Visual Ties across Enemy Lines:

Rhetoric of the Anti-Vietnam War Poster Movement

By Cassandra Atira Richards

Cassandra Atira Richards is a freshman at Stanford University in Stanford, CA. She is an experienced

analyzer of the elements of compositions of Paul Gauguin’s art, the historical significance of art during the French Revolution, and a knowledgeable critique of works during a wide range of art movements. Atira Richards’ extensive art history background and her lifelong interest in the visual arts inspired her to write an essay that deals with the rhetorical devices incorporated in political posters during the Vietnam War.

This essay analyzes how political posters that were created during the Vietnam War reflected and altered the personal beliefs of the American population through visual means of rhetorical devices. Within the poster design, there is a pendulum effect in the mediums, the subject matter, and consequently public attitude. Citing multiple examples and contributors, the argument explains how elements of composition and design and rhetorical devices helped influence a shift in American citizens to reestablish the values that were breached upon during the Vietnam War.

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Atira Richards Visual Rhetoric Dr. Alyssa O’Brien Research-Based Argument 1 December 2009

Visual Ties across Enemy Lines: Rhetoric of the Anti-Vietnam War Poster Movement

“When, on February 10, 1965, at the beginning of the bombing campaign against North Vietnam, the activities of several hundred picketers outside of the White House went virtually uncovered by the press, the antiwar movement was on few Americans’ news agenda…Later, when demonstrations received lead placement in all media, Americans had to conclude that the antiwar movement was a major issue about which they began to develop attitudes.”

Melvin Small’s quote captures the rising interest in the Anti-Vietnam protest movement

in America during the 1960’s and early 1970’s. With each passing day in 1965, the effects of the

Vietnam War were slowly becoming a visual reality for the American population. Documented

in daily newspapers and evening news reels were dead bodies, napalmed children, and burning

monks; soldiers falling, death tolls rising, and even more bombs dropping. As the reality of the

Vietnam War hit closer to home, it dawned on the American people that this war had escalated

into something much more than a simple peacekeeping mission, but a horrible, morally

misguided blood bath that was causing losses for both sides. While soldiers battled numerous

trials and tribulations on foreign shores in the Vietnam War, individuals against the war formed

antiwar campaign groups and engaged in multiple visual media venues such as printmaking to

publicize the peace effort. Soon enough, streets all over the nation were filled with mass throngs

of people, holding up peace signs and these influential political posters.

From a simple image to a sensational snapshot, each work was a window into the

tumultuous times of the Vietnamese-American conflict; the posters embody the efforts of

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American citizens that catalyzed the peace movement against the atrocity of the Vietnam War.

The works created and images manipulated delve into the politically chaotic times and capture

rising resistance being taken against the war. Within these works exists a medium shift from

informational texts that utilizes logos to appeal to the demand for details about the war and unite

everyone towards the antiwar campaign; to colorful posters that exhibit ethos to address the

dehumanization of the Vietnamese; to juxtaposed images captured from actual battle scenes that

use pathos as a negative reinforcement measure to force Americans to reevaluate their ideologies

and rebuild their culture’s morality. The imagery evoked by the chaos of the war addresses

different domestic issues raised and pinpoints the progression of public attitude throughout the

war, and together the three trends present a multifaceted analysis of the rhetorical effects of these

images on the public. More specifically, the antiwar posters created during Vietnam War reflect

the change in public nomos and altered doxa throughout America’s involvement in the Vietnam;

and, by analyzing the rhetorical value of the content and creativity of the plethora of protest

posters produced, we can catalogue how the characteristics of American culture and ideals of

freedom were challenged and changed.

Knowledge is Power: Appealing to Logos to Spread the Message of Peace

As the United States’ involvement in Vietnam started to increase, explanations and

justifications were required. Caroline Page is a researcher in the effects of the media and

propaganda used by the American government. Her book U.S. Official Propaganda During the

Vietnam War 1965 – 1973, she catalogues the actions taken by the Administration throughout the

multiple phases of United States’ involvement and analyzes the different means by with the

government issued propaganda. In one section of her book entitled The Portrayal of the

Bombing, she notes:

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One of the most difficult problems that the American propaganda organs faced during the Vietnam War concerned the nature of the conflict. The Administration most often portrayed the conflict politically as a straightforward contest between communists and non-communists and hence America’s role in it was part of a moral crusade against communist expansion. (96)

Members of the antiwar campaign had their own means of propaganda: posters. By creating

these easily readable displays of information, protestors would act as an alternate news outlet and

provide current events regarding America’s questionable involvement in the Vietnam War as a

persuasive tool to convince people to join the peace movement.

During the early years of the anti-Vietnam War movement, textual immersion was the

main recruitment tactic used by the peace supporters. Newspapers and speeches given by

President Lydon B. Johnson’s administration were the main sources of information available to

the public, while articles and images that reflected badly upon the war effort were kept out of

final production. Protestors sought to bring this controversial content to light in order to present

the Vietnamese-American conflict in its entirety. In order to reach their goal of gaining

supporters for the peace movement, protestors vocalized their demands to the public and hosted

info sessions to further educate the unbeknownst middle class. In the same way, posters focused

on informing the population and bringing the troops home. Multiple font types and sizes were

used to draw protestors’ projected audiences. Bullet points were also a key attention grabber that

allowed the viewer to grasp a summary of the overall message in an organized fashion.

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Figure 1: This protest poster released by The Ministers’ Vietnam committee in 1963 uses logos by enticing “supporters of the campaign into rhetorically join Quang Duc’s visual protest through textual discourse” (Murray 20).

Most of the subject headers on these text-heavy posters focused on future protest

campaigns or speaker series geared towards divulging details about American operations in

North and South Vietnam. A small photo may have been featured, but their main appeal was in

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the text. The poster on the previous page in Figure 1 builds logos by listing information

regarding the current situation in Vietnam and the government’s actions towards drafting more

soldiers. The listed number of people that are involved in the campaign, the numerous names of

leaders involved in this protest campaign are listed in two columns in the center, and their

official titles greatly enhance the logos of the poster. It uses powerful words in a large font to

entice the viewer in learning more, and refers to the audience with intimate titles such as

“brothers and sisters” and “friends” in an attempt to connect with the viewer on a more personal

level. The powerful photo of a Vietnamese Buddhist partaking in self-immolation as protest also

gives the poster pathos to further convince the audience to “Join our Protest!” By enlightening

the public about the happenings in South East Asia, posters helped the American population

formulate a deeper understanding of the United States’ battle overseas and form a stance against

the war.

Closing the Gap: Bridging the Great Divide over the War

Despite being fought on foreign soil, the Vietnam War affected a larger majority of

American citizens from multiple demographics due to the “political, racial, and cultural spheres,

the antiwar movement [that] exposed a deep schism within 1960s American society”

(Barringer).Young adults were being drafted to fight overseas, and those unable to provide

support overseas were expected to pay war taxes and abide by the domestic and international

decisions made by current president Lyndon B. Johnson. When the Vietnam War started to

escalate, the growing divide on the war issue became much more evident in the American

population; the majority of the population advocated the actions being taken in Vietnam, while a

small percent of the population actively campaigned against the foreign policies being

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implemented. Within the large macrocosm of the United States, there were two microcosms that

erupted from the Vietnamese-American conflict: the silent majority and the vocal minority.

The “silent majority” raised no opposition in the early stages of the war because

involvement in Vietnam was seen as a counteracting force against the rise of communism in

Southeast Asia. Communism was still a huge concern with the American population and

maintained a negative reaction during this post-Cold War Era. Americans wanted stability in the

midst of the chaotic war, and the radicalism of the leftist protest groups clashed with the

traditional nomos of unyielding patriotism and national support. Caroline Page, a researcher on

the effects of the media and propaganda used by the American government, notes in her book,

U.S. Official Propaganda During the Vietnam War 1965 – 1973, “One of the most difficult

problems that the American propaganda organs faced during the Vietnam War concerned the

nature of the conflict. The Administration most often portrayed the conflict politically as a

straightforward contest between communists and non-communists and hence America’s role in it

was part of a moral crusade against communist expansion” (Page, 96). Even though the

protesters’ efforts had good intentions, the fact that a group was going against the social norm

was not initially well received by an overwhelming number of citizens.

The “vocal minority” of activist groups during that decade were not particularly focused

on the events occurring in Vietnam at first, but rather addressed other hot topics of the time such

as domestic civil rights issues and nuclear disarmament. Fred Halstead, an active participant in

the American antiwar movement, notes “the youth radicalization of the 1960’s did not begin

around Vietnam or within the old peace movement. Nevertheless, the change in mood was

reflected in some of the activities of groups which were a part of the old coalition” (Halstead 9).

Protest groups such as the Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) and the National Committee

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for a Sane Nuclear Policy (SANE) began to focus in on the current events in Vietnam and

relayed that information to the American citizens when the first huge wave of drafts were

introduced to the United States citizens in 1963 to recruit more and more military personnel for

land attacks against the Viet Cong forces. Protestors tried to pique the interest of their targeted

audience of middle-class citizens and college-age students by presenting multiple arguments that

criticized the war effort, but the general opinion towards protesting was negative. However, the

main catalyst of the anti-Vietnam war protest movement occurred in 1965 when the United

States started bombing North Vietnam. As the war escalated, the graph labeled Graph 1 shows

how the public support towards the war effort started to wane.

Protestors utilized the public’s drop in support to gain momentum in the peace campaign

and convert the public into supporters of the peace campaign:

Graph 1: This graph timelines the transgression of President Johnson’s public approval percentages in relation to multiple events during the Vietnam War.

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Figure 2: These student posters made in 1970 use simple compositional elements to express their disdain about the poor treatment of S.E. Asian civilians.

Attracting members from college campuses, middle-class suburbs, labor unions, and government institutions, the movement gained national prominence in 1965, peaked in 1968, and remained powerful throughout the duration of the conflict.

Antiwar groups applied one of the most fundamental rights of the American citizen, the

freedoms of expression, in order to propagate the peace campaign and provide their projected

audience with as much information as possible regarding the actual happenings in Vietnam.

Societal values advocating loyalty to one’s government were dismissed as social liberties took

precedent. With their valiant efforts and poignant imagery, peace groups advocated a message

that resonated within the trying heartstrings of a polarized nation and utilized the kairos of

wartime.

Getting Creative with Civil Disobedience: Visualizing Opposition

As the Administration ordered more troops to be stationed in North Vietnam, the

government’s support system was slowly starting to

crumble. The rising war casualties convinced more and

more members of the American population to join the

peace movement and to act against the violence. People

were fed up with government’s inability to fully justify

and wanted answers now; as a result, posters became less

and less informative of current events and more

accusatory to reflect the rising anger of the American

public. In order to combat the war effort and to restore

standards of human equality, protestors decided to create a

visual attack against America’s cruel treatment of the

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Vietnamese people.

Incities across the country, posters were plastered to phone poles to combat the

government-regulated images being forced upon citizens with some powerful visual messages of

their own. Figures 3 and 4 were created by Berkeley students in a political poster workshop in

1970. The images reference famous classical works such as Rubens’ Rape of the Daughters of

Leuccipus” and Goya’s Saturn Devouring his Child.1 The artist uses recognizable works in order

to establish a connection with the viewer, but puts a spin on the context in order to relate it to the

current times. It plays on the titles of the classic works and incorporates them into direct phrases

against the actions of the Administration. The poster on the left has labeled both dark-figured

assailants as the United States, suggesting evil connotations. The duality of the elements in

composition, the men and women, as well as the light and dark, reinforces the conflicting nature

of war and reaffirms the clash between contrasting cultures.

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Figure 3: This student made poster references a classical work, and it connects with the viewer with a play on words to advocate a human rights campaign.

The posters are printed sloppily on cheap

computer paper, but ingeniously incorporate innovative

imagery and clever wordplay. Barry Miles, the main

compiler of these Berkeley prints, wrote 4973:

Berkeley Protest Posters 1970 in which he explained

the origins of Berkeley’s student protest and the

increase in campus protesting around the US. “The

posters are printed on computer paper, used for

telephone poles or other posts. Computer paper

contributed to the sense of urgency communicated by

these posters: produced at a time of great public unrest,

when calm and peace were essential,” explained Barry

Miles, “The contrast between the cheapest paper stock and the hasty, sloppy production of

posters, and the images themselves, which were often clever and sometimes beautiful, is

striking” (Miles, 2). The prints are simple in color choice and line, but have just enough detail to

convey a complete understanding of the subject to the viewer and make a quick impact. The

posters use ethos in order to evoke a reaction from the audience; Americans must rise up and

react to the ridiculousness of the war. In both works, America is presented as a wrongful force

engaging in terrible acts of cannibalism and assault, expressing the sentiments of rising public

opinion against the war. The poster in Figure 4 for example spells America as “Amerika,”

suggesting Slavic undertones and associating America with the Communist movement of Soviet

Russia. This intentional misspelling of America completely denounces America’s nomos as a

democratic society and illuminates the distortion of its self-awareness. The body the large beast

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Figure 4: This poster addresses the victims of military police cruelty at multiple protest events.

is chewing greatly resembles the shape of North Vietnam upside down, implying that America

has turned the country upside down and is completely consuming it. 2 Ironically, America’s

attempt to stop the spread of communism has resulted in its being viewed as an equally evil

force; it has become the beast it has been battling.

Human After All: Preservation of Human Rights in Vietnam

The escalation of the Vietnam War indirectly jeopardized the upholding of unalienable

rights that are given to man and are instilled into the nomos of American culture. Life, liberty,

and the pursuit of happiness are three rights granted by the United States’ Declaration of

Independence, and they make up the foundation of American ideals and concept of freedom. The

doxa inherited by the hawkish war supporters portrayed the Vietnamese-American conflict as a

peacekeeping mission; members of the communist Vietcong needed to be stopped in order to

restore international balance. However, this U.S. imperialism was put into question as the

American public became disillusioned by the dehumanizing actions being implemented overseas,

as well as on home soil.

Although the American population initially supported the heroic actions of the American

government, their justifications for certain events occurring

overseas was put into question when the vile conditions

faced by troops and innocent civilians were unveiled. The

harrowing effects of the brutality of the war were never

supposed to reach the eyes of the American population, but

the media’s shift in support resulted in more news reels

depicting gruesome shots of soldiers lying face down in the

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fields, scathing bodies mangled by napalm, and mangled Vietnamese civilians hit with shrapnel

from ground grenades. The scenes Americans had now been exposed to eradicated the previous

preconceived notions of the enemy and forced Americans to reevaluate the so-called “fight for

freedom” in Vietnam. The poor treatment of these innocent Vietnamese citizens was a violation

of human rights, and the United States was responsible. More so, this corruption of American

freedoms became evident within the boundaries of American soil.

As the antiwar movement started getting larger, the government’s means of handling

protest gatherings and marches were becoming more violent. In response, a new theme arose in

anti-Vietnam war material that was geared towards human rights, that of the innocent civilians in

Vietnam and the United States. The poster on the left, another print screen image courtesy of a

Berkeley student, depicts Uncle Sam pointing a gun directly at the viewer, the words WANTED

sprawled in large letters above him. Uncle Sam is a classic icon of America, a symbol of all that

America stands for. However, the significance of Uncle Sam wielding the gun suggests America

has betrayed its citizens and have taken the people’s liberties for ransom. In smaller text reads,

“for murder in Indochina, Jackson, Augusta, Kent, Chicago, Oakland…,” alluding to the killings

of civilians and soldiers in Vietnam and Cambodia, as well as the victims of antiwar

demonstration like the victims of the Kent State Massacre, and those fatally wounded at Jackson

State College while advocating peace. The ellipses suggest that more events were to be added to

the list if America wasn’t stopped. At this rate, the Americans could not afford to remain the

silent majority if this cruelty were to ever stop.

Explicit Content: Violence and Obscenity of Photo-Reality

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Figure 5: This poster uses a graphic image taken by a photographer to shock its audience about the immoral acts being committed in Vietnam.

Figure 6: This poster acted as a reminder of the corrupted tactics America adopted during the Vietnam War.

By the 1970’s, the debate about America’s involvement of the war began to heat up

within the American population. Most of the population wondered how no progress could be

accounted for in Vietnam after being involved for over five years. More visually shocking

images appeared on news

cast, inspiring protestors to

incorporate stills from the

footage captured by the

media into their posters to

not only stir reactions from

the public, but to force

Americans to reevaluate what it meant to be American during

this chaotic period. The divides between the American

demographic were slowly beginning to dissolve, and people

from all walks of life were banding together to voice their

opposition to the continued bloodshed and extended occupation

in Vietnam.

One event in particular, the My Lai massacre, captured

the eyes and hearts of antiwar allies. The poster in Figure 5is a

blown up a photo taken by Ron L. Haeberle with a juxtaposed

snippet of text with the question “And babies?” and the response

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“And babies.” Susan Niditch, a professor of religion at Amherst College, muses, “The photo

shocks and sickens. The 1970 photo of the innocent victims of war, babies and children strewn

on the road, a pile of human refuse, a scene of death frozen… Implicit is the question, how can

human beings do such things? Can any goal, military or political, justify such killing? The naked

bodies of dead children, utterly vulnerable, seem to answer “No.”’ This disturbing photo uses

pathos and ethos to evoke a gruesome reaction from the audience and force the viewer to

reanalyze their personal values. By setting up the text question-answer format is less critical than

the previous trends of posters and more meditative.

The question and answer inscribed on poster in Figure 6 more directly raises the issue of

American values. The question, “Would you burn a child?” is accompanied by a man in a

business suit holding a lighter near the forearm of a young child’s arm. The scene depicted is

ridiculous and it seems the obvious and logical answer to the question is no. However, as the

viewer glances at the lower portion of the poster, a photo of a Vietnamese woman cradling a

burned victim and a response is given: “When necessary.” The answer is just as striking as the

photo and completely contradicts with the logos established by the first part of the poster. On a

deeper level, this thought-provoking poster challenges the American citizen’s doxa and exposes

the United State’s inability to reason logically when it comes to ethical values; loyalty to the

country’s war campaign has taken precedence over ethical reasoning. America’s moral views

have become so distorted since their involvement in the war that there is justification to burn an

innocent child. The irony of the poster reflects the contradictory nature of the policies America

had implemented during the Vietnam War, and the pathos of the poster emphasizes the shock

value of the content. The commentary of the posters demanded that the public needed to

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reestablish the public nomos present before the war began if America wanted to stop this moral

decay.

You Say You Want a Revolution: Reassessing and Restoring America’s Moral Foundation

America’s losing battle on the far-off land of Vietnam and the ramifications of their

involvement were not only the nadir of its foreign diplomacy history but also a low point for

American citizens. With all the reports of massacres and death sprees, the principles America

stood for and built itself upon had been damaged. The citizens could no longer seek solace from

their misleading and morally questionable government. Susan Martin, contributor in the book

Decade of Protest: Political Posters from the United States, Viet Nam and Cuba 1965-1975,

reaffirms this fact and notes,

Like hundreds of thousands of my generation, the war in Viet Nam was a seminal event in our psychic and social development. The forces for change that came together to create the antiwar movement were part of a zeitgeist that brought down the carefully constructed myths of a powerful and duplicitous government, and also unleashed an unprecedented revolution in social mores and a tidal wave of cultural production (Martin 11).

Despite this tribulation, Americans were able to recreate order where there was none. The

protest mood shift resulted in a new attitude adopted by the American population that was less

accusatory and rage-fueled, and more introspective and constructive: “Even in the most

desperate situations, people express themselves in creative languages that both reveal and

surpass the meanings of the conflict (and consensus) they were devised to reflect.” The

undertones of these visual arguments consisted of pathos to evoke a passionate reaction that

would translate into reshaping the American people’s moral bearings; ethos to encourage self-

reliance among the American population; and kairos to reinforce the importance of a moral

compass to guide American during the time of war and the fatal repercussions of deviating from

one’s ethics. The posters created by peace promoters brought to light the government’s ethical

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mistakes and empowered the population to become passionate and create order during this

disorderly time. Thanks to the message conveyed by the posters, their creators, and supporters,

Americans could rise from the ashes of war with a reinvented outlook to unify a broken nation.

Come Together, Right Now: Moving Forward and Looking Back

In summary, American population sought stability in the midst of this chaotic war.

Throughout the course of the war, propaganda issued by antiwar student and social groups

illustrated multiple trends that correlated with the shift in communication mediums used by

protestors. Posters were initially analytical and text heavy, but they became more emotional and

visual as the war progressed. As more information regarding the war was revealed to the public,

posters addressed more controversial subjects, and ultimately generated an attitude shift within

the public realm. Ultimately, the vocal minority became less forgiving of the government’s

actions and more explicit with their material and demands. However, towards the end of the war,

the population became less angry and condescending; protestors stopped tearing apart the

government’s actions and focused reconstructing America’s image. “The posters and production

methods are uniquely American: democratically organized and big in scale” (Miles 1).

If not for the protest movement and the poster making, the American population would

have been voiceless, restless, and hopeless. By addressing the multiple failures of the

Administration and the evident dissent of the American population, posters inspired audiences to

collaborate with one another despite differences in order to try and fix the one nation they all

belonged to. The antiwar movement fostered unity between a spectrum of people and cultivated

social growth as a nation. On a more intimate level, this antiwar protest movement sparked

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passions within individuals of the population and made the idea of actually bringing about

change attainable:

“… an age of idealism and rage, of energy and optimism, activism and dissent. The posters are living expressions of a period that forever changed the way America views itself and its institutions--and ultimately its role on the world's stage.”

Appendix

Appendix 1a: Rape of the Daughters of Leucippus by Rubens Appendix 1b: Saturn Devouring his Children by Goya

Appendix 2: Map of Vietnam

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