Copyright ensured that in exchange for the monopoly right, intellectuality in the form of art and culture will be made available. Safeguards in the form of fair dealing, fair use etc., tries to balancethepublicinterestvstheprivateprofit.

The TRIPS agreement3 emphasizes the dominance of intellectual property as private property. The agreement strives to regulate the legal regime on intellectual property over different regimes. The objective is to create a monopoly of property. Boldrina & Levine state that,

“Economists and decent citizens alike are suspicious of monopoly. There are many of good reasons for this. The traditional economic analysis of monopoly emphasizes the “welfaretriangle”–thelossofefficiencyduetothefactthatmonopoliescreateartificialscarcity in order to garner a higher price. More recent economic analysis emphasizes

3 Available at http://www.wto.org.

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“x-inefficiency” – that monopolies use inefficient and excessively costly methods ofproduction. The political economy literature emphasizes the rent-seeking nature of monopoly, especially of government mandated monopoly – that monopolies distort the political system by purchasing favourite treatment at the expense of everyone else. There is yet another reason to be wary of monopolies – in order to transfer wealth away from the restofsocietyandtowardthemselvestheystifleinnovation,blockproductivitygrowth,andreduce overall prosperity.”4

Notwithstanding the balancing of interests vide the compulsory licensing clause etc., the intellectual property regime has shifted the balance in favour of private property.

Conclusion

There is no doubt that intellectual property rights have revolutionized the forms ofpropertyownership.The legalregimeon intellectualproperty isaimedatbenefittinginnovation and development of science and technology. It creates a level playing for all global players. The exceptions within the law try to balance the monopoly over public interest. However, increasing filing of patent application are evidence of harming theinterest of the poor patients and farmers across the globe in developing and least developing countries. It has be noted that all human creations are inspired by nature and therefore any product derived by application of human knowledge has to have the ultimate objective of eradicating poverty, diseases and distress.

4 Economic & Gametheory, Against Intellectual Monopoly, Chapter 6 , www.levine.sscn.ucla.edu

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* Dimple Chawla, Assistant Professor, Vivekananda Institute of Professional Studies, New Delhi Email: [email protected]

Medical Image Compression using MATLAB

Dimple Chawla*

Abstract

In today’s smart world of people, images are also gathering good hand in the field of technology. Image Processing is a compressed with set of operations of different types of visualization and their virtual analysis. It has been observed that medical images are highly voluminous and consume a lot of memory resources of the system. It is required to convey at large distance with high memory and much higher bandwidth are required for effective storage and transmission of the image. In this paper, the process intended to produce a dense view of medical image like an X-ray CT scan of human brain, and to perform image transformations and different morphological operations like Discrete Cosine Transformation (DCT), Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT), filtering, edge detection, noise removal, curve fitting. The simulation work has been taken under the consideration in MATLAB Image Processing toolbox to develop the customized algorithms for 3D visualization.

Keywords: Histogram, RGB color model, Signal Processing Toolbox (SPTool), 3-D Surface Plot, MSE, MAE, PSNR, Discrete Cosine Transformation (DCT), Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT), Round-off Noise Power Spectrum.

Introduction

In almost all multimedia applications, a technique has been widely proposed to protect the digital medical data. The growth of new imaging technologies has created a need for techniques that can be used for copyright protection of digital images. Fred Halsall et.




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al has explained that the copyright protection contains the authentication of image content as well as the ownership details which can be used to identify illegal copies of a possibly a forged image if it exists. This technique is known as Compression, which is to be applied on source information just before to its transmission [1]. This is done either to reduce the volume of information to be transmitted like heartbeat, Doppler, medical scan images etc. or to reduce the bandwidth for its transmission - speech, audio and video. So, reducing the storage requirement is equivalent to the increase in capacity of storage medium and hence communication bandwidth increases.

It has been noted that most of the researches are being proposing a new technique or enhances the existing techniques which is already being in use. The development of new compression algorithms remains an active area of investigation and will continue to increase the degree of compression possible [2]. Since, researcher uses static medical scan images are used for experimental setups, but only in uncompressed image formats.

Literature Review

As many researchers, have proved that it is easy for encoder for the shorter context, but the decoder supposed to know which sized context to interpret the bits at receiving end thenonlyitwouldbeabletoidentifyotherwisedifficulttoimplementvice-versa[3].Tomake this possible, the encoder must notify the decoder of the size of the context. Data compressionhasanunearnedstandingforbeingdifficultandhardtoimplement,andhard-hitting job to maintain. It has been observed that the techniques are used to design and can be implemented with standard utilities taking only a few lines of code in a subsequent way.

Optimized compression is based on the type of image processed [4]. Compression techniqueprovestobeatactualimagewithlargepixellocality[5].Thistechniquewillfindextensive to use in medical imaging sector because of its lossless characteristics and the medical images has larger area of rate of pixel layout pattern, where more proportion of black rather than grey or white spot.

A digital X-ray CT image obtained by sampling and quantizing a continuous tone picture requires an enormous storage. For the instance, a 24-bit medical scan image with 512x512 pixels will occupy more than the normal color image space i.e. 768 Kilobyte storageonadisk,andapicturetwiceofthissizewillnotfitinasinglefloppydisk.Totransmit such an image over a 56.8 Kbps modem would take almost 8 minutes. The purpose for image compression is to reduce the amount of data required for representing sampled medical digital X-ray CT image and therefore reduce the cost for storage and transmission

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[6]. The application of image compression plays a key role in many varied areas, including image database, image communications, remote sensors where the data taken from satellite imagery system for weather forecasting and other earth resource based applications, document and medical imaging, facsimile transmission (FAX), and the control of remotely piloted vehicles in military, space, and hazardous waste control applications.

Theseveralfalsificationorqualitymetricsofimagecompressioncanbeappliedto quantify the degree of reconstructed image matches from the original. Mean Square Error (MSE) and Peak Signal to Noise Ratio (PSNR) are 2 error metrics techniques for calculating the cumulative squared error between the compressed and the original image, whereas PSNR is a measure of the peak error.

The mathematical formulae for the two are [8] like

Mean Squared Error (MSE) = ……. (1)

Peak Signal to Noise Ratio1 (PSNR) = 20 * log10 (255 / sqrt (MSE)) .…… (2) (measured in dB)

Maximum Absolute Error (MAE) = ……. (3)

where I (x, y) is the original image, I’(x, y) is the approximated version which is a decompressed image and M, N are the dimensions of the images such as width and height of an image.

Fromtheequation (1)&(2), itclearlydefines the lowervalue forMSEmeanslesser error, and as seen from the inverse relation between the MSE and PSNR, this translates to a high value of PSNR. Logically, a higher value of PSNR is good because it means that the ratio of Signal to Noise is higher. Here, the signal is the original image, and the‘noise’istheerrorinreconstruction.So,ifcompressionschemefindsalowerMSEanda high PSNR, then it will recognize that for better approach [9].

From the technical point of view, PSNR is a quality metric while MSE and MAE are distortion metrics. Note that, where the compression is lossy, the reconstructed image depends on the choice of scheme used by decompression or on reconstruction of the image given the information encoded in the compressed image segments.

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So, here the use of transform coding arises, transform coding is mainly used forDiscrete Cosine transformwhich is an efficient transformwith high computationalefficiencyandcompressionperformanceforthecloseperformanceofoptimalKarhunenLoeve Transform [10]. It is also adopted in the JPEG image compression standard [11]. Discrete Cosine transformation function and its inverse functions are shown in (4) and (5) equation below.

… (4)

… (5)

In this coding scheme, transforms such as DFT (Discrete Fourier Transform) and DCT (Discrete Cosine Transform) are used to change the pixels of original image into frequencydomaincalledastransformcoefficients.Thesecoefficientshaveseveraldesirableproperties, one of its the energy compaction property that supports for the energy being concentrated inonlya fewof the significant transformcoefficientswhich is thebest inuse for achieving compression.Only those few significant coefficients are selected andtherestdiscardsfromoriginalimage.Theselectedcoefficientsareconsideredforfurtherquantization and encoding process.

Usually the whole image is divided into non-overlapped sub-images (8*8) and DCT is computed for individual blocks rather than computing the transform for the entire image, which is computationally complex [12]. DCT is applied on the captured image and quantized as in Figure 1[3, 13].

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Figure 1: Transform Coding system

The working scenario of Discrete Cosine transform, initially the image is divided into 8 x 8 blocks of pixels then working from left to right, top to bottom, apply DCT to each block. The compression of each block through a process called quantization. The block of array results that the image constitutes is highly compressed and occupy very small amount of space. On desired, the image can be reassembled through Inverse Discrete Cosine Transform (IDCT), which is a reverse process of compression [14].

Image Processing Toolbox

An X-ray Computed Tomography (CT) image is a group of pixels, whose brightness corresponds to the absorption in a thin rectangular slab of the cross-section of an image, which is called as voxel [15, 16]. The pixel region tool provided by MATLAB 7.0.1 which superimposes the pixel region in rectangle form over the image displayed in the Image Tool mode,definingthegroupofpixelsthataredisplayed,inextremeclose-upview.ThePixelregiontoolshowsthepixelsataveryhighmagnification,overlayingeachpixelwithitsnumeric value [17, 18]. For the primary color model RGB images, contains three numeric values, one for each band of the image. To determine the current position of the pixel region in the target image by using the pixel information given at the bottom of the tool. In similar way, x- coordinates and y-coordinates of pixels in the target image, the Adjust Contrast tool displays a histogram which represents the dynamic range of the X-ray CT image in (Figure 2).

The Image Processing Toolbox provide a standard reference algorithms and the graphical tools for image analysis tasks including: edge-detection and image segmentation algorithms, image transformation, measuring image features, and statistical functions such as mean, median standard deviation, range, etc., (Figure 3).


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Figure 2: Pixel Region tool and the

Adjust Contrast Tool Figure 3: Statistical data in

MATLAB

Related Work

The stimulation tool used, MATLAB provides a enormous collection of plotting toolstomakeseveraltypesofgraphs,displayingtheimagehistogramorplottingtheprofileof intensity values like linear, quadratic and cubic equivalence function (Figure 4. (a)). A cubicfittingfunctionisthebest-fitmodelforhistogramdataplot.Thefitcurvewasplottedasamagentalinethroughthedataplotandtheplotfitsforsignificantvalueas2.AreaGraph of X-ray CT brain scan displays the elements in a variable as one or more curves andfillstheareabeneatheachcurveshownin(Figure4(b)).

Figure 4 (a): Histogram of image Figure 4(b): Area Graph

The 3-D plot surface generates a matrix as a surface shown in (Figures 5 (a), (b), (c), (d)). It makes the faces of a surface transparent to a varying degree. The transparency alphavaluewhichis(.0)canbespecifiedforthewhole3Dobjectin(Figure5(a)orcan

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be shown on based on an alpha-map, which behaves in a way analogous to colormaps with alpha value as (.4) shown in (Figures 5 (b)).

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 5: 3D plot surface generated histogram (a) alpha, (b) color-apha, (c) mesh, (d) lightening

The “meshgrid” function is tremendously useful for computing a function of any 2 Cartesiancoordinates.Itbasicallytransformsthedomainspecifiedvaluebyasinglevectoror two vectors x and y into matrices X and Y for the uses in assessing functions of two variables. The rows of X are copies of the vector x and the columns of Y are copies of the vector y (Figure 5 (c)). Similarly, 3D plot surface with Contour as Surfc function displays a matrix as a surface with contour plot below. The lighting is the technique of illuminating an object with a directional light source. This technique can make indirect differences in surface to shape it easy in viewing the graphs. Lighting is the process which can also be used to add realism to 3D graphs. This example uses the same surface as the previous


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examples, but colors it yellow and removes the mesh lines as shown in (Figure 5(d)).

The sampled image is a Contour Plot on X-ray CT brain scan which creates an X-ray CT image graphics object by interpreting each element in a matrix in a form of index intowhichthefigure’scolormaporvaluesofRGBimagedependsonthedataspecifiedasshown in (Figure 6(a)). The sampled image with Colormap Scaling (“imagesc” function) displays an X-ray CT image and scale to use full colormap. MATLAB supports quite a few colormaps. A colormap is an m-by-3 matrix of real numbers between 0.0 and 1.0. Where eachrowisanRGBvectorthatdefinesonecolor“Jet”rangesfrombluetored,andpassesthrough the colors cyan, yellow, and orange. It is a distinction in HSV (hue, saturation, value) colormap shown in (Figure 6 (b)). Contour Plot is useful for delineating organ boundaries in images. It displays isolines of a surface represented by a matrix (Figure 6).

Figure 6: Sampled Image

(a) Display isolines of surface (b) 3D visualisation sampled image [19]

Figure 7: Contour Plot of X-ray Figure 8: Surfc on X-ray CT brain scan CT brain scan

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Through sampled image, the ezsurfc(f) or surfc function creates a graph of f(x,y), where f is a string that represents a mathematical function of two variables, such as x and yshownin(Figure7).Thecontour3functioncreatesa3Dcontoursurfaceplotdefinedona rectangular grid shown in (Figure 8).

3-DLitSurfacePlotshowswithcolormap-basedlighting,surflfunctiondisplaysashaded surface based on a combination of ambient, diffuse, and specular lighting models in (Figure 9). The 3-D Ribbon Graph of Matrix displays a matrix by graphing the columns as segmented strips shows in (Figure 10).

Figure 9: 3D Lit Surface Plot of Figure 10: 3D Ribbon Graph of sampled image sampled image

Filter Visualization Tool (Fvtool)

Filter Visualization Tool (FVTool) computes the magnitude response of the digital filterimagedefinedwithnumeratorasbanddenominatorasa.ByusingFVTool,itshowsthe phase response, group delay response, impulse response, step response, pole/zero plot, filtercoefficientsandround-offnoisepowerspectrumgivenin(Figures-11,12,13,14,15, 16 and 17).


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Figure 11. Magnitude and Phase Response on Frequency scale:

a) linear graph, b) log graph

Figure 12. Group Delay Response on Frequency scale: a) linear, b) log

Figure 13. Phase Delay Response on Frequency scale: a) linear, b) log

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Figure 14. (a) Impulse Response (b) Pole/Zero Plot

Figure 15. Step Response (a) Default (b) Specify Length: 50

Figure 16. Magnitude Response Estimate on Frequency scale: a) linear, b) log


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Figure 17. Magnitude Response and Round-off Noise Power Spectrum

on Frequency scale: a) linear, b) log

Work Done

The proposed scheme has been tested on several gray-level and color images for varied results. Results obtained for the classical 512 x 512 image is shown in Figure 6. The digital watermark can be embedded on any place in the original image. All the pixels in the selected area can be used for watermarking. For a 512 x 512 original image, PSNR value is used for quality measure and the PSNR value for different watermark size has shown in statistical data table in Figure 3. For small size watermarks, the algorithm provides good PSNR ratio. When the watermark size increases PSNR value decreases. One who has the watermark image and mapping function parameters only can remove the watermark. Thus, it enhances the security.

Whileworkingwiththiscodecomplicationsfacedlikefilecompressionofdifferentin sizes. Approximately 15 bit of codes gives better performance compression ratios rather onthesmallerfilesinsizefiles.Anotherprobleminhandlinglargefileswhileaccessingwithtoomanyfrequentreadoperationsinfiles.However,thestringtableoffinitesize,inwhich certain number of strings gets easy to recover but addition to that not feasible to do so.Furthermore,duetothediversefilecharacteristics,itneedtohavedifferentstringtableon individual basis. Solution to this conservative problem is to keep a track on compression ratio. Once the string table gets full he compressor watches degrades its ratio as on desired andthenentiretableisflushed,andgetsrebuiltfromscratch.Anotherwayistokeepamonitorcheckonhowfrequentlyaccessofstrings,andonregularbasisitflushesthevaluewhentheyhardlyuse.Thisadaptivetechniquelikethismaybetoodifficulttoimplementin a reasonably sized program.

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Conclusion

MATLAB has evolved with input for various functions and it is an interactive tool for enhancing as well as analysing digital images. Here data visualization tools have helped in representing information in dense view through pixel regions, histograms, images texture-mapped, contour plots and surface regions. The Signal Processing Toolbox (SPTool) has also provided a graphical user interfaces for analysing and plotting data filtervisualization,spectralanalysisandfilteringsignals.Also,whileanalysingdatastreamvalue, MAX_VALUE as a special end of data indicator considered for the end of the data input stream. It may not be helpful on reading compressed buffer when out of memory otherwise it will be losing on minimal compression.

References

[1] Fred Halsall “Multimedia Communication Applications, Networks, Protocols and Standards” Copyright by Pearson Education, Ltd, pp.138-140.

[2] J. Ziv and A. Lempel, “A Universal Algorithm for Sequential Data Compression”, IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, May 1977

[3] Guy E. Blelloch “Introduction to Data Compression”, Computer Science Department, Carnegie Mellon University, September 25, 2010

[4] Mark A. Goldberg, “Image Data Compression”, Journal of Digital Imaging, Vo110, No 3, Suppl 1 (August), 1997: pp 9-11 9

[5] Ashwin Swaminathan, Gaurav Agarwal, “A Comparative Study of Image Compression Methods”, [email protected], [email protected]

[6] Jagadish H. Pujar, Lohit M. Kadlaskar, “A New Lossless Method Of Image Compression And Decompression Using Huffman Coding Techniques”, Journal of Theoretical and Applied Information Technology, 2005 - 2010 JATIT, www.jatit.org

[7] Chaur-chin chen *, “On The Selection Of Image Compression Algorithms”, Department of Computer Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 300, Taiwan.

[8] Vipul Singh, Navin Rajpal, and k.Srikanta Murthy, “A neuro Fuzzy Model for image compression in Wavelet Domain”,Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2008,



http://www.jatit.org

http://www.jatit.org

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LNCS 5099, pp. 46-58, 2008.

[9] Steven W. Smith, “The Scientist and Engineer’s Guide to Digital Signal Processing”, www.dspguide.com.

[10] K. Jain, “A sinusoidal family of uitary transforms”, IEEE trans. Pattern Anal. Machine Intell., vol. PAMI-1,pp.356-365, oct.1979.

[11] Sonal, Dinesh Kumar, “A STUDY OF VARIOUS IMAGE COMPRESSION TECHNIQUES”, Department of Computer Science & Engineering Guru Jhambheswar University of Science and Technology, Hisar.

[12] Anitha S, “2D image compression technique-A survey”, International Journal of Scientific&EngineeringResearchVolume2,Issue7,July-2011

[13] Dr. V. Radha and Pushpalakshmi, “Performance Analysis Of Lossy Compression Algorithms For Medical Images” Volume 1, No. 4, pp46-50, November 2010

[14] Sachin Dhawan “A Review of Image Compression and Comparison of its Algorithms”, Department of ECE, UIET, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, Haryana, India, IJECT Vol. 2, Issue 1, March 2011

[15] Emilia Dana Seleţchi, Victor Şutac, “Image Analysis in X-ray ComputedTomography” http://fmi.unibuc.ro/icvl/2006/full_paper/36_CT%20Seletchi.pdf

[16] M A Flower, “Webb’s Physics of Medical Imaging”, Second Edition, June 21, 2012 by CRC Press, ISBN 9780750305730 - CAT# IP743

[17] Hahn. D.T. Valentine, Essential MATLAB for Engineers and Scientists, Elsevier (Third edition), 2007

[18] MATLAB 7.0.1. – The Language of Technical Computing, The MathWorks, Inc., 2005

[19] ImageJ – 1.37

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1 Himani Gupta, Associate Professor, Jagannath International Management School, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi Email: [email protected]

2 Manisha Gupta, Assistant Professor, Jagannath International Management School, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi Email: [email protected]

Impact of Macro Economic Variables on Gold Price

Himani Gupta1 Manisha Gupta 2

Abstract

Macro-economic variables are the indicators of the overall state of a country’s economy. The economic performance of any country is measured by these macroeconomic variables. The commodity and stock market is significantly affected due to uncertainty of macroeconomic variables causing volatility in the prices. Thus, the change in the impact on gold prices and vice- versa is due to the shift in the prices of the various macroeconomic variables. As in the country like India, people think that gold is an instrument in which the savings can be invested or it can be considered as a form of an alternative asset for those holding idle money. From last many decades, the prices of gold are increasing day by day. The increase in the price of the gold can be due to the various macroeconomic variables. This study investigates the effect of macroeconomic variables such as oil prices, BSE SENSEX, gross domestic product (GDP), inflation rates, and price of US dollar on the prices of the gold using the monthly data ranging from the period January 1991 to September 2015 for five macroeconomic variables mentioned above. The aim of this paper is to analyze the causal effects of macroeconomic variables on gold prices. For the analysis purposes, various econometric tools such as unit root test, granger Causality test, co integration vector auto regression test has been used.

Keywords: Macroeconomic variables, Unit root test, Granger Causality test, SENSEX, Co integration vector auto regression test.






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Introduction

The price of gold is the most controversial topic from the last many decades. For last many decades investors think that gold is a haven. Gold is considered as the most popular, safe and precious metals as a source of investment and at the time of economic crises and uncertainties, it is considered as the more stable assets among all. Since history, Goldhasgainedagoodreputationtheunexpectedinflation,social,politicalandeconomiccrises as its trade can be done at any point of time throughout the world and there is an increase in its real value during crises. Out of many macroeconomic variables, the price of the gold is the most complex decision. Demand and supply of gold depends on various macroeconomic conditions prevailing around the globe. It is very difficult to expect,forecast and describe the dynamics of gold. Particularly, in the country like India the demand of gold is more because people think that gold has enormous value. Kannan and Dhal, 2008 in his valuable research paper also discussed that in the whole world India has thelargestconsumerofgold.Thus,thedemandforgoldforIndianconsumerisfulfilledbyimport.Itisquitenaturalthatthepricesofthegoldfluctuatebothinthelongtermandshortterm.Thesefluctuationsinpricesaresomehowrelatedwithvariousmacroeconomicvariables.Forexample,ifcurrencylossesitspurchasingpower,theinflationrateincreaseswhich results in the increase in the prices of gold. Gold can never be denied nor can its valuebeweakenedbychangeintheinflationrate.Ontheotherhand,ifwetalkabouttherelationship between stock market and gold price, they both move in the opposite direction. If the economy is in its downturn then the stock market is also going down. Under such circumstances, the investors will try to invest more and more in gold and less in stock market which results in the increase in the gold price. Gold also provides a strong and better hedge against declining currency as compared to any other commodity. This discussion was also done by Bhunia and Mukhuti, 2013, Yahyazadehfar and Babaie, 2012 and Bhunia, 2013 in their research paper. Samanta and Zadeh, 2012 studied the four macroeconomic variables such as gold price, stock price, real exchange rate and crude oil prices ranging the period from January 1989 to September 2009. They used econometric models showing that there is a cointegration relationship between the all four variables taken for the study. Therefore, in the investment portfolio gold is considered as an attractive component. Razin and Rosefielde, 2011 has also discussed that in India economic growth, inflation rate,interest rates, exchange rate, stock market trends and asset prices, which are the main attractionfortheincreaseinthedemandforgoldarealsoinfluencedbythemonetary,fiscalandfinancialpolicyofthecountry.Accordingtotheirstudy,someportionofgoldisusedasdomesticconsumptionandrestisusedinremovingthedeficitofpayments.

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There has been a quite a research that has been done to explain the relationship between various economic instruments. Many studies exist which has focused mainly on the relationship between gold and oils with stock prices.

Many researchers have focused on the economic indicators related to industrial production (Flood and Marion 2006), which on the indicator of interest rate was advocated by(HondroyiannisandPapapetrou,2001).Otherindicatorssuchasinflationandcurrencyrates which was studies by (Moore 1990) and (Amoateng and Jovad 2004) respectively showedapositiveandsignificantrelationshipbetweentheoilandthestockvaluesinthegas and oil sector. And this study was precisely studies in the oil and gas sector of United Kingdom.

Another study by Basher and Sadorsky (2006) strongly evident for the result that the oil price risk gives an impact on the stock price returns in the emerging markets.

Majority of studies have tried to make an attempt to elaborate a statistical model for the determinants of the gold price. This study had followed basically the following three approaches. These approaches are:

• Models for the variation in the price of gold

• The price is focused on the speculation and rationality of gold price movement

• Goldascommodityhasaevadeagainstinflation

These approaches are advocated by (Ariovich, 1983); (Dooley, Isard and Taylor, 1995); (Baker and Van Tassel, 1985); (Diba and Grossman, 1984) ;( Koutsoyiannis, 1983)

Janabo et al (2010) made an attempt to explore the Gulf Cooperation Council equity marketregardingthemarketefficiencywithreferencetooilandgoldpriceduringtheperiodof 2006-2008. The study also made an attempt to examine the impact of gold and oil prices on the performance of stock exchange with the six distinctive Gulf Cooperation Council. Further the study states that the GCC stock market and quite informative regarding the gold and oil price indexes.

Another study by Zang et al. (2010) studied the co integrated relationship and causality taking the commodities such as gold and crude oil price. As per his study he further explores that while considering sampling period the price of crude oil and gold were consistentandwheresignificantlyhadapositivecorrelation.Thefurtherstudyelaborated


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that due to change in linear Granger which is caused due to gold price volatility there exists long term equilibrium between market and crude oil prices. The amount of contribution of crude oil in the two markets seems to be higher as compared to gold.

Study by Laughlin (1997) stated that in either case of fall and rise of commodities price the value of gold is always in the elevated side.

Ashraf(2005)inhisstudytookasampleoffivecasesofgoldandcrudeoilpriceratio coincide with negative yield spread, rising fed fund rates and falling of dollar price and falling growth.

Pravit (2009) adopted the methodology of ARIMA that is multiple regression and AutoRegressiveIntegratedMovingAveragemethodforthefindingoutthetentativegoldprocess. The research advocated that this model is the most suitable model in analyzing the forecast of gold price for short term period.

Larryetal(1997)inhisstudystatedandfavoredtheassumptionthatanefficientmarket for the world gold market, his study stated that the appreciation and depreciation of the currencies such as yen and euro as compare to dollar does not have any major effect on the gold price. Further, his study elaborated that the major gold producing countries of the worlddonothavesignificantinfluenceontheworldgoldprice.

Ismail et al (2009) studied various factor on the gold price the factors and variables weremainlyeuro/dollarexchangerate,inflationrate,moneysupply,NYSEindex,S&Ppoor index.

In a study by Max (2004) postulated a theory for the monetary factor for the nominal oil and gold price. His study tested the model with the VAR system determining structural breaks. Comparing the results with the US data shows that the oil and gold prices is Granger caused by the monetary factors.

StudybyMuLnetal(2010)fortheirstudyforexploringthefluctuatingimpactin crude oil, gold price and exchange rate of dollar and other currencies used the data and time series methodology. His results showed that there is a co integration within the fluctuatingpricesandexchangerate,andthestockmarketofcountriessuchasGermany,Japan, Taiwan and China.

Moore(1990)tostudytheeffectofinflationandothermarketfactoronthegoldratetestedtherelationsthatexistbetweengoldpriceandtheinflationfactorsofNewYorkmarket for the time period since 1970 to 1988 ,his study stated that a negative correlation


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exist between gold price and bond market.

Objectives

• TostudytheImpactofMacroeconomicVariablesonGoldPrice

• TostudytheCauseandEffectRelationshipbetweenMacroeconomicVariablesandGold Prices.

Research Methodology

Stationary Test

To examine the Stationary test for an individual time series data is considered as the firststepbeforeothertestsuchasco-integrationandGrangercausalityinthetimesseriesanalysis. If in the times series analysis, the mean and the variance of the series are time invariant then the series is said to be stationary. On the other hand, the situation between the variables, might lead to the problem of spurious regression by a non-stationary process in the case if the series are not tested for stationary. Therefore, to test for the order of integration, stationary (unit root) test should be carried out. There are several tests which are available for testing the presence of unit root. The most widely used test among all are Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) unit root test (Dickey and Fuller, 1979) and Philips Perron (PP) test (Philips and Perron, 1988) are most widely used.

Granger Causality

How the latest value of another variable is being explained by the one variable is examined by the standard Granger causality test (Granger, 1988).It says that if a variable Y is Granger caused by another variable X, then the variable X can be used in predicting the values of Y variable and vice-versa. The null hypothesis (H0) tested in this case was that the X variable did not Granger cause variable Y and variable Y did not Granger cause variable X. If a variable Granger causes another variable, it means that the lagged value of one variable helps in forecasting the value of another variable and vice-versa.

Research Question

1. Does there lies any impact on gold prices due to the macroeconomic variables?


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2. Does any cause and effect relationship exist among macroeconomic variables and gold prices?

Type of Data & Data Source

Secondary data is being used for the analysis of the study. The monthly values of various macroeconomic variables such as Crude Oil Prices, Gross Domestic Product atMarketPrice(GDP),Inflationrate,BSESensex,USDollarrateandGoldPricewerecollected from the database provided by RBI, BSE database and World Gold Council database.

Period of the study

Theperiod taken for the study is for twenty-fiveyears ranging from theperiodJanuary 1991 to September 2015 on monthly basis.

Sample design

The research consists of monthly data encircling the closing stock price indices of BSESensex,monthlyUSdollarrateintermsofrupee,crudeoilprices,inflationrateandGDP at market price as different macroeconomic variables and monthly Gold price. After appropriatefittingthedatathereare295observations.EViews9softwareisbeingusedforthe execution of econometric analysis.

Tools Used

For the analysis of the present study unit root test was applied using Augmented Dickey Fuller (ADF) and PP both at levels and Ist differences to check the data stationary. Further to study the impact of macroeconomic variables taken for the study on Gold Price Regression analysis and Granger Causality test were used.

HyPOTHESIS

Hypothesis -1

H0:Goldprice,crudeoil,BSESensex,inflationrate,GDPandUSDollararenotstationary.


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H1:Goldprice,crudeoil,BSESensex,inflationrate,GDPandUSDollararestationary.

Hypothesis 2

H0 : Crudeoil,BSESensex,Inflationrate,GDPandUSDollardonotGrangerCauseGoldprice.

H1 : Crudeoil,BSESensex,Inflationrate,GDPandUSDollardoGrangerCauseGoldprice.

Result and Interpretation

Stationary of variables

In regression analysis, a stationary time series is considered significant becauseinnon-stationarytimeseriesitisdifficulttoidentifytheusefulinformation.Therefore,ifthe time series data is non-stationary then the regression result will be spurious. But, if the time series data is looked upon then it will be found that most of the economic time series data is non-stationary in practice. So, such non-stationary time series data is to be made stationaryafter takingfirstorseconddifferenceso that someuseful informationcanbeidentified.Ifthemeanandvarianceofthetimeseriesdataareconstantthenthedataissaidto be stationary. To test the stationary of the variables unit root test is used. The test used to check the unit root test are Dicky –Fuller unit root test (DF), Augmented Dicky- Fuller unit root test (ADF) and the Phillips-Perron unit root test (PP). Table 1 presents Augmented Dickey- Fuller (ADF) tests at level and table 2 presents Augmented Dickey- Fuller (ADF) testsatfirstdifference.Boththetableshowsthetestatinterceptaswellasatinterceptandtrend.

The testing procedure for the ADF test is the same as for the Dickey-Fuller test but it is applied to the model

Δyt = α + βt + γyt-1 +δΔyt-1 +…….+δp-1Δyt-p+1 + εt

Where α {\displaystyle \alpha } is a constant, β{\displaystyle\beta}thecoefficienton a time trend and {\displaystyle p}ρ the lag order of the autoregressive process.


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Table 1, Table 1a: Augmented Dickey- Fuller (ADF) tests at level

Critical Value Of Augmented Dickey Fuller Test (Level 0)Macro-Economic

VariablesIntercept

Lag t-statistics Prob. Critical Value1% 5% 10%

BSE SENSEX 0 0.27998 0.9769 -3.45229 -2.87109 -2.57193

Crude oil 0 -1.75046 0.4048 -3.45229 -2.87109 -2.57193GDP 1 -2.12713 0.2342 -3.45236 -2.87112 -2.57195

Gold Price 0 0.385527 0.9821 -3.45229 -2.87109 -2.57193Inflation 1 -4.54946 0.0002 -3.45236 -2.87112 -2.57195

US Dollar 1 -1.12128 0.7081 -3.45236 -2.87112 -2.57195

Table 1, Table 1b: Augmented Dickey- Fuller (ADF) tests at level

Critical Value Of Augmented Dickey Fuller Test (Level 0)Macro-Economic

VariablesIntercept and trend


BSE SENSEX 0 -1.69010 0.7535 -3.98936 -3.42508 -3.13564

Crude oil 0 -1.94663 0.6273 -3.98936 -3.42508 -3.13564GDP 1 -6.94893 0.0000 -3.98947 -3.42513 -3.13567

Gold Price 0 -1.35094 0.8729 -3.98936 -3.42508 -3.13564Inflation 1 -4.96814 0.0003 -3.98947 -3.42513 -3.13567

US Dollar 1 -2.24194 0.4641 -3.98947 -3.42513 -3.13567

Table 2, Table 2a: Augmented Dickey- Fuller (ADF) tests at first difference

Critical Value of Augmented Dickey Fuller Test (first difference)Macro-Economic

VariablesIntercept

Lag t-statistics Prob. Critical value1% 5% 10%

BSE SENSEX 0 -16.8332 0.0000 -3.45236 -2.87112 -2.57195

Crude oil 0 -17.8350 0.0000 -3.45236 -2.87112 -2.57195GDP 0 -29.5944 0.0000 -3.45236 -2.87112 -2.57195


US Dollar 0 -13.6148 0.000 -3.45236 -2.87112 -2.57195


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Table 2, Table 2b: Augmented Dickey- Fuller (ADF) tests at first difference

Critical Value Of Augmented Dickey Fuller Test (first difference)Macro-Economic

VariablesIntercept and trend


BSE SENSEX 0 -16.8834 0.000 -3.98947 -3.42513 -3.13567

Crude oil 0 -17.8128 0.000 -3.98947 -3.42513 -3.13567GDP 0 -29.5530 0.000 -3.98947 -3.42513 -3.13567


US Dollar 0 -13.5911 0.000 -3.98947 -3.42513 -3.13567

The result shows that all the time series data regarding macroeconomic variables BSE Sensex, Crude oil, GDP, Inflation rate, US Dollar rate and Gold Price are notstationaryat the levelbutstationaryafter thefirstdifference. Itcanbeprovedwith thehelp of the critical value, t-statistics and probability values. If we look at table 1a which represent intercept at level, it can be seen that all the critical values at 1%, 5% and 10% are more than the t-statistics which means that we cannot reject null hypothesis. Hence, the time series data is not stationary. It has a unit root. It can also be proved by the p value. In table 1a all the p- values are more than 0.05 which means that we cannot reject null hypothesis rather we accept null hypothesis. So, the time series data has a unit root and it is not stationary. Similarly, table 1b also proves the same and shows that the data is not stationary.Now,lookattable2whichrepresenttimeseriesdataatfirstdifference.Intable2 all the critical values are less than the t- statistics which proves that the data is stationary. Secondly, all the p values in table 2 is 0 , representing that p value is less than 5% so we havetorejectnullhypothesis.Itshowsthatthetimeseriesdataatthefirstdifferencedoesnot have unit root and the data is stationary, accepting the alternative (H1) hypothesis.

Toexplain the impulse response function themethodfirstdifferencedata seriesshould be used as it has two advantages. The first advantage is that thismethod doesnot incorporate actual changebut consider increase anddecrease trends.Since thefirstdifference data series is related to increase and decrease between two consecutives dates the trend nature whether strengthening or weakening can be measured through impulse response function. On the other hand, it gathers more information related to the shock of goldprices.Wherethefirstdatafocusesonchangeintheprevioustwodaysandtheleveldata represents the change I one day in the impulse response function.


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Regression Analysis

The details of the regression analysis are being shown in table 3 and table 4.

Table 3

Variables Coefficient Std. Error t- Statistic Prob.C(constant) -9656.640 1839.093 -5.250762 0.0000

BSE 0.531880 0.058613 9.074427 0.0000Crude Oil 0.024353 0.005749 4.235723 0.0000

GDP 0.187667 0.028522 6.579685 0.0000Inflation 11172.79 18280.79 0.611177 0.5416

USD 171.2435 41.13268 4.163199 0.0000

Table 4

R-Squared 0.862046 Mean dependent var 10051.49Adjusted R-Squared 0.859676 S.D dependent var 8528.451

S.E of regression 3194.745 Akaike info criterion 18.99640Sum squared resid 2.97E +09 Schwarz criterion 19.07102

Log likelihood -2814.965 Hannan – Quinn criter 19.02627F- statistics 363.6807 Durbin – Watson stat 0.282161

Prob ( F statistic ) 0.00000

The above-mentioned analysis on regressions shows that the R – Square of the time series data is 86.2 % which shows that all the macroeconomic variables taken for the study aregoodfitted.Italsoshowsthehighreliabilityofallthemacroeconomicvariablestakenfor the study. The above results also indicate that one of the macro economic variables taken forthestudyi.e.Inflationratehaslessimpactonthebehaviourofgoldpricingbecauseitsp value is more than 5%. Whereas, other macroeconomic independent variables such as GDP,Crudeoilpricing,USDollarrateandBSESensexstronglyinfluencethedependentvariables and largely effect the prices of gold. It can also be analyzed with the help of the probability value of F statistics. The probability value of F statistics is also 0.000 which is lessthan5%.Italsoreflectsthatallthemacroeconomicvariablestakenforthestudyjointlyaffect the prices of gold either positively or negatively.


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Granger Causality Test

The result of the Granger Causality test is shown in the table 5. The granger causality test concludes that the null hypothesis in cases of gold does not granger cause crude oil, and crude oil does not granger cause gold are accepted at lag 2 as the above mentioned probability value is more than 5% . So according to rules if the p – value is more than 0.05 the null hypothesis is accepted and if the p- value is less than 0.05 the null hypothesis is rejected. It states that bidirectional causality is there between gold prices and crude oil prices.

Table 5

Null Hypothesis Lags Observa-tions

F Statistics Prob. Accept/ Reject of

alternative hypothesis

BSE does not Granger Cause Crude oil

2 295 0.05416 0.9473 Rejected

Crude oil does not Granger cause BSE

2 295 0.37395 0.6883 Rejected

GDP does not Granger cause crude oil

2 295 0.11291 0.8933 Rejected

Crude oil does not Granger cause GDP

2 295 1.01726 0.3629 Rejected

Gold Price does not Granger cause crude oil

2 295 0.07512 0.9277 Rejected

Crude oil does not Granger cause Gold Price

2 295 0.15165 0.8594 Rejected

InflationdoesnotGrangercauseCrude oil

2 295 0.30973 0.7339 Rejected

Crude oil does not Granger cause Inflation

2 295 0.58929 0.5554 Rejected

USD does not Granger cause crude oil

2 295 2.20256 0.1124 Rejected

Crude oil does not Granger cause USD

2 295 0.12675 0.8810 Rejected

GDP does not Granger cause BSE 2 295 2.52935 0.0815 Rejected

BSE does not Granger cause GDP 2 295 26.4545 3E-11 Accepted

Gold Price does not Granger cause BSE

2 295 2.62423 0.0742 Rejected


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BSE does not Granger cause Gold Price

2 295 2.94350 0.0543 Rejected

InflationdoesnotGrangercauseBSE

2 295 5.76093 0.0035 Accepted

BSE does not Granger Cause Inflation

2 295 5.54130 0.0043 Accepted

USD does not Granger cause BSE 2 295 3.22519 0.0412 Accepted

BSE does not Granger cause USD 2 295 9.41433 0.0001 Accepted

Gold Price does not Granger cause GDP

2 295 20.2572 6E-09 Accepted

GDP does not Granger cause Gold Price

2 295 1.08031 0.3409 Rejected

InflationdoesnotGrangercauseGDP

2 295 0.92026 0.3996 Rejected

GDP does not Granger cause Inflation

2 295 3.22601 0.0411 Accepted

USD does not Granger cause GDP 2 295 5.65744 0.0039 Accepted

GDP does not Granger cause USD 2 295 2.70281 0.0687 Rejected

InflationdoesnotGrangercauseGold Price

2 295 0.15148 0.8595 Rejected

Gold Price does not Granger cause Inflation

2 295 2.52233 0.0820 Rejected

USD does not Granger cause Gold Price

2 295 1.12461 0.3262 Rejected

Gold Price does not Granger cause USD

2 295 3.88812 0.0216 Accepted

USD does not Granger cause Inflation

2 295 10.4334 4E-05 Accepted

InflationdoesnotGrangercauseUSD

2 295 3.74511 0.0248 Accepted

With the second macroeconomic variable BSE Sensex, the null hypothesis is also accepted rejecting an alternative hypothesis. With the third variable GDP, gold price does not cause granger causality with GDP reject the null hypothesis accepting the alternative hypothesis and GDP does not cause granger causality with gold price accept the null hypothesisrejectingthealternativehypothesis.Fourthly,inflationdoesnotcausegrangercausality with gold price also accept the null hypothesis rejecting the alternative hypothesis and the gold price does not cause granger causalitywith inflation also shows the sameresult. Finally, the result concludes that the null hypothesis in case of gold does not cause


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granger cause US Dollar is rejected accepting the alternative hypothesis and US Dollar does not cause granger cause with gold price accept the null hypothesis rejecting the alternative hypothesis.

Conclusion

The present research work shows that primarily selected six macroeconomic variables of time series data are non-stationary if taken at level but they shows the stationary resultiftheyaretakenatfirstdifference.

As per regression analysis, all the macro economic variables: GDP, US Dollar, CrudeOilPrices,BSESensexandInflationpositivelydeterminesthegoldprice.Itindicatesthat as there is the rise in GDP, the disposable income of people increases and they invest moreingold.Ontheotherhand,inflationistheonlyvariablewhichshowstheinsignificantresults.Incaseofinflationduetoriseinthepricesofthecommodities,peopleinvestingold so that with the increase in the gold prices in future their real income also increases in future. Rise in BSE Sensex index shows the higher flow of capital to sharemarketin comparison to gold market indicating the potential of Indian companies leaving more accepted capital appreciation.Whereas, exchange rate increasefixes gold prices higherindicating strength of dollar. Lastly, increase in the crude oil prices indicates that the economy is doing well so people invest in gold.

As per granger causality analysis, the mix result has been found between the gold price and all the selected macro-economic variables.

References

[1] Amoateng,KofiAandKargar,Jovad,(2004),”OilandCurrencyFactorsinMiddleEast Equity Returns”. Managerial Finance, Vol 30 (3), 2004, 3-16

[2] Ariovich, G (1983), The Impact of Political Tension on the Price of Gold, Journal for Studies in Economics and Econometrics, Vol 16 pp 17-37

[3] Asharaf Laidi (2005) Gold, Oil and Dollar Repercussions, Futures, December, page 36-38.

[4] Baker, S.A, and van Tassel, R. C (1985), Forecasting the Price of Gold: A Fundamentalist Approach, Atlantic Economic Journal, Vol 13, pp 43-51

[5] Basher, Syed A and Sadorsky (2006), Perry, “Oil Price Risk and Emerging Stock


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Markets:” Global Finance Journal, Vol 17 (2), 224-XXX

[6] Bhunia, A, Cointegration and Causal Relationship among Crude Price, Domestic Gold Price and Financial Variables- An Evidence of BSE and NSE, J Contemp Issues in Bus. Res/ 2013. 2 (1). 1-10

[7] Bhunia A and Mudhuti, S The impact of domestic gold price on stock price indices- An empirical study of Indian stock exchanges, Universal Journal of Marketing and Business Research/ 2013, 2 (2), 035-043

[8] Chappell, D and Dowd, K. (1997), A Simple Model of the Gold Standard, Journal of Money, Credit and Banking Vol 29, pp 94-105

[9] Diba, B and Grossman, H (1984), Rational Bubbles in the Price of Gold, NBER Woking Paper: 1300. Cambridge, MA, National Bureau of Economic Research

[10] Dickey DA, Fuller WA Likelihood Ratio Statistics for Auto Regressive Time Series with a Unit Root, Econometrica/1981, 49, 1057-1072.

[11] Dooley,MP,Isard,P,andTaylor,M.P,(1995),ExchangeRates,CountryspecificShocks and Gold Applied Financial Economics Vol 5 pp 121-129

[12] Flood, R, & Marion, N (2006) Stock Prices, Output and the Monetary Regime Open economies review, 17(2), 147-173

[13] Granger, CW, Investigating Causal Relation by Econometric Models and Cross Spectral Methods, Econometrica ? 1969, 37,424-438

[14] Hondroyiannis, George and Papapetrou, Evangelia, (2001), “Macroeconomic InfluencesontheStockMarket.”JournalofEconomicsandFinance,Vol25(1),2001, 33-50

[15] Ismail Yahya, Shabri (2009), Forecasting Gold Prices using Multiple Linear Regression Method, American Journal of Applied Sciences 6(8), 1509-1514

[16] Janabo, Mazin A. M. Hatemi. J. Abdul Nasser, Irandoust, Manucheh (2010), International Review of Financial Analysis, Jan 2010, Vol 19, Issue 1, p 47-54

[17] Kannan, R and Dhal S (2008), Indian Demand for Gold: Some Issues of Economic Development and Macroeconomic Policy. Indian Journal of Economic and Business, 5 (1)

[18] Koutsoyiannis. A (1983), A short Run Pricing Model for a Speculative Asset, Tested with Data from the Gold Bullion Market , Applied Economics, Vol pp 563-581

[19] Laughlin, J, Laurence, Gold and Prices since (1997), Quarterly Journal of


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Economics, Apr 97, Vol 1 Issue3, pp 319-355.

[20] Larry A Sjaastad, Fabio Scacciavillani (1996). “The Price of Gold and the Exchange Rates”. Journal of International Money and Finance, Dec 1996: reprinted in Meher Manzur (ed), Exchange Rates, Interst Rates and Commodity Prices, Edward Elgar, 2002 and in Moonjoong Tcha (ed), Gold and the Modern World Economy, Rouledge 2003.

[21] Max Gillman, Anton Nakov, (2004), Monetary Causality of Oil and Gold Prices, Central European University Working Paper 162 K. S. Sujit and B. Rajesh Kumar

[22] Mu- Lan Wang, Ching Ping Wang Tzu- Ying Huang, (2010), Relationships among Oil Price, Gold Price, Exchange Rate and International Stock Markets, International Research Journal of Finance and Economics, Issue 47 Euro Journals Publications

[23] Moore, Geoffrey h (1990), “Gold Prices and a Leading Index of Inflation”,Challenge, Vol 33 (4) 1990, 52-57.

[24] Phillips PCB, Perron P, Testing for Unit Root in Time Series Regression, Biometrika / 1988, 75, 335-86

[25] Pravit Khaemusunun (2009), Forecasting Thai Gold Prices, http:// www.wbiconpro.com/3- Pravit-pdf

[26] Razin,AandRosefielde,S(2011),CurrencyandFinancialCrisesofthe1990sand2000s. In R. Parker and R. Whaples (eds) Handbook of Major Events in Economic History. New York: Routledge

[27] Samanta, S. K and Zadeh, A. H. M, Co – Movements of Oil, Gold, the US Dollar, and Stocks, Modern Economy / 2012, 3, 13-21.

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http://www.wbiconpro.com/3-

http://www.wbiconpro.com/3-

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Invasion of Privacy by Media*

Manmeet Dhillon 1 Gurpreet Kaur 2

Abstract

“The intensity and complexity of life...have rendered necessary some retreat from the world, and man, under the refining influence of culture has become more sensitive to publicity, so that solitude and privacy have become more essential to the individual; but modern enterprise and invention have, through invasions upon his privacy, subjected him to mental pain and distress, far greater than could be inflicted by mere bodily injury.”

- Warren and Brandeis (The Right to Privacy)

Privacy being of so much importance to an individual’s life is not valued and is often violated. The purpose of this paper is to delineate the emerging privacy concerns in India particularly in relation to media that whether media is functioning within its arena of constitutional freedom of speech and expression properly, are the internal norms to regulate media virtually followed, should there be outer checks on media freedom or is it against the democratic principle of freedom of speech and expression.

Introduction

“Civilization is the progress toward a society of privacy. The savage’s whole

* Vivekananda Institute of Professional Studies, Law School’s Lex Questor organised an Intra Research Paper Writing Competition 2017 on the Theme Media, Privacy and Law. This article was adjudged as Best Research Paper in the Competition.

1 Manmeet Dhillon, Student, Vivekananda Institute of Professional Studies, New Delhi Email: [email protected] Gurpreet Kaur, Student, Vivekananda Institute of Professional Studies, New Delhi Email: [email protected]




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existence is public, ruled by the laws of his tribe. Civilization is the process of setting man free from men.”

According to Black’s Law Dictionary “right to be let alone; the right of a person to be free from any unwarranted publicity; the right to live without any unwarranted interference by the public in matters with which the public is not necessarily concerned”. In other words it is the freedom from intrusion by the public, especially as a right. It includes not just information privacy but privacy of the body, privacy of personal space and place, and freedom from eavesdropping, surveillance and spying.

Beingpartofasocietyoftenoverridesthefactthatweareindividualsfirst.Eachindividual needs his/her private space for whichever activity (assuming here that it shall be legal). Clinton Rossiter has said that privacy is a special kind of independence which can be understood as an attempt to secure autonomy in at least a few personal and spiritual concerns. This autonomy is the most special thing that the person can enjoy. He is truly a free man there. This is not a right against the state, but against the world. Privacy is vital to the mental, spiritual and physical wellbeing of all individuals and also to the morality and personality of the individual.

The Right to privacy is the product of an increasingly individualistic society and it recognizes an individual’s right to be let alone and to have his personal space inviolate.

Evolution of right to privacy in India

The right to privacy has been recognized in relatively recent times but its roots may be traced back from the natural rights which are basic, inherent and inalienable rights. The right to privacy in India has derived itself from essentially two sources: the common law of torts and the constitutional law. India, at present, does not have an independent statute protecting privacy but judicial activism has brought the right to privacy within the realm of fundamental rights by interpreting Article 21 and several other provisions of the constitution read with the Directive Principles of State Policy. The Supreme Court has asserted that in order to treat a right as a fundamental right, it is not necessary that it should be expressly stated in the constitution as a Fundamental Right. Political, social, and economic changes in the country entail the recognition of new rights. The law in its eternal youth grows to meet the demands of society. Right to privacy is one such right which has come to its existence after widening up the dimensions of Article 21. Article 21 of the Constitution of India states that “No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law”. After reading the Article 21, it has been

Invasion of Privacy by Media

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interpreted that the term ‘life’ includes all those aspects of life which go to make a man’s life meaningful, complete and worth living.

In earlier times, the law would give protection only from physical dangers such as trespass from which the Right to Property emerged to secure his house and cattle. This was considered to be the Right to Life. As the ever changing common law grew to accommodate the problems faced by the people, it was realized that not only was physical security required, but also security of the spiritual self as well as of his feelings, intellect was required.

The Court has implied the right of privacy from Article 21 by interpreting it in conformity with Article 12 of the Universal Declaration on Human Rights and Article 17 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966.

ThefirsttimethistopicwaseverraisedwasinthecaseofKharakSinghv.Stateof UP where it was held by the Apex Court that the right to privacy is a part of right to protection of life and personal liberty.

In Govind v. State of Madhya Pradesh, Mathew, J. accepted the right to privacy as an emanation from Articles 19(a), (d) and 21, but right to privacy is not absolute right. “Assuming that the fundamental rights explicitly guaranteed to a citizen have penumbral zones and that the right to privacy is itself a fundamental right, the fundamental right must be subject to restriction on the basis of compelling public interest”.

In Smt. Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India & Anr. , in this case SC 7 Judge Bench said ‘personal liberty’ in article 21 covers a variety of rights & some have status of fundamental rights and given additional protection u/a 19. The law and procedure authorizing interference with personal liberty and right of privacy must also be right just and fair and not arbitrary, fanciful or oppressive.

In Naz Foundation Case, Delhi HC gave the landmark decision on consensual homo-sexuality. In this case S. 377 IPC and Articles 14, 19 & 21 were examined. Right to privacy held to protect a “private space in which man may become and remain himself”. It was said individuals need a place of sanctuary where they can be free from societal control- where individuals can drop the mask, desist for a while from projecting on the world the imagetheywanttobeacceptedasthemselves,animagethatmayreflectthevaluesoftheirpeers rather than the realities of their nature.

Further, in R. Rajagopal Vs. State of Tamil Nadu also the Right to Privacy was

Manmeet Dhillon and Gurpreet Kaur

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held to be implicit in Article 21. “It is the right to be left alone”.

The right to privacy, as covered by the law, mostly covers the right to privacy as against interference by the government and as against unwanted publication of personal information.Thus,iteithercomesintoconflictwiththedutiesofthegovernmentoftheday, or with the freedom of the press.

Right to privacy vs right to information and freedom of press

The Indian law has made some exceptions to the rule of privacy in public interest, especially, subsequent to the enactment of the Right to Information Act, 2005 (RTI). This is becauseaccesstoinformationissometimesnecessarytofulfilneedsandtocompensateforchallenges in society. Right to information derives its genesis from the Indian Constitution and the relevant article which is fundamental in essence is Article 19(1) (a), the right to speech and expression although having certain restrictions. The news media provides a significantamountoftheinformationwhichthepublicusesregularlyastheyneedtoknowwhat occurs in their governments, states, and communities. The First Amendment grants the press the right to provide information to the public without undue interference from the government, but also comes with provisions that prevent the press from abusing free speech and the rights of the public. The problem with free speech, a free press, and a person’s right to be informed is that it can occasionally infringe upon another person’s right to privacy.

The public’s right to information does not include the right to intimate or embarrassing private details about their neighbors or other private citizens. The RTI Act, makes an exception exempting disclosure of any personal information which is not connected to any public activity or of public interest or which could cause an unwarranted invasion of privacy of an individual. The public does not need to know about a person’s private circumstances unless the information can be proven to be of great public interest; this is where the situation becomes troubling. The news media has a right and obligation to provide the information the public requires and not to bring the public sensational stories to hold the public’s interest.

“One of the objects of a newspaper is to understand the popular feeling and give expression to it, another is to arouse among the people certain desirable sentiments, and the third is the fearlessness to expose popular defects.”

- Mahatma Gandhi


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Media is not just the fourth pillar but also the backbone of any democratic society since it is powerful enough to mould a society, to develop or even destruct it. But, the social motive behind it is being lost in the present times. There are increasing incidences of infraction of privacy of individuals and derailment from the true purpose of the media in society.

Invasion of privacy by media

Invasion of privacy is a legal term that is used to describe a circumstance where an individual or organization knowingly intrudes upon a person. Media has the potential to breach of these zones of privacy in the process of newsgathering and by publication and it actually does violate privacy in day-to-day reporting, like overlooking the issue of privacy tosatisfymorbidcuriositywhichisnotjustifiedinanymanner.

An invasion of privacy is considered to be a ‘tort’. The four main types of invasion of privacy claims are:

1. Intrusion of Solitude It includes-

• Trespass:Newsgatheringinaprivatespacewithoutvalidconsent

• Secret Surveillance: Using bugging equipment, hidden cameras, otherelectronic aids

• Misrepresentation: Invalid or exceeded consent (often in context ofundercover reporting)

2. Appropriation of Name or Likeness

It is unauthorized use of a person’s name, photograph, likeness, voice or endorsement to promote the sale of a commercial product or service.

3. Public Disclosure of Private Facts

Examples could include publishing detailed information about a person’s:

• Sexualconduct

• Medical/mentalcondition


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• Addictionrecovery

• Educationalrecords

4. False Light

Itisunflattering,highlyoffensiveportrayal-inwordsorpictures-ofapersonassomething that he or she is not.

Media violates privacy in day-to-day reporting, like overlooking the issue of privacy to satisfy morbid curiosity. Nowadays we see a shift in the purposes attributed to the media; there is a rat-race for enhanced readership and high TRP ratings. The race forhighratingshas reflectedasamajor setback in thequalityofmedia itself.Even innews channels, the TRP factor is given foremost importance and sensationalism being the key words leads to information overkill. Media has been time and again criticized for sensationalism, exaggeration of news, reporting false and fabricated news and yellow journalism. The result is that media has ignored public interest in the struggle to satisfy the viewer/ reader interest.

• Yellow journalism: An outrageous example of sensationalism of news was the26/11issuewherethenationaltragedywasturnedintobaitforprofitusing emotional trivia by the various competing channels. They try to create hype out of factual news and attract viewers using the private life of celebrities and other citizens through scrupulous efforts.

In 2010, the media reported that Sunanda Pushkar, a close friend of the Minister ofStateforExternalAffairs,ShashiTharoor,holdsasignificantholdingintheIPLKochiteam. The media exposure led to the exit of Shashi Tharoor from the government. While the media’s questioning of Pushkar’s holdings was legitimate, the media’s reporting on her past relationships and how she dressed had no bearing on public interest or accountability.

• Trial by media: The power of media in reporting of trials adversely affects the ideal of fair trial and tarnishing the image of parties to the case. Any opprobrious judgment made by the media either with malice or ignorance, with regard to the cases can sway public opinion. It has been rightly said that “The media’s the most powerful entity on earth. They have the power to make the innocent guilty and to make the guilty innocent, and that’s power. Because they control the minds of the masses.”


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The PCI norms lay down the guidelines for reporting cases. The PCI warns journalists not to give excessive publicity to victims, witnesses, suspects and accused as that amounts to invasion of privacy.

In the Bofors pay-off case the High Court of Delhi, observed that, “The fairness of trial is of paramount importance. Publications during the pre-trial stage by the media could affect the rights of the accused. An evaluation of the accused’s character is likely to affect or prejudice a fair trial.

If the suspect’s pictures are shown in the media, identification parades of theaccused conducted under Code of Civil Procedure would be prejudiced. Under Contempt of Court Act, publications that interfere with the administration of justice amount to contempt. Further, the principles of natural justice emphasise fair trial and the presumption of innocence until proven guilty. The rights of an accused are protected under Article 21 of the Constitution, which guarantees the right to fair trial. This protects the accused from the over-zealous media glare which can prejudice the case. The Court, commented, “Presumption of innocence of an accused is a legal presumption and should not be destroyed at the very threshold through the process of media trial and that too when the investigation is pending.”

Theidentificationofwitnessesmayendangerthelivesofwitnessesandforcethemto turn hostile. Zaheera Sheikh, who was a key witness in the Gujarat Best Bakery case, was a victim of excessive media coverage and sympathy. Her turning hostile invited equal amount of media speculation and wrath. Her excessive media exposure possibly endangered her life. Instead, of focusing on the lack of a witness protection program in the country, themedia focusedon the twists and turnsof the case and the19yearold’s conflictingstatements.

• False and fabricated news- Most of the Sting Operations carried out by the media have been found to be false and fabricated.

On 30 August, 2007 Live India, a news channel conducted a sting operation on a Delhi government school teacher forcing a girl student into prostitution. Subsequent to the media exposé, the teacher Uma Khurana was attacked by a mob and was suspended by the Directorate of Education, Government of Delhi. Later investigation and reports by the media exposed that there was no truth to the sting operation. The girl student who was allegedly being forced into prostitution was a journalist. The sting operation was a stage managed operation. The police found no evidence against the teacher to support allegations


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made by the sting operation of child prostitution. In this case, the High Court of Delhi charged the journalist with impersonation, criminal conspiracy and creating false evidence. The Ministry of Information and Broadcasting sent a show because notice to TV-Live India, alleging the telecast of the sting operation by channel was “defamatory, deliberate, containing false and suggestive innuendos and half-truths.” Section 5 of the Cable Television Networks (Regulation) Act, 1995 and the Cable Television Network Rules, stipulates that no such programme can be transmitted or retransmitted on any cable service.

The court observed that false and fabricated sting operations violate a person’s right to privacy. It further, observed, “Giving inducement to a person to commit an offence, which he is otherwise not likely and inclined to commit, so as to make the same part of the sting operation is deplorable and must be deprecated by all concerned including the media.” Sting Operations should be used to gather conclusive evidence of criminality and should not edit/alter visuals to misrepresent truth. The court proposed a set of guidelines to be followed by news channels and electronic media in carrying out sting operations. The guidelines mandate that, in addition, to ensuring accuracy, the operation should not violateaperson’srighttoprivacy,“unlessthereisanidentifiablelargepublicinterest”forbroadcastingorpublishingthematerial.However,thecourtfailedtodefinewhatconstitutes‘larger public interest’.

In addition, to the Cable Television Networks Act and the PCI norms, the News Broadcasting Standard Authority (NBSA) was set up in 2008 as a self-regulatory body by News Broadcasters Association. The primary objective of the NBSA is to receive complaints on broadcasts. The NBSA has drafted a Code of Ethics and Broadcasting Standards governing broadcasters and television journalists. The Code of Ethics provides guiding principles relating to privacy and sting operations that broadcasters should follow.

With respect to privacy, the Code directs channels not to intrude into the private lives of individuals unless there is a “clearly established larger and identifiable publicinterest for such a broadcast.” Any information on private lives of persons should be “warranted in public interest.”

• Wire-tapping and publication of private conversations: The PCI norms provide that the press should not tape-record conversations without the person’s express consent or knowledge, except where it is necessary to protect a journalist in a legal action or for “other compelling reason.” What constitutes a compelling reason is left to the discretion of the journalist.


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In PUCL v. UOI, which is popularly known as the wire-tapping case, the question before the court was whether wire-tapping was an infringement of a citizen’s right to privacy. The court held that an infringement on the right to privacy would depend on the facts and circumstances of a case. It observed that, “telephone conversation is an important facet of a man’s private life. Right to privacy would certainly include telephone-conversation intheprivacyofone’shomeoroffice.Telephone-tappingwould,thus,infractArticle21ofthe Constitution of India unless it is permitted under the procedure established by law.” It further observed that the right to privacy also derives from Article 19 for “when a person is talking on telephone, he is exercising his right to freedom of speech and expression.”

InrelationtoRadiaTapesCase,RatanTatafiledawritpetitionbeforetheSupremeCourt of India alleging that the unauthorised publication of his private conversations with NiraRadiawasinviolationofhisrighttoprivacy.Thewrit,filedbytheindustrialist,didnot challenge the action of the Directorate-General of Income Tax to record the private conversations for the purpose of investigations. Instead, it was challenging the publication of the private conversations that took place between the industrialist and Nira Radia by the media. Whether the publication of those private conversations was in the interest of the public has been widely debated. What the Tata episode brought into focus was the need for a law protecting the right to privacy in India.

At present, the media is governed by disparate norms outlined by self-governing media bodies, the Press Council of India (PCI), the Cable Television Networks (Regulation) Act, 1995 and the Code of Ethics drafted by the News Broadcasting Standard Authority (NBSA) . There are around 75 Acts and Rules that are applicable to Media in India but the situation still doesn’t seem to have changed much.

Conclusion

The right to privacy in India that has primarily evolved through judicial intervention has failed to acquire the status of an absolute right. The prevalent right to privacy is easily compromised for other competing rights of ‘public good’, ‘public interest’ and ‘State security’, much of what constitutes public interest or what is private is left to the discretion of the media. Media needs to question itself prior to printing on how the information is of public interest. Of course, as a journalist one doesn’t want to lose out on a good story, but there needs to be gate keeping, which is mostly absent in most of the media today.

In the environment of scattered statutory provisions for privacy protection, limitations of law declared by the judiciary on privacy and the modern days threat to


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privacy, prepare a solid ground for the immediate need to have an overhauling of the system privacy protection in India. While insinuations made by the media on factual basis must be given protection, the wrongful wielding of pen and power should be condemn.


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GUIDELINES FOR SUBMISSION OF RESEARCH PAPERS TO VJR

VJR offers an opportunity to publish well-researched and academically rigorous papers. The contributions should be unpublished and original. It should display an understanding of the context, purpose, methodology, and logical cohesion in the derivation of the conclusions.

After receiving manuscripts, the author(s) is acknowledged and a reference number is assigned. VJR does not accept manuscripts that are currently under consideration by other journals. The author(s) is asked to submit a copyright declaration form to VJR before papers undergo review. Each manuscript is checked using plagiarism software before sending it to reviewers. All manuscripts are reviewed anonymously by the editorial board and reviewers. First, they undergo a pre-review screening by the editorial board members for assessment of relevance and overall quality. The submissions which are found appropriate are then forwarded for blind review by subject experts. Since we follow a systematic and thorough process, the review may take three to four months. The author(s) may be asked to reviseandre-submitthemanuscriptbasedonreviewerscomment(s).Thefinalacceptanceof the paper is subject to the acceptance by the editorial board.

After the acceptance of the paper, following necessary corrections as per the reviewers’ comments and meeting the requirements of the journal’s style, the finalmanuscript will be sent for copyediting and proof reading. The author(s) is expected to cooperate in this copy editing and proof reading process.

Guidelines for Preparation of the Manuscript for Submission

1. A softcopy of the manuscript should be submitted in English to [email protected]. The manuscript should be in MS Word format, double-spaced with margins of 1 inch on all sides using Times New Roman Font in size 12.

2. It should be accompanied by a brief biography of all the authors and sent to editor.Every manuscript must include an abstract and four to six key words.

3. The full length paper should not exceed 8000 words. The abstract should be between 150-200 words and accompanied by up to six key words.

4. The manuscript should be accompanied by a cover page comprising title of the article,authors’nameandaffiliation,mailingaddress,phone,faxandemailaddress.

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In case of multiple authors, the cover page should also indicate the author to whom correspondence should be addressed. This information should be centered in the middle of the title page. The name of the author(s) should not appear anywhere else in the manuscript.

5. VJR requires that all submissions use Times New Roman font, 12 pt.

6. The citation style for all submissions to VJR should follow the APA style. However the papers related to Law should follow the Blue book Citation style.

7. Tables and charts presented in the text should be in black and white only. They must meet APA guidelines. Wherever necessary, the title should be indicated at the top and sources should be at the bottom. They should be serially numbered and this numbermatchwiththereferencestothemcitedinthetext.Thetables,figuresandchartsneednotappearinseparatedocumentfiles.Thetablesandfiguresmentionedin the text should appear near/after they are referred.

8. References should be given separately at the end of the paper and the entries should bearrangedalphabetically.Theword‘References’shouldappearasafirst-levelheading. The list should include only the works the author(s) has cited.

The following style should be strictly followed:

Single author journal article: Fox, S. (1984). Empowerment as a catalyst for change: an example for the food industry. Supply Chain Management,2(3), 29–33.

Multiple author journal article: Khan, M. R., Islam, A. F. M. M., & Das, D. (1886). A Factor Analytic Study on the Validity of a Union Commitment Scale. Journal of Applied Psychology, 12(1), 129-136.

Text Book: Simchi-Levi, D., Kaminsky, P., &Simchi-Levi, E. (2007). Designing and Managing the Supply Chain: Concepts, Strategies and Case Studies (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Edited book having one editor: Raine, A. (Ed.). (2006). Crime and schizophrenia: Causes and cures. New York: Nova Science.

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Edited book having more than one editor: Greenspan, E. L., & Rosenberg, M. (Eds.). (2009). Martin’s annual criminal code: Student edition 2010. Aurora, ON: Canada Law Book.

Chapter in edited book having one editor: Bessley,M.,&Wilson,P.(1984).PublicpolicyandsmallfirmsinBritain.InLevicki,C.(Ed.), Small Business Theory and Policy (pp. 111–126). London: Croom Helm.

Chapter in edited book having more than one editor: Young, M. E., & Wasserman, E. A. (2005). Theories of learning. In K. Lamberts, & R. L. Goldstone (Eds.), Handbook of cognition (pp. 161-182). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Conference presentation: Seibel, R., &Saffran, J. (2006, June). Tune or text: The effect of text on melody recognition. Paper presented at the annual meeting of XVth Biennial International Conference on Infant Studies, Kyoto, Japan.

Electronic sources should include the URL of the website at which they may be found, as shown: Sillick, T. J., &Schutte, N. S. (2006). Emotional intelligence and self-esteem mediate between perceived early parental love and adult happiness. E-Journal of Applied Psychology, 2(2), 38-48. Retrieved from http://ojs.lib.swin.edu.au/index.php/ejap

Unpublished dissertation/ paper: Uddin, K. (2000). A Study of Corporate Governance in a Developing Country: A Case of Bangladesh (Unpublished Dissertation). Lingnan University, Hong Kong.

Article in newspaper: Yunus, M. (2005, March 23). Micro Credit and Poverty Alleviation in Bangladesh. The Bangladesh Observer, p. 9.

Article in magazine: Holloway,M.(2005,August6).Whenextinctisn’t.ScientificAmerican,293,22-23.

Website of any institution: CentralBankofIndia(2005).IncomeRecognitionNormsDefinitionofNPA.RetrievedAugust 10, 2005, from http://www.centralbankofindia.co.in/ home/index1.htm, viewedon.....

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Citation styles:

One Work by One Author: (Walker, 2000)

One Work by Multiple Authors: (Walker and Wasserstein, 2000)

One Work by Three or More Authors: (Wasserstein et al., 1994)

Works with No Author: Cite the first few words of the reference list entry (usually the title) and the year, for example, (‘Study Finds’, 1982).

Two or More Works by Different authors in One Citation: (Balda, 1980; Kamil, 1988;

Pepperberg and Funk, 1990)

Two or More Works by the Same Author(s) in One Citation: (Edeline and Weinberger, 1991, 1993)

Two or More Works Published in the Same year by the Same Author(s): (Johnson, 1991a, 1991b, 1991c)

Other details

1. The author(s) must obtain permission from copyright holders, wherever copyrighted material has been used. Copyright of submitted papers rests with ‘VJR’ for its use and dissemination in any form or medium. ‘VJR’, however, permits the author(s) to use the submitted material in any other book or publication authored or co-authored by them.

2. The editor reserves the right to accept or reject an article for publication in VJR and is under no obligation to assign reasons for this decision.

3. The author(s) will receive a complimentary copy of ‘VJR’ in which their article(s) is published.

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For papers in the field of Law the authors must follow the Blue book Citation style as discussed below.

BOOKS:

Single Author:

G. AUSTIN, THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION, 57 (1972).

Two Authors:

MACLEOD, AND S. HYETT, THE EXTERNAL RELATIONS OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES, 173 (1996).

Three or More than three Authors:

D.J. HARRIS ET AL, LAW OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITY ON HUMAN RIGHTS, 69 (2nd edn., 1999).

Books with Multiple Editions:

RICHARD H. FALLON, JR. ET AL; HART AND WECHSLER’S THE FEDERAL COURTS AND THE FEDERAL SYSTEM 330 (6th ed. 2009).

ARTICLE:

Journal Article: A.M. Danner, Constructing a Hierarchy of Crimes in International Criminal Law Sentencing, 87(3) VIRGINIA LAW REVIEW 415, 422 (2001).

Articles in Print Version of Magazines: C. Banerjee, Gun Minus Fire, OUTLOOK 22, 24 (February 15, 2010)at 37.

Newspaper Article: N. Vyas, BJP not happy with JMM proposalTHE HINDU 14 ( Delhi Edition; August 8, 2016).

Articles in Online version of Magazines, Newspapers: P. Sahgal, Getting the Menu Right, INDIA TODAY (January 23, 2010), available at http://indiatoday . intoday.in/site/ Story/80632/ Column:%20 Off%20the% 20record/ Getting+the +menu+ right.html (Last visited on February 10, 2016).

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CASE LAW:

Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala, AIR 1973 SC 1461 (Supreme Court of India). • Thenamesofthepartiesshouldbeitalicizedwhenusedinthemaintext,butnot

when used in the footnote (except when used as a short form). • Theconnector(v.)shouldneverbeitalicized,andshouldalwaysbefollowedbya

period. • Thenameofthesecondpartyshouldbefollowedbyacomma,whichisnottobe

italicized. • Thefullcitationshouldbeprovidedinthefootnoteevenifthecasenamehasbeen

mentioned in full in the main body. • Ifthereareseveralparties,writeonlythenameofthefirstpartyanddonotuse

„and anr. • UseLtd.forLimited,Co.forCompany,Inc.forIncorporated,andsoon.• GovernmenttobewrittenasStateofXYZandUnionofIndia,asthecasemaybe.• Nofullstopstobeusedinabbreviations,eitherinthecasenameorinthecitation.

Use Re instead of In re. • ThedescriptionoftheCourtshouldbeinparentheses.• InthedescriptionoftheCourt,firstprovidetheCourtandthenjurisdiction.

SHORTENED FORM: KesavanandaBharati, AIR 1973 SC 1461. The Basic Structure Case, AIR 1973 SC 1461.

OTHER LEGISLATIVE MATERIALS: Sec. 10, Indian Contract Act, 1872. Constitution:

Art. 132(1), THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA, 1950. Research Submission to VJR is an ongoing process and papers received till April are considered for July issue while papers received till October are Considered for December issue.ThedecisionoftheEditorialCommitteeshallfinalinallcases.

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