Viva – List of Corrections – Cheng Chi Lap

1) Some key literature on multi-literacies and multi-modalities should be included in the literature review in order to show the relevance of this work to the study. Work by the New London Group, Kress, Luke, Freebody, Gee and Lemke should form part of this literature.

2) Any incorporation of new literature in the literature review should also be utilised in the findings and discussion chapters of the thesis – where appropriate.

3) A number of key methodological aspects of the study require further discussion and elaboration in the methodology chapter as follows;

a) Further discussion and elaboration to be given on the process of the generation of items for the questionnaire.

b) More discussion should be given on ensuring the validity of the questionnaire and any challenges in relation to this.

c) More discussion is needed on the pre and post-test. Explain and justify the design of the tests, especially the fact that the test items have been based on the game play. If the test items are based on the game play, it will be most likely that the test scores for the post-test will be higher than the pre-test.

d) Some more reflections on and discussion of the process of conducting the focus groups is needed. You should also make use of the wide range of literature available that discusses focus groups in order to inform your discussion.

e) It is suggested that you use ‘thematic analysis’ as an approach for analysing all of the qualitative data. The analysis of the focus group data and the presentation of this should be changed to reflect this.

4) Chapter 3 and chapter 4 should be reversed in order in the thesis.

5) All typos and grammar errors should be corrected – many of which are highlighted in the annotated text given by the internal examiner, however, the full thesis should be checked before submission.

• In this version, XXXXX denotes the original text of the dissertation; XXXXX is the newly added information; and XXXXX is text added after receiving the comments. All of them will be combined with the dissertation.1) Some key literature on multi-literacies and multi-modalities should be included in the literature review in order to show the relevance of this work to the study. Work by the New London Group, Kress, Luke, Freebody, Gee and Lemke should form part of this literature.2.10 Computer (video) games, learning and literacy 2.10.1 Computer (video) games and learning

Computer (video) games are interactive software applications created primarily for participatory entertainment purposes (Rollings & Adams, 2003). Most computer games which are frequently played by teenagers are designed to be entertaining or recreational, but not instructional or educational. Thereby, learning through games should be viewed as informal learning, or more specifically incidental rather than formal or non-formal. Indeed, learning from computer gameplay should be seen at a subconscious process which would happen almost without the learners’ realizing it, in pursuit of accomplishing quests. Prensky (2001) proposes the term ‘stealth learning’. Computer games are an important aspect of what Sefton-Green (2004) describes as “a wider ecology of education where schools, home, playtime, the library and museum all play a part” (p.19). They are avaluable site for exploring the ways in which new and older forms of literacy and multimodality combine,changing understandings of what constitutes text and engagement and providing insights into the incidental English learning outcomes through computer gameplay. The literature concerning multimodality and literacy is discussed in-depth from Section 2.10.2 to Section 2.10.6. 2.10.2 Definition of multimodality

In its most basic sense, multimodality is the mixture of textual, audio, and visual modes in combination with media (Murray, 2013). Multimodality looks beyond language and examines these multiple modes of communication to create meaning. The collection of these modes contributes to how multimodality affects an audience’s and gamers’ reception and understanding of an idea or a concept.2.10.3 Multimodality and language learning

Multimodality is an area of academic study that did not gain attention until the 20th century. Kress (2009) conceptualizes multimodality as a “domain of inquiry” (p.54). In the 21st century, there was a shift from the monomodality or single mode (e.g., isolated text being relied on as the primary source of communication), to multimodality (e.g., utilized of mixed and moving images, layout, sound, gesture, speech, and 3D objects more frequently in the digital age) (Lutkewitte, 2013). In recent years, the investigation of multimodality and language learning has been popularized among researchers (Kress & Leeuwen, 1996; Kress, 1997; Cope & Kalantzis, 2000; Kress, 2000; Kalantzis & Cope, 2001) worldwide. Bateman (2008) writes in his book Multimodality and Genre, “Nowadays…text is just one strand in a complex presentational form that seamlessly incorporates visual aspect ‘around’, and sometimes even instead of, the text itself” (p.1). Multimodality has become “the normal state of human communication” (Kress 2010, p.1).2.10.3.1 Incidental vocabulary learning in multimodal contexts

In the past, most studies on second language vocabulary incidental learning in context have focused on learning with text-based materials presented in a single modality (Hulstijn, 1989; Nation, 2001). The effectiveness of vocabulary acquisition is limited in single modality text-based materials for two reasons. Firstly, incidental English learning efficiency depends heavily on learners. Laufer and Hulstijn (2001) emphasize that the incidental method is usually adopted by learners who have an advanced level of English while intentional method is used for the beginners. Researchers (Liu & Nation, 1985; Laufer, 1989; Nation, 1990; Hulstijn, 2003) argue that unless there is at least 95% or higher of the vocabulary that is known by the readers of the running words in a text, the probability of successful guessing of unknown words will be severely reduced. ESL learners may have less English knowledge or known vocabulary than sufficient for successful incidental learning from single modality text-based materials. Secondly, incidental vocabulary learning from a text is an error-prone process. English materials presented in a single modality context do not able to provide enough clues to infer words meaning as in multimodal contexts such as from computer games, therefore, there is little chance of guessing the meaning correctly.

In the case of Hong Kong ESL students from a Chinese background, it would neither be very effective nor motivated to learn English vocabulary solely in text-based contexts, compared to vocabulary learning in multimodal contexts. Some of the above problems can also be minimized when learning is undertaken place in the multimodal contexts. Computer games make a good use of the multimodal contexts; therefore, it is important to have a review and a discussion of its relevant literature in Section 2.10.4.

In recent years, several studies (e.g., Baltova, 1994; Mayer & Moreno, 1998; Kost, Foss & Lenzini, 1999; Al-Seghayer, 2001) have examined the effectiveness of presenting information using multiple modalities on ESL learning. Baltova (1994) conducted a study which aimed at evaluating the impact of video on the English comprehension of secondary-aged ESL students. The subjects were presented with the English materials in two conditions, sound-only group and video and sound group. Results reveal that more students in the sound-only group reported having experienced difficulties in concentrating on the text and they tended to dislike the story more than the other group. Mayer and Moreno (1998) also discuss that learners got a better performance when they were presented a word-list learning task with both the acoustic and visual information simultaneously, rather than the task was presented in a single modality. Kost, Foss and Lenzini (1999) set three distinct conditions for foreign language learners in an attempt to compare the effects of pictorial and textual glosses on incidental vocabulary learning. Participants were invited to read under one of the three glossing conditions: textual gloss alone, pictorial gloss alone, and text combined with pictures. Subsequently, a test of fourteen words was given to participants. Results indicate that students who got exposed to test combined with pictures achieved better performance than participants in other groups. 2.10.4 Multimodality and computer games

An exponential rise in technology created many new modes of presentation in different kind of digital media applications. In the current use of computer games, the term ‘multimodality’ has become even more prevalent; moving away from a solely print-based to a screen-based presentation. Different modes of delivery has also widely applicable and clearly manifested in computer screen-based presentation, moving away from the linear toward a more modular design framework. The central mode of representation in

computer games is no longer just plain text on a page; the use of mixed and moving images, complex and integrated layouts, sound, spatial, gesture, speech, videos and 3D objects has become universal. This is also in congruence with Prensky’s (2001) conception that today’s students like to parallel process; in a sense that their minds process information from a range of different sources at the same time. The researcher argues that computer games can be perceived as integral to contemporary learning. 2.10.4.1 Incidental vocabulary learning in multimodal contexts through computer (video) gameplay

In the recent decade, the widespread popularity of a variety of English computer games among Hong Kong secondary ESL learners, they bring new possibilities to students’ incidental English vocabulary learning in multimodal contexts. Vocabulary information presented in multimodal contexts where text, audio, dynamic videos, graphic, still pictures, animations and verbal formats can be integrated to create an authentic, vivid, attractive and multi-sensory language context. This can be a motivating and effective way to learn a second language compared to classroom-based learning, especially for those who have few access to English in their daily lives.

Since there is a wide variety of ways for dealing with vocabulary in multimodal contexts of computer games, it is an urgent job for researchers to gain an understanding on which is the most common and effective approach to incidental vocabulary learning in a computer gaming environment. Multimodal contexts provide the chances for language learners to guess the meaning of words presented in context. Many researchers (Sternberg, 1987; Nation, 1990; Hulstijn, 1992; Dole, Sloan & Trathen, 1995; Prince, 1996; Sökmen, 1997; Carter, 1998; Schmitt, 2000; Decarrico, 2001; Nation, 2001; Gu, 2002; Thornbury, 2002; Edwards, 2009) have maintained that guessing the meaning of words presented in context is an effective strategy for vocabulary learning, and most vocabulary can be learned from context by means of strategies of inferences. Additionally, exposure to words in the context of reading authentic texts can also be achieved in multimodal contexts. So that passive ESL learners in Hong Kong can be advanced, autonomous or self-directed language learners, rather than just relying on teacher or parental guidance. Most studies of second language vocabulary learning in a multimodal context or multimedia context have been promising. Some opposing views have been reported for the case of learners with low second language proficiency. Novice ESL learners may encounter difficulties when learning second language vocabulary through a multimedia-based context. Firstly, English language input in computer games might not be the optimal input for students with low second language proficiency. They may have difficulties in understanding that kind of language input if it is far beyond their level of English (Krashen, 1994). This may hamper their integration of the context information and lead towards improper inferences about the new words’ meanings. Secondly, another problem facing novice learners is that they may not pay adequate attention to critical cues in the context. According to interactionist theory, language input, needs to become intake in order to be acquired by the learner. Input is more likely to become intake if it is noticed (Hegelheimer & Chapelle, 2000). As states by Schmidt (1990), ‘‘. . . that intake is what learners consciously notice. This requirement of notice is meant to apply equally to all aspects of language (lexicon, phonology, grammatical form, pragmatics . . .)’’ (p.149). These difficulties may restrain the effectiveness of second language learning through computer games.

2.10.5 From literacy to multiliteraciesTraditional literacy practice refers to the state of being able to read and write printed text. “One

medium, one mode, and one language” (Papadopoulou 2009, p.2) are the main characteristics of the traditional model to literacy. Luke and Freebody’s Four Literacy Resources Model emerged in the 1990s to encapsulate the multi-literate requirements for reading effectively in a multimodal world. Luke and Freebody (1999) define literacy in terms of a repertoire of capabilities. It is important to note that the four literacy resources to literacy which include code breaker, meaning maker, text user, and text analyst, as it was redefined by Luke and Freebody (1999) are referring to practices rather than to roles of readers. All four resources are of equal importance. The four practices of literacy learners or called resources are as follows:1. Code breaker (Coding practices)

Coding competence means the skills required to decode (break) the code of texts. This can be achieved through recognizing and using the fundamental features of written, visual and spoken texts, including alphabet, phonics, spelling conventions, grammar and patterns of sentence structure in a text.2. Meaning maker (Semantic practices)

Meaning maker refers to the competence of comprehend and understand word meanings in texts. Specifically, it refers to the practice of users’ participation in the meanings of texts by drawing on prior knowledge and experience of other cultural discourses to make sense of and compose meaningful written, visual and spoken texts within particular cultures, institutions, families, communities and nation-states.3. Text user (Pragmatic practices)

To use text functionally is related to the competence utilizing texts for the purpose for which it is designed. Knowing how various texts perform and acting on the different cultural and social functions, and how these functions shape the way texts are structured, their tone, degree of formality and sequence of components, this in turns helps users to use different kind of genres more purposefully and effectively in practice. 4. Text critic (Critical practices)

Critical competence refers to the ability to critically analyze what is included and excluded in different layers of meaning in a text (subtext), and also to identify particular views and attitudes underlying texts. Understanding texts are not ideologically neutral and natural. They carry cultural and social functions to influence people’s ideas, conceptions, thoughts and attitudes. Further, innovative discourse can be designed in a hybrid way, for example, the presentation of written texts on a page or a computer screen with the use of space, different color, font size, graphics or sound effects to produce particular social effects.

Being literate means being able to decode written text, understand and compose meaningful texts, use texts functionally and analyze texts critically. Luke and Freebody’s (1990; 1999) Four Literacy Resources Model informs us about the range of textual practices that are required in new cultures and is a necessary stepstone for us to have an in-depth understanding on the requirement of being a literate learner, nevertheless, considering the time frame that the model was proposed; it remains anchored to print-based literacy. 2.10.6 Multiliteracies

In recent decades, there has been a shift from page-based text found in print to screen-based text

found on the Internet, personal computers, and other digital technologies. These new methods consist of more than just text or the written word. Audio, video, pictures, and animation can now be simultaneously incorporated to convey information. Traditional literacy practice is insufficient for this age of multimedia which offers multimodal modes of learning. Written texts are not only consistently becoming more multimodal, but also information changes constantly from one mode to another, so does the means by which students learn. It is therefore valuable to understand the character of this fundamental shift which has taken place in our daily lives. Kress (2003) argues that this is causing us to re-examine the way in which we perceive written texts and our understanding on literacies. Kress (2003) also suggests that the definition of literacy should be extended.

The term ‘multiliteracies’, an important concept related term to multimodality, was coined by a team of ten academics including James Gee, Gunther Kress and Allan Luke, of the New London Group (1996) to highlight the increasing complexity of texts as well as how literacy pedagogy might address the rapid change in literacy due to globalization, technology and increasing cultural and social diversity. Multiliteracies refer to an audience’s comprehension of different modes in communication - not only to read solely print-based text, but also the ability to read and understand other modes such as sound, image and video.2.10.6.1 The multiliteracies map

Though similar to Luke and Freebody’s (1990; 1999) Four Literacy Resources Model in some aspects, the multiliteracies map developed by Susan Hill in 2004 differs from Four Literacy Resources Model in that it takes the multimedia and multimodal everyday life of youngster today into consideration. As discussed in Section 2.10.4, computer (video) games consistently make good use of multimodal designs; the need to manage multimodal texts entails multiliteracies’ skills (Kress & Leeuwen, 1996, Kress 1997, Cope & Kalantzis, 2000; Faiclough 2000, Kress 2000), which will together build the capacity to understand and manage the meaning of multimodal texts (Cope & Kalantzis, 2000). That is to say, if students are multiliterate, this facilities their understanding and analysis of a range of multimodal texts (mixed and moving images, complex and integrated layouts, sound, spatial, gesture, speech, videos, 3D objects or others) in the game world. The multiliteracies map (Hill, 2004) explores four interrelated dimensions (the functional user, the meaning maker, the critical analyzer and the transformer) which are required for developing multiliteracies. These are each discussed below. 1. The functional user

Functional use involves technical knowledge about locating, code breaking and using signs and icons, selecting and operating equipment and moving between mediums such as cameras, videos, computers and papers.2. The meaning maker

Meaning make means understanding how different text types and technologies make meaning in the world and how they may be used for our own and others’ purposes. The focus is on the purpose and the form of text to make meaning. 3. The critical analyzer

Critical analyze refers to the understanding that involves in critical selection of appropriate

technology for a task.4. The transformer

Transforming involves using skills and knowledge in new ways, designing and producing new texts (Hill, 2004; 2007).2.10.6.2 Types of literacies

Kress (2003) argues that literacy and its definition encompasses multiple modes more than just reading and writing, and now also includes visual, technological, and social uses among others. In order to get a more robust understanding of the power of these rich literacies, it is therefore central to review how multiliteracies are currently used and how they shape students’ learning today. The word ‘multiliteracies’ covers a whole range of literacies used today, including technological literacy, visual literacy, media literacy and information literacy.1. Technological literacy

Each researcher has a different definition of what technology literacy is. In general, technological literacy refers to the skills needed to adequately use computers and other technology to improve learning, productivity, and performance (Brown et al., 2005; Robin, 2008; Sadik, 2008; Sylvester & Greenidge, 2009; Kieler, 2010).2. Visual literacy

Visual literacy, an old literacy skill, extends the meaning of literacy, which signifies interpretation of a written or printed text (Sylvester & Greenidge, 2009). Robin (2008) describes this literacy as “the ability to understand, produce, and communicate through visual images” (p.221). Visual literacy is based on the idea that when one is reading ‘pictures’ and that one can understand the meanings through the process of reading.3. Media literacy

According to Sylvester & Greenidge (2009), media literacy covers the necessary skills to access, evaluate, and create messages in written and oral language, graphics and moving images, and audio and music.4. Information literacy

Information literacy is the ability to find, evaluate, analyze, and synthesize information, in bothanalog and digital formats (Robin, 2008 & Sylvester & Greenidge, 2009). For instance, accessing information through the Internet requires users to initiate critical reading skills to determine what is and is not of relevance to them, which is not typically required in traditional written or printed text alone. 2.10.6.3 Literacy of computer (video) games

Teenagers today ‘multi-task’ across multiple modalities, playing a video game, reading news, previews and walkthroughs, watching videos, interviews and trailers on youtube, researching faqs (frequently asked questions) and screenshots about gameplay on the Internet, and, maybe, contributing to websites or community devoted to the game, for example, participating in the discussion in the forum and community blog or even posting reviews of a video game.

Gee (2007) makes a strong case for the relationship between video gaming and learning for today’s teenagers. Video gaming is a new ‘literacy’. By ‘literacy’ Gee (2007) means any technology that allows

people to ‘decode’ meanings and produce meanings by using symbols. So this stretches Kress’s (2003) meaning. Gee (2007) builds off Kress’s (2003) conceptions that video games are important, new and digital media today which shape students’ learning and can be utilized to develop multiliteracies, especially visual literacy skill. Game design involves a ‘code’ - a multimodal one made up of images, actions, words, sounds, and movements - that communicates to players and players need to interpret aspects of that design to have certain meanings (Gee, 2007). According to Gee (2007), gaming literacy involves a set of relationships between consumption (reading) and production (writing); consumption inherently involves certain forms of production on the part of the player. Players need to decode and comprehend or ‘consume’ in Gee’s (2007) terms the multimodal game design in order to make choices and take different actions to play the game. And since the players will produce somewhat different games depending on their choices and actions taken, thus he posits that production is inherently part of consumption in gaming. Consuming and producing - reading and writing - are closely connected in gaming as a literacy.

2.12 Learning theories of computer (video) gamesThis section provides a theoretical review on computer (video) games, which include ludology and

narratology that explain computer games as play activities and storytelling media. The extension of the two theories of computer games lead us to look into two aspects of learning that occur when playing computer games in the gaming environment: gameplay-oriented and narrative-oriented learning. It is believed that playing computer games involves at least one of these types of learning. Finally, learning principles of video games propose by Gee (2003; 2004; 2005) are discussed.

2.12.1 LudologyThe term ludology was first proposed by Frasca (1999). He proposes the term ludology to refer to the

discipline that studies computer games as play and gaming activities. Gameplay is referred to as activities conducted within a framework of agreed rules that directly or indirectly contribute to achieving goals (Lindley, 2002). In other words, gameplay is the actions taken by the players. Frasca (2001) identifies two types of computer games: ludus and paidea. In the simplest sense, the former refers to the games that result defines a winner and a loser, whereas paidea refers to games that result does not. 2.12.1.1 Gameplay-oriented learning

Gameplay-oriented learning extends the concept of ludology. Learners engage in gameplay by observing, hypothesizing, testing and updating their knowledge in the virtual environment. Learners may be interested in and have fun when playing a computer game. In so far, it is clear that ludologists are focusing on understanding computer games as a gaming activity.

2.12.2 NarratologyThis concept of ludologists is exactly opposed to the view of narratology. Narratology focuses on the

study of games as a medium of storytelling, using narratives. A narrative is an account of something that happens to someone (Barret, 1997). Narrative is used to account of a series of events from the background

setting to the completion of the game. Ryan (2001) proposes that narratives in computer games are based on mental images or cognitive construct. The image consists of three components: world, character and action. Firstly, there is a game world in every computer game, which may or may not resemble the real social setting. As with Aarseth (1998), a game has a spatial representation, whether it is real or abstract and the player recognizes the space immediately after entering the game world. Secondly, most computer games feature explicit characters which the players can interact with them as if they are real humans but the interactions are limited to several defined aspects. The character in a game may be an opponent, neutral or friendly. Thirdly, computer games must involve actions and reactions of players. There are reciprocal actions between players and the game. The actions could include not only the actions of players, but also the actions of the characters in the game world. 2.12.2.1 Narrative-oriented learning

The concept of narrative-oriented learning is that the major gameplay revolves around the reading of texts. Narrative interfaces of computer games could be rather different from the conventional learning of a textbook. As mention by Morozov and Markov (2000), “The computer screen should not be a representation of a page of a book, but a window to a new world. Learners look through the screen like through the window to a new spatial world of knowledge in which the images of real objects act coherently with virtual models” (p.219). The learners are learning from the story and narratives presented from the computer screen (Jaron & Bicocca, 1992) which offers textual explanation. The learners are not rote-learning some new knowledge in the context-free environment rather they are expecting to learn in a contextually rich situation.

2.12.3 A debate between the theory of ludology and narratologyDuring the last few years, a debate took place within the game scholars’ community. A debate that, it

seems, opposed two groups: ludologists and narratologists, their views are contradictory. Ludologists are supposed to focus on game mechanics and reject any room in the field for analyzing games as narrative. Ludology argues that players could learn the rules and how to play the game as a result of gaming experience. The fun, enjoyment and pleasure lies in the gameplay itself. While narratologists argue that games are closely connected to stories, narratology views narratives as the fundamental enjoyment players are experiencing during the gaming sessions.

2.12.4 Learning principles of video gamesGee (2004) explores the characteristics of video games as a learning environment. “Good video

games have a great deal to tell us about how we facilitate learning,…Good video games are complex, challenging, and long; they can take 50 or more hours to finish. If a game cannot be learned well, then it will fail to sell well…” (Gee 2004, p.57). Gee (2003; 2004; 2005) collects together a list of learning principles of video games. Only the principles related to language learning are included here.1. Identity

Gee (2005) argues that no deep learning takes place unless learners make an extended commitment of self constantly during the learning process. Good video games capture players through identity. The identity

in games is usually connected to a specific character. Players may take up the role of a simulated real character, as in L.A. Noire, Football Manager series, and Simcity series which place players into the role of a mayor, building, developing and expanding an open-ended city. They may inherit a strongly formed and appealing virtual character such as in Thief series, Assassin’s Creed series, Batman series, The Witcher series and Dark Souls series, or even get to build up a virtual character from the ground up, getting level up through completing the main story and side quests and ultimately become a strong character, as in The Elder Scrolls series and Mass Effect series. Through gameplay, players become committed to the new virtual world in which they will live, learn, and act through their commitment to their new identity (Gee, 2005). Deep learning may then occur. 2. Interactivity

Traditional printed-based textbooks are passive in nature because they cannot respond to the learner in real dialogue as in face-to-face encounter. Conversely, computer (video) games do react by providing feedback and/or guidance depending on the player’s decisions and actions. The function of interactivity has critical implications for learning (Grodal, 2000; Vorderer, 2000; Lee et al., 2006; Sundar, 2008). Interactivity is a property of games that allows for communication between a player and the gaming environment through different forms of activities. These activities could range from freely exploring the gaming environment, interacting with game elements, to actively seeking information and influencing the trajectories of gameplay through decision making and subsequent actions. It is a distinct and crucial gaming feature that allows for ‘‘more degrees of freedom in communication choices’’ (Klimmt, Vorderer & Ritterfeld 2007, p.170). Gee (2005) notes that in good games, words, commands and instructions are all placed in the context of an interactive relationship between the player and the game world. Learning in games allows and encourages learners to produce and not just passively consume knowledge. 3. Challenge and consolidation

Gee (2010) once said, in a video, “What’s a video game? is just a set of problem could be anything. Civilization is problem of history, Halo, problem in the fantasy war fighting…doesn’t matter what the problems are. All the video games is a set of problem that you must solve in order to win…” (DML Research Hub & New Learning Institute, 2010). Good games offer players a set of challenging problems and the players are required to automate their solutions to solve these problems so as to proceed. They may even try different strategies to complete a mission such as in Grand Theft Auto series or to defeat a ‘boss’, as in Bayonetta. These provoke deeper thinking and learning (Gee, 2005; VanderArk & Schneider, 2012) with the players’ engagement in the plot development through dialogues, constant decision-making, and making sense of previous decisions. In the meantime, they learn something new, and integrate this new learning with their old mastery. In turn, this new mastery is consolidated through repetition (with variation). This cycle is called the ‘Cycle of Expertise’ (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1993). That is to say, challenges in games could provide opportunities for players to consolidate and master new knowledge and skills. 4. Situated meanings

An extensive research on ESL learning (Hung, 2002; Utley, 2006; Halverson, 2009; Richardson, 2010) suggests that the creation of knowledge should be situated in a specific context and embedded within a

particular social and physical environment (Lave & Wenger, 1991). Similarly, Gee (2010) gives particular importance to situated learning, articulating to a video he said, “…what I called situated-embodied learning, and what I mean by that is being able to solve problem to which you know, not just know a bunch of fact but be able to use fact and information as tools for problem-solving in specific context, being able to do stuff…” (DML Research Hub & New Learning Institute, 2010). Learners only really know what words mean and learn new ones when they can hook them to experiences. As Consalvo (2003) observes, “a game is not simply a text to be read, but an experience to be had” (p.173). In the gaming context, situated learning takes place through players’ engagement with the multimodal elements when traversing the game world, including images, actions, words, sounds, videos, images, dialogues or movements. These multimodal elements give the words situated meanings, not just verbal ones. Indeed, words have different situated meanings in different contexts of use. By referring how the words vary across different images, actions, sounds, videos, images, dialogues or movements, the specific situated meanings of words can be learnt. Taking this idea more broadly, interaction through computer (video) games is one more way to make situated learning more successful as well as giving students an opportunity to have another means through which to learn language.

2) Any incorporation of new literature in the literature review should also be utilized in the findings and discussion chapters of the thesis – where appropriate.5.3 Interaction with the game world

Lots of interaction between players, managers, their rivals and the media were noted during students’ career as manager when playing the game. For example, • Opposing clubs and players adopted a realistic approach when making or responding to transfer offers. The manager (the student) attempted to offer a contract, renew a contract, terminate a contract, and renegotiate transfer and wage budgets with a player. The player or club responded to what the manager had offered accordingly. Considering some interactions in the game world as follows: (1) a permanent transfer

Having accessed a particular player and decided to try to bring him into the club squad, the manager attempted to start contract negotiation with him. The manager first negotiation set a compromise on the demands of the player according to what the manager’s club were willing and could afford to pay, while allowing room for further negotiations. He then received a news item in the inbox screen when the selling club had made their decisions. Since the player has attracted interest from other clubs, the manager decided to offer him a higher bonus or a bigger loyalty bonus in order to persuade him to choose the club. (2) an enquiry

Before making an actual deal, some of the managers asked the player’s club for the amount that they would be prepared to sell the player for and can form a starting point in negotiation. They then received a news item in the inbox screen when the selling club had made their decisions. The selling club often responded by telling that the player was not for sale at any price. A few managers were still able to sign the player by bidding in excess of the minimum required offer, reported by their scout. While some of them canceled the bid immediately.

(3) renewing contractsFor promising young players and most first-team players, managers looked at renewing contracts and

to try to tie players down to deals for as long as possible. Some of the players responded by asking for a substantial increase in his wages, particularly this broke the managers’ wage structure. Some managers preferred to sell him when the player still has two years remaining on his contract. While some managers chose the options to ask a player a lower wage than demanded privately in the Contract Status category of his Private Chat. • The manager held discussions with the entire squad by calling a ‘Team Meeting’. Team talks are of great importance before the game, at half-time and after the game to motivate players to success. The pre-match team talk is used to ensure players start the game with the right attitude. The post-match team talk can be used to congratulate players or let them know they have played badly. Managers only occasionally used the pre-match and post-match team talks. While half-time team talk is used to try to motivate certain underperforming players. It was constantly adopted by managers. This might be because half-time team talk was essential in helping to turn result around or hold on to a lead. Some managers then checked the underperforming players’ ratings during the second half to see if they improve. If not, the manager substituted them off.• When the manager received a team report which is comprehensive breakdown of the particular squad from top to bottom, with the backroom staff presenting the manager with all the information needed to build a more successful team with respect to such as the squad depth, tactic analysis, goal analysis, facts and Stats. Some students read it while some skipped it.• The manager clicked on ‘Get Advice from Staff’, he received opinions and advice from members of the backroom team in the Inbox screen. By clicking on a piece of advice, more details appeared in the panel at the button, allowing the manager to either Action or Dismiss the offering. • The manager arranged a meeting with the board, attempting to impart his philosophies and visions upon the board. In the conversation screen, there were six subject areas in relation to the daily operation of the club and each with its specific topics available for the player to talk about with the board. For instance, the ‘Finance’ subject area consists of more specific topics on ‘Increase Percentage of Transfer Revenue’, ‘Junior Coaching’, ‘Professional Status’, ‘Reconsider Accepting Offer on Player’, ‘Transfer Budget’ and ‘Wage Budget’. The board provided feedback subsequently based on what the manager had proposed or advised. From there, the conversation flew back and forth.

7.2.1 Interactivity with the game world (Discussions)Gee’s (2005) emphasizes the important function of interactivity in good video games. An increasing

number of scholars and advocates such as Kennedy (2004); Gee (2005); Wouters, Tabbers and Paas (2007) believe that interactivity could potentially promote learners’ engagement through both behavioral participation and cognitive processing. Lots of interaction between players, managers, their rivals and the media were observed. The text is highly interactive in the game database of Football Manager 2013, considering the process of contract negotiation with players, team talks, the team report presented by backroom staff, the way of getting advice from the backroom team and the textual interaction with the board

as exemplified in the findings. The game does provide feedback and/or guidance depending on the player’s decisions and actions. Gee (2005) regards this kind of interaction with the game world as important for students’ learning. The high interactivity of text seems to facilitate students to create their own meaning from what the multimodal text provides. These behavioral responses in Football Manager 2013 help enhance students’ involvement and participation, thus boosting their interest and enabling more active and sustained learning processes (Grodal, 2000; Vorderer, 2000; Prensky, 2001; Gee, 2004; 2005; 2007; Lee et al., 2006; Foster, 2008; Sundar, 2008).

7.2.4 Multimodality and English learning (Discussions)Multimodality is an important property of Football Manager 2013. It changed the way students

perceive English knowledge. The presentation of English in Football Manager 2013 uses a more visual and interactive approach. Text is still present in Football Manager 2013 but it is more fragmented in its delivery. Instead, text is often placed in interaction with visual modes such as pictures, photos, images, speech, objects, emoticons and interactive content.

Bezemer and Kress (2008) argue that students understand information differently when text is delivered in conjunction with a secondary medium, such as image or sound, than when it is presented in alphanumeric format only (Bezemer & Kress, 2008). This is due to it is drawing a viewer’s attention to “both the originating site and the site of recontextualization” (Bezemer & Kress 2008, p.169). This argument is supported by Lutkewitte (2013) who articulates that when standard words are presented as moving images and speech, learners could enhance the meaning and understanding of words.

In the present study, students made use of the characteristics of multimodal design of Football Manager 2013 to create the potentials of learning English in varying degrees. Among all the multimodal learning resources incorporated in Football Manager 2013, questionnaire results show that students were most likely to discover the meanings of new English vocabulary, phrases and expressions, and technical terms through participating in textual tutorials in game (mean 4.50), followed by studying any available static pictures, or photos, mixed and moving images (mean 4.00), but less likely in watching videos/words match commentary (sound and speech) (mean 3.00), making inference from three-dimensional objects (mean 3.00), and doing in-game activities or missions (mean 3.00). In other words, communication is spread across a medium using different modes. Football Manager 2013 helps afford a media environment where ESL learners can engage in information processing through multiple sensory channels. These modes all work together simultaneously to construct meaning and help ESL learners to learn English incidentally.

Overall, the appearance of multimodality in Football Manager 2013 altered the way students perceive English knowledge. The multimodal and interactive text in the game world placed words with preconceived meanings in a new context, where context is audio, visual and digital. This in turn not only exhibits a positive effect on overall English knowledge gain, but also creates a new and foundationally different meaning for the ESL learners.

7.2.4 Multiliteracies/Multiliteracies skills development and gameplay (Discussions)

The study suggests that students may be more likely to develop multiliteracies including visual literacy, media literacy and information literacy through gameplay, then for technological literacy.

Visual literacy refers to “understanding how people perceive objects, interpret what they see and what they learn from them” (Elkins 2010, p.217). As discussed before, in the digital components of Football Manager 2013, students were frequently using a range of visuals such as static pictures, photos and images or three-dimensional objects as well as the text to help them decode and understand the meanings of new English vocabulary, phrases and expressions, and technical terms. In other words, gameplay could help students to develop their visual literacy skills which are essential for students to survive and communicate in today’s highly complex world (Riddle, 2009). Besides, there is a tendency to access information in the first instance through imagery and then to use text to clarify, expand and explore. This is in line with the implications of Prensky’s (2001) characteristics of the ‘new cognitive abilities’ generated by young people’s ‘regular and intensive’ gameplay. Students accessed and evaluated multiple hypertexts in written and oral language, graphics, mixed and moving images, and videos/words match commentary (sound and speech) in Football Manager 2013. This makes it possible for them to develop media literacy skill. Information literacy was required when the students were navigating the game websites; they initiated their critical reading skills to access gameplay information to help them to solve problems in Football Manager 2013.

Whereas, the field observation reveals that only a minority of students used other digital technological devices to support their learning in the game world, for instance, using iPads or mobile phones. Further, in playing computer games, they focused on the events in the game world. There was neither hard nor fast evidence, in this study, to demonstrate if game players were familiar with the use of computers nor develop an understanding that involves in critical selection of appropriate technology for a task. As a consequence, this study was too superficial to justify that technological literacy might be developed through the use of computer games.

3a) Further discussion and elaboration to be given on the process of the generation of items for the questionnaire.4.5.3.3 Construction of the questionnaire items (Methodology)

Questionnaire item generation is critical to the success of a survey. Inappropriate questions and incorrect questionnaire items can make the survey valueless, as it may not accurately reflect the views and opinions of the respondents. Several important points were made in relation to the process of the generation of items for the questionnaire as follows:• Questions 11 and 12 examine students’ use of VLS in the gaming context of Football Manager 2013. These question items were generated partly from the existing literature, such as ‘checking with a dictionary’, ‘asking English teachers’, ‘make wild guess’ and ‘try to understand them by reading other sentences’. And since some of the VLS involve an examination of the multimodal design of Football Manager 2013, which are lacking in the existing literature, consequently, some of the questionnaire items were generated from the gaming experience of the researcher like ‘analyze any available pictures, images or photos’, ‘videos/words match commentary’, ‘three-dimensional objects’ and ‘tutorials in game’. These questionnaire items were used because they represented the multimodal screen-based features of Football Manager 2013 which incorporates multiple modes of visual imagery, auditory and written-linguistic. These non-alphabetic modes are able to help students learn, create and interpret meaning of new English items when traversing the game world. • Questions 13 and 14 explore students’ English knowledge gained as a result of gameplay which was specific to Football Manager 2013. The questionnaire items such as ‘Player attributes e.g., First touch, Tackling, Pace, Stamina, Aggression, Anticipation, Bravery, and Determination.’ was generated solely according to the gaming experience of the researcher in four months. These terms were selected as questionnaire items because, firstly, with the researcher’s gameplay experience, these terms were used frequently in the game, for instance, in the training screen, tactics menu and player profile screen. Secondly, an understanding of each attribute in terms of its effect on a player’s game and its interaction with other attributes is important knowledge. It is because they are the most important factor in determining a player’s ability, role and duty. In short, in order to understand what was happening the players would need to know these terms.• The researcher tried to make sure that the possible responses (questionnaire items) were mutually exclusive. Categories were not overlapped. Only one aspect of the key construct was examined in each item that the researcher was interested in, for example, the above questionnaire item concerning only the key construct of ‘Player attributes’. If a questionnaire item consists of more than one key construct, the results may be biased or the researcher would not know which item the respondents are referring to.• Positive statements were used and negatives or double negatives were avoided.• Spelling and punctuation were checked with the researcher’s principle supervisor so as to make sure that they were correct and the questionnaire items were free from grammatical errors before use. Conversational style, clear and comprehensible wording that was easily understandable for the target respondents were used.

3b) More discussion should be given on ensuring the validity of the questionnaire and any challenges in relation to this.4.5.3.4 The validity of the questionnaire (Methodology)

In order to have confidence in the results of a study, one must be assured that the questionnaire consistently measures what it purports to measure when properly administrated. In short, the questionnaire must be valid. There are a number of types of validity, including face validity, content validity, construct validity and criterion validity (Del Greco, Walop & McCarthy, 1987). Face validity, content validity and construct validity were more closely related to the formulation of the present questionnaire. Only these are discussed. 1. Face validity

Face validity refers to the transparency or relevance of a questionnaire as they appear to the respondents (Gravetter & Forzano, 2010; Holden, 2010), as opposed to it is really measuring what the researcher wants to measure. The questionnaire was about ESL learning through playing Football Manager 2013. The researcher tried to make sure that the majority of questions asked were surrounding football-related items and items about ESL learning.

Face validity examines whether the questionnaire looks ‘professional’, carelessly or poorly constructed. Professional-looking questionnaires are more likely to elicit serious responses (Del Greco, Walop & McCarthy, 1987). Therefore, face validity is an important consideration for the final product. Pictures, charts, screenshots or other graphics that may affect respondents’ interest or distract from the questions were excluded. These could give the respondents a feeling that the questionnaire looks professional and seriously constructed. Face validity is suggested to be determined by technical untrained observers who are not expert in testing methodologies (Anastasi, 1988); therefore, secondary teachers rather than academic scholars or experts were included in the pilot study. 2. Content validity

Content validity, also known as logical validity, is based on the extent to which a measurement reflects the specific intended domain of content (Carmines & Zeller, 1991). Once the questionnaire was drafted, the researcher determined whether all the domains had been adequately covered. He not only set the questions based on the research questions, ensuring all the important aspects were covered, but also to make sure that one survey question only addresses one issue; otherwise, the researcher would not know which one the respondents was answering. For example, ‘(11) Which is the most common way to learn new English vocabulary, phrases and expressions from Football Manager 2013?’ This question only examines the frequency of students’ use of VLS other than their attitude or learning outcomes. If an imbalance exists, the results may be biased or leading the respondents towards an answer. Additionally, content validity is different from face validity. It requires the use of recognized subject matter experts to evaluate whether test items, where test items need to reflect the knowledge actually required for a given topic area (Crocker, 2003). Accordingly, an initial discussion of the questionnaire with the researcher’s principle supervisor was arranged

to ensure the appropriateness of the content of the questionnaire before actual use.3. Construct validity

Construct validity refers to the extent to which the new questionnaire conforms to existing ideas concerning the concepts that are being measured (Anastasi, 1976; Kirshner & Guyatt, 1985; Last, 1993). It is an overarching concern of validity. Three methods can be used to evaluate construct validity, which are pilot studies, known-groups technique and intervention studies (Dimitrov & Rumrill, 2003; Polit & Beck, 2008). A pilot study was utilized in this study, testing the feasibility of the questionnaire. The pilot study established the strength of the research, gave the researcher the opportunity to find out if the questions were yielding the kind of data required (Nunan, 1992), and allowed the researcher to make any necessary adjustments (see Table 4.6) that might possibly invalidating questionnaire results.• Challenges to the validity of the questionnaire

A list of challenges was faced by the researcher in relation to the use of questionnaire. • Questionnaires occur after the event, so the respondents may forget important issues. Thus the questionnaire survey was conducted as soon as possible after the tests according to the schedule. • Questionnaires are standardized so it is not possible to explain any points in the questions that respondents might misinterpret. Therefore, a pilot study was conducted with both Chinese and English teachers to check if the questions were understandable for students. • Respondents might not be willing to answer the questions. They might not wish to reveal the information or they might think that they will not benefit from responding perhaps even be penalized by giving their real opinion. Therefore, the respondents were told verbally as well as informed on the top of the questionnaire why the information was being collected and how the results would be beneficial. They were invited to reply honestly.• Questionnaire items are visual. Non-verbal cues such as facial expression, glance, gesture and body posture are not available with written questionnaires. Lacking of personal contact might inhibit the inquiry of sensitive issues and attitudes.• The answers of the questionnaire could not be probed. Questionnaires are structured instruments. They allow little flexibility to the respondents with respect to response format. This challenge was partially overcome by two main ways. Firstly, by allowing frequent space for comments in the questionnaire such as in Q9, Q11-14, insightful information might be gathered. Secondly, a follow-up semi-structured interview which was the second phase of data collection in the present study was conducted. A series of open-ended questions were asked, with accompanying queries that probe for more detailed and contextual data.• Respondents whose proficiency of English was restricted might not be able to understand the questions or the answers. Therefore, Chinese translations were added alongside some difficult English words in the questionnaire. • Respondents were able to read the questionnaire before answering the first question. This means that, none of the questions asked was truly independent of the others. Thus the researcher could not be sure that questions had been answered in the correct order. The problem of question order effect might arise. However, this did not do much harm to the validity and accuracy of the present research results.

3c) More discussion is needed on the pre and post-test. Explain and justify the design of the tests, especially the fact that the test items have been based on the game play. If the test items are based on the game play, it will be most likely that the test scores for the post-test will be higher than the pre-test.4.5.2.4 Construction of the tests items (Methodology)

The researcher hoped that students were likely to have higher scores for the post-test than the pre-test as a result of gameplay, especially the fact that the test items have been based on the gameplay. However, more importantly, the researcher was more interested in investigating how could they learn English, what are the differences in how they learn English, how much improvement has there been and what aspects of English they could learn during gameplay, which are discussed below.

A mix of a total of sixty English items was tested in the pre-game test and the post-game test, with thirty in each test. All the English items used in the pre-game test and post-game test were further arranged into three main types, including vocabulary, phrases and expressions, and technical terms for deeper analysis. Eighteen individual words, eighteen set phrases and expressions, and twenty-four soccer-related technical terms were tested in total. Within this classification, vocabulary means singular or individual word that students may easily come across in schools or their daily lives. They are relatively easy for students to understand generally. Phrases and expressions refer to a group of words that carry some general meaning(s), which students may expose to them easily in schools or their everyday lives in general. They can be regarded as English items with a moderate degree of difficulty. Technical terms are a type of technical terminology that has a particular meaning within a specific industry. Soccer-related technical terms here denote English items that are used specifically, mostly or frequently in the soccer field or any soccer-related domain. They are more difficult for students in general.

The researcher had a mix of all those English terms and divided them between the two tests. In particular, eight individual words in the pre-test and ten singular items in the post-test were included. Nine phrases and expressions were tested in both the pre-test and the post-test. Thirteen soccer-related technical terms appeared in the pre-test and eleven in the post-test. All of them were listed in Tables 4.2, 4.3 and 4.4 respectively.

Table 4.2—Test items: singular words (pre-test and post-test) Singular word

Pre-test Post-test

athleticism (preA) ultimate (postA)

flair (preA) aggression (postA)

composure (preA) clause (postA)

scouting (preA) pending (postA)

pace (preA) profile (postA)

squad (preA) stamina (postA)

tactics (preA) coaching (postA)

pitch (preB) disciplinary (postA)

/ anticipation (postA)

/ an agent (postB)

Total 8 10Table 4.3—Test items: phrases and expressions (pre-test and post-test)

Phrase and expressionPre-test Post-test

manage the deal (preB) world-record (postC)

clear cut chances (preC) paired with (postC)

along the floor (preC) dark horses (postC)

fluid styles (preB) A decent cross (postB)

closing down (preC) the main outlet when attacking (postB)

clear the ball (preB) tripped by (postB)

sent the ball (preB) cut inside from the flanks (postB)

the division your team (preA) the latest season’s fixtures (postB)

line-up (preC) The draw for the Round of 16 (postB)

Total 9 9Table 4.4—Test items: soccer-related technical terms (pre-test and post-test)

Soccer-related technical termPre-test Post-test

tackling (preA) a crashing drive (postB)

relegation (preA) free kick taking (postC)

woodwork (preA) transfer rumour (postC)

penalty taking (preB) long range effort (postC)

a corner kick (preB) dived (postB)

counter-attack (preB) playmaker (postA)

set piece takers (preC) on the bench (postB)

touchline ban (preC) the tie of the round (postC)

transfer window (preC) first touch (postC)

full back (preC) knockout round (postB)

one-two (preC) stand off (postC)

hat-trick hero (preC) /

stretching our defensive line (preB) /

Total 13 11Although the questions set in the post-test are totally different from those in the pre-game test, the

frequency of English items with respect to singular words, phrases and expressions, and soccer-related

technical terms being tested is very roughly equal, it is more or less similar in design, length and the level of difficulty to the pre-game test. Therefore, the two tests would be seen as equivalent and have face validity.

3d) Some more reflections on and discussion of the process of conducting the focus groups is needed. You should also make use of the wide range of literature available that discusses focus groups in order to inform your discussion.4.8.4.2 Reflections on and discussion of the process of conducting the focus group (Methodology)• Key features of the focus group interview

Five key features were identified in the focus group interview. The first key feature of the focus group is its flexibility which is regarded as an important element in

an in-depth interview (Thompson, 2000; Legard, Keegan & Ward, 2003). The structure of the interview is a kind of semi-structured which is sufficiently flexible to permit topics to be covered in the order most suited to the interviewees, to allow responses to be fully probed and explored and to allow the researcher to be responsive to relevant issues raised spontaneously by the interviewees. The use of probes was discussed subsequently.

Secondly, Legard, Keegan and Ward (2003) emphasize the importance of interactivity in an in-depth interview. Focus groups are synergistic (Stewart & Shamdasi, 1990) in the sense that the group works together: the group interaction is explicitly used to generate data and insights (Morgan, 1997). The way to do this was that the researcher asked an initial question in such a way as to encourage the interviewees to talk freely when answering the question. Interviewees presented their own views and experience, but they also heard from other people. They listened, reflected on what was said, and in the light of this considered their own standpoint further. The next intervention by the researcher was usually be determined by the interviewees’ answers. However, the researcher was careful with verbal responses such as replying by “Okay”, “Yes”, “Uh”, “Umm”, “Uh-huh” and “Ah, I see” rather than saying “Correct”, “Good”, “Excellent” and “Poor” that implied personal judgment. He also did not give personal opinions to ensure objectivity in the interviewees’ responses. As a result, data were generated by interaction between group interviewees.

Thirdly, in order to achieve both the depth and breath of coverage across key issues, different types of questions were used to achieve this (Spradley, 1979; Rubin & Rubin, 1995; Kvale, 1996). Patton (2002) suggests that good in-depth interviewing involves a series of open questions, and the researcher has to work hard to ask questions which encourage a fulsome response. These are contrasted with dichotomous yes/no questions which call for affirmation rather than description (Patton, 2002). The researcher often started up a topic with content mapping questions which are widely framed questions, designed to open up the research territory and to identify the dimensions or issues that were relevant to the interviewees. However, the initial responses of interviewees were usually at a fairly ‘surface’ level. With, at this stage, interventions were needed to structure the discussion. The researcher adopted a range of follow-up probes or called content mining questions to achieve depth of answers in terms of penetration, exploration and explanation. The use of probes not only permitted the researcher to explore fully all the factors that underpin the interviewees’ answers: reasons, feelings, opinions and beliefs, but also furnished the explanatory evidence that was an

important source of information in this study. Four broad groups of probes commonly used in the interview were explanation probes, clarification probes, amplification probes and exploratory probes (Legard, Keegan & Ward, 2003), and are discussed as follows:• explanation probes

One position putting for forward by Kvale (1996) regarding in-depth interview calls the ‘traveler metaphor’, in which knowledge is not given but is created and negotiated. “The traveler...asks questions that lead the subjects to tell their own stories of their lived world, and converses with them in the original Latin meaning of conversation as wandering together with” (Kvale 1996, p.4 emphasis in original). The interviewer is seen as a traveler who journeys with the interviewees (Legard, Keegan & Ward, 2003). Questions of purpose were used when the researcher justified interviewees’ statements and dug for underlying causes - probing for reasons - asking ‘why?’ For example, Q12 “Why do you think that the particular strategy of guessing is a very effective way to discover meanings of new English vocabulary, phrases or expressions in Football Manager 2013?” Through conversations, the researcher led the interviewees to new insights.• clarification probes

When more details were needed, the researcher sought to further understand by asking for clarification. Take an example, Q6 “What aspects of a computer game would engage or motivate you?” Moreover, an effective way of getting more details from the interviewees was asking the same question again by the technique of rephrasing, as illustrated by Q17, “But Q17 can you memorize those newly-learnt words for a period of time after playing Football Manager 2013?”…“…Can you recall the meanings of those newly-learnt words in Football Manager 2013 when you see them again in text readings?”• amplification probes

It was difficult to judge the cause of a silent group interviewees’ reserve. To lead quiet interviewees to involve in the discussion, the researcher took more active steps. Probing questions of examples were adopted. The interviewees were invited to give specific examples on certain topics to ensure both their truthfulness and the depth behind what they were claiming. For instance, Q11 “For example, tell me more, please?”• exploratory probes

Kvale (1996) uses the ‘miner metaphor’, suggesting knowledge as ‘given’ in an interview. The interviewer acts as a miner to explore information, as with Kvale (1996), “knowledge is understood as buried metal and the interviewer is a miner who unearths the valuable metal ... [T]he knowledge is waiting in the subject’s interior to be uncovered, uncontaminated by the miner. The interviewer digs nuggets of data or meanings out of a subject’s pure experiences,...” (p.3). In order to encourage the interviewees to voice out their opinions, questions that seek evaluation were adopted to discover their feeling and judgments that underlie descriptions of behavior, events or experience. Take an example to demonstrate, Q13 “What are you opinions regarding the strategy of skipping or passing new words and left them unattended when you are playing computer games?”

Fourthly, the interview was generative in the sense that new knowledge or thoughts were likely, at some stage, to be created (Legard, Keegan & Ward, 2003). Interviewees were also invited to put forward ideas

and suggestions on a particular topic and to propose solutions for problems raised during the interview. For example, Q21 “Do you have any comments on English learning in your present classroom?” and “What should a teacher of English do to help their students reach their goals of English learning?”

Fifthly, the researcher took an active role to facilitate the interviewees to talk about their thoughts, feelings, views and experiences. The followings were the four main ways in which the researcher contributed to the smooth running of the discussion:• using non-verbal language

To express interest and attention to the interviewees, these were achieved through the use of body language - facial expression, glance, gesture and body posture. People are often sensitive with manner and body language. Firstly, the researcher watched attentively for body language that indicated agreement, disagreement or confusion that could not be recorded by the recording device. They added views and emphasis relating to the discussion topic. Secondly, he maintained eye contact with each interviewee around the group, giving them smile and the occasional nod designed to express attention but not approval.• allowing the interviewees time to reply

The interviewees were invited to think and give views about issues throughout the interview. Since the answers were not necessarily top of their mind, they required time to think about a particular point and then formulate their responses. Moments of silence were expected. The researcher did not fill the contemplative silences but held the pause until the interviewees were ready to speak.• addressing dominant interviewees

Part of the researcher’s role is to ensure that every interviewee gets a chance to contribute to the discussion (Finch & Lewis, 2003). There was at times a need to exert a degree of restraint to ‘orchestrate’ the flow of contributions. One of the interviewee, a mania of video games, was dominating the discussion. He was always the first to respond to a question and make very lengthy comments. The other interviewees were become increasingly silent and looked directly at the researcher. The researcher tried a range of strategies. Non-verbal attempts were made. These included withdrawing eye contact from the dominant interviewee and leaned away. These still had little effect. The researcher then looked at others in the group, and gesturing to others to speak.• avoiding simultaneous dialogue

At times it was necessary to stop group interviewees talking simultaneously over each other in some interesting topics. With a view to distinguish different views on the recording device and to allow time for everyone to express themselves, the researcher simply solved this problem by pointing to the tape recorder occasionally.

3e) It is suggested that you use ‘thematic analysis’ as an approach for analysing all of the qualitative data. The analysis of the focus group data and the presentation of this should be changed to reflect this.4.9.1 Analysis of observation data and interview data (Methodology)

This section focuses on how the participatory observation data and the interview data were analyzed, interpreted and reported. Thematic analysis is the most common form of analysis in qualitative research (Guest, 2012) which was applied to analyze both the participatory observation data and interview data in this study. Thematic analysis emphasizes pinpointing, examining, and recording patterns or “themes” within data (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Themes are patterns across data sets that are important to the description of a phenomenon (Daly, Kellehear & Gliksman, 1997). Themes need to provide accurate understanding of the ‘big picture’ (Braun & Clark, 2006).

Thematic analysis is performed the process of coding through six interconnected phases which are familiarization with data, generating initial codes, searching for themes among codes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes, and producing the final report (Braun & Clark, 2006). Six stages of analysis whose ultimate goals are examining and developing themes within data associated to specific research questions at hand to create established and meaningful patterns (Daly, Kellehear & Gliksman, 1997). Finally, the observation data could provide useful answers to Research Questions 1, 2 and 3. Study results would also be useful to develop the survey questionnaires. The interview data could be useful in informing Research Questions 2, 3 and 4. 1. Becoming familiar with the data

After completing data collection, the researcher transcribed the interview data obtained through recording interview by himself first. The transcribed text (see Appendix 7) emerging from the semi-structured focus group interview was analyzed with thematic analysis. The observation data was already in English.

The initial phase in thematic analysis is for the researcher to familiarize himself with the content of the raw data i.e., the field notes and interview transcripts by reading and re-reading them. The researcher gained a general idea of the overt pattern and repeating issues within the data set in this phase. 2. Generating initial codes

The second step in thematic analysis is called the coding process. According to Maykut and Morehouse (1994), the data analysis is the heart of qualitative research and something that most distinguishes qualitative from quantitative research. Coding refers to the process of analyzing data in general. Specifically, here, coding represents the primary process for searching for and generating codes from the data set. According to Strauss and Corbin (1990), coding gives two basic advantages to the research. Firstly, it gives the research process the rigor and persistence. Secondly, coding helps researchers to break through the biases and assumptions brought to, and that can develop, during the research process.

Coding necessarily involves a close examination of the data, identifying, naming, categorizing and describing phenomenon implicit or explicit in the data set (Punch, 1990). Braun and Clark (2006) suggest that

researchers should produce as many codes as possible at this stage, so that as many as ideas and concepts as possible are identified, marked and labeled, sets the stage for developing themes which was explained in Phase 3. • Labeling phenomena

Coding involves the basic and main step of labeling phenomena in the data set. Labeling phenomena as the term itself implies putting labels on pieces of data. Particular phenomena in the data can be identified. There are two major techniques to do this. The first pertains to the asking of questions, the other to the making of comparisons (Glaser & Strauss, 1967).

In the present study, labeling phenomena of the data set became the first step in analysis. It was important to find out and focus on what was central in the data. The researcher read the whole field notes and transcribed text several times.

Emerson, Fretz and Shaw (1995) and Saldana (2009) recommend the following questions should be considered when coding fieldwork notes:• What are people doing? What are they trying to accomplish?• How exactly do they do this? What specific means or strategies are used?• How do members talk about and understand what is going on?• What assumptions are they making?• What do I see going on here? What did I learn from note taking?• Why did I include them?

Also, the researcher made judgments about what seemed to be central in each exchange in the transcribed text by focusing on questions like: • What is this?• What does it represent?• What is the major idea brought about in this sentence or paragraph?The researcher preferred to break long respondents’ utterances into phrases or clauses to do labeling. There is not a fixed way to do labeling; the names of the labels are all defined by the researchers themselves. Researchers usually assign labels to the items related to the research question (Boyatzis, 1998) or to the goals of their study. The researcher used a single word or a short phrase as a label to try to capture what the respondents were discussing in that part of the interview. He labeled some of the data through terminology used by the interviewees during the interview, for instance,

(objects)“5: I often try to link things or real objects around me to English vocabulary items…” A sample of code notes (1) – labeling is attached in Appendix 8. 3. Searching for themes

Once the pieces of texts were labeled, the process of labeling was done. Then the researcher went deeper and did more detailed analysis with a view to seeking for themes. Searching for themes is the main objective in the third phase. The method to achieve this was by thorough examination of the preliminary codes in order to identify connections or patterns to form themes in the data. The deeper analysis of the data set was

to do with a line-by-line analysis. This involved close examination of going through the data set phrase by phrase and word by word.

Themes differ from codes in that themes are phrases or sentences that identify what the data means. Themes consist of ideas and descriptions that can be used to explain events and phenomena of the subjects. They describe an outcome of coding. Themes can be developed in terms of their properties which are the characteristics or attributes of a category, and that dimension refers locations of a property along a continuum (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). The properties and dimensions of codes were explored. Codes consisting of properties and dimensions of those properties were created, that were related to one theme or a category in Strauss and Corbin’s (1990). According to Strauss and Corbin (1990), this is perhaps not only the most detailed type of analysis, but also the most generative. The pieces of data on the same topic (similar codes) were brought together and a theme or a sub-theme was formed. Braun and Clark (2006) point out that discarding themes should be avoided even they are initially significant as they may be important themes later in the analysis process. Once all the themes were established, the researcher was able to gain an idea and focus on broader patterns in the data. Researchers are also recommended to consider what the relationships between codes and proposed themes are. Braun and Clark (2006) further suggest that visual models are helpful to show the relationship between codes and themes and between different levels of existing themes.4. Reviewing themes

A set of themes was generated in the previous phase. This phase focuses on reviewing and refining the established themes contained in the data. Researchers need to determine if the current themes relate back and reflect the meanings in the data set by reading and re-reading the data again with a view to make sure that the current themes actually provide an accurate representation of subjects’ experiences, so that they could answer the research questions. If not, then researchers need to go back and rework the themes. Some existing themes may collapse into each other; other themes may need to be condensed into smaller units (Braun & Clark, 2006). The researcher used different colored highlights to distinguish each major theme. A sample of code notes (2) – thematizing can be referred to Appendix 9. After that, the final concepts and major themes were transferred into a data table, and then explained. 5. Defining and naming themes

The researcher should (1) give names for themes; (2) define what current themes consist of and (3) describe each theme in a few sentences and its significance to the entire picture of the data (Braun & Clark, 2006). A comprehensive analysis of what the themes contribute to understanding the data can be provided (Braun & Clark, 2006). 6. Producing the report

After final themes were established, reviewed and named. Examples of each theme were identified to illustrate what the analysis had achieved, serving as answers to the research questions, and form the basis for writing up the data.

5.3 Data collected from the field observation during the gaming sessions in the computer centre (Findings (1))

Data collected from the field observation were mainly gathered in the form of field notes taken by the researcher during the gaming sessions in the computer centre. Thematic analysis was applied to analyze the observation data. The primary process for developing themes within raw data which were the second phase: generating initial codes and the third phase: searching for themes among codes were deemed unnecessary to go through and skipped. This was because the researcher already had three major categories/themes which were directly related to the research questions to focus on in the field notes (see Appendix 14 for a sample of field notes (2)). Therefore, after the collection of all the field notes, the researcher first read and re-read them in order to familiarize himself with the findings. Then, he straightly went through to focus on examining and reviewing the major themes by recognizing the most interesting, relevant, useful and important moments within the data.

Three key themes which are central to the research questions were identified from the field notes directly, namely, ‘interaction and communication among the students’ (Research Question 1), ‘English learning strategies’ (Research Question 3) and ‘English reading during gameplay activities’ (Research Question 1). The researcher noticed that the key theme of interaction consists of more than one component of ‘interaction and communication among the students’, so he created a theme called ‘interaction with the game world’ (Research Question 4). The four themes are elaborated as follows:

6.3 Data collected from the focus group interview (Findings (2))Since a lot of changes have been made to the presentation of findings regarding the focus group interview data, see the attached of ‘6.3 Data collected from the focus group interview’.

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