virginia's student secession movement

8/3/2019 Virginia's Student Secession Movement

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Virginias Student Secession Movement:

Political Activism at the University of Virginia, 1859-1861

Emma Sanford

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The Formation and Activism of the Student Secession Movementi

the greatest enthusiasm prevailed among them, and each and every one seemed

anxious for an opportunity of vindicating the honour of Virginia, and meeting the enemyin battle.ii

The call for secession rang louder and clearer than at any other point in history

after the election of Abraham Lincoln in November 1860. Beginning with the states of

the lower south, movement toward secession quickly gained momentum with long-time

fire-eaters like William Yancey and Edmund Ruffin espousing the conviction that the

liberty of all southerners would be doomed under the presidency of Abraham Lincoln.

The growing secessionist sentiment was strongest in the states of the Deep South, which

included South Carolina, Mississippi, Georgia, Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, and Texas

with border-states like Maryland and Virginia maintaining their loyalty to the Union.iii

This can be seen in a comparison of the election results between state of Virginia and the

other southern states. Overall the Democratic candidate Breckenridge received 245 votes

to the Constitutional Unionist candidate Bells 232, while in Virginia the former lost to

Bell by five votes, 162-157.iv Virginians were encouraged to go to the polls, andvote

with an eye single to the preservation of the Union, the maintenance of the Constitution

and the Enforcement of the laws.v

On the day of the election the energy and tension was high at the University of

Virginia while Fred Fleet, Randolph McKim and their fellow students waited for the

votes to be counted:

the polls were opened in the Rotunda and the students commenced voting for

President. I soon went up there & voted & then came back to my room, but the

noise began to be so great I put down everything & staid until the voting was

overAfter the result was read out, there was a tremendous hurrah for Bell, &

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then cheers for Virginia, who had given him 5 majority.vi

Though Virginia differed from the deep southern states on its candidate preference and

unionist sentiment, the results show a common unity across the south rejecting Abraham

Lincoln and the Republican Party. Virginians believed that a vote for Lincoln was a vote

for disunion and that Lincoln must and will be defeated.vii The battle in the South was

between pro-secession and pro-union candidates. This division quickly became realized

when the deep South states seceded while the other southern states remained in the union.

Virginias elders did not see such an immediate danger in the election of Abraham

Lincoln to the presidency because southern states still maintained the majority in

Congress and the Supreme Court. They believed that the danger is in secession.

Virginias political leaders realized that the secession of the lower South would leave

them and other slaveholding states in the minority in Congress and they would thus be

coerced into secession, adding cowardice to treason.viii

However, Fred Fleet and his classmates were more willing to see secession as the

next honorable, necessary step that Virginia needed to take after the election of Abraham

Lincoln. The election of Lincoln marked a drastic change in the attitudes of many

students who had heretofore been wary of secession and the student movement was born.

This growing sympathy for the cause for southern liberty and independence was reflected

in their letters written to their families. Fred Fleet wrote of the Washington Literary

Society debate in which they discussed whether the South should secede since Lincoln

was elected. He, like other members present at the debate, believed that the South had

better secede now, while she can & not to wait until she cannot.ix He believed that it was

not of vital importance whether Bell or Breckenridge won Virginias vote; it was

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important the South stood united in its fate, and since the majority of southern states

voted for secession, Virginia should follow suit.x In his letter to his brother, Fred was

anxious to hear what his father and other Bell men thought about secession during the

elections.xi Many Virginia students began to wear the Colonial Cockade (a blue ribbon)

in their hats to show their support for the Southern independence movement and to

emulate the ardent Southern nationalists in South Carolina who began the trend.xii After

the election of Abraham Lincoln more students became inspired to action and they began

calling for the formation of military companies at the University to prepare themselves

for any upcoming conflicts.

xiii

In November of 1860, not all students of Virginia saw a need for the formation of

companies, nor wished to participate in the secession festivities. Charles Ellis Munford, a

student during the last antebellum school term, held this viewpoint and did not take part

because he believed that they interfered with his academic pursuits. xiv Young men like

Munford supported his states right to exercise the liberty of owning slaves and held that

the South should make the North acknowledge this right. However, he did not believe

that reaching an understanding with the northern states would require the dissolution of

the Union or the shedding of American blood.xv By the beginning of December more

students who shared Munfords opinion began to realize that the secession of Virginia

would soon become a reality. With the imminent secession of seven states led by South

Carolina in December 1860, students were forced to take sides. Munfords father was

aware of the position of his son and advised him to prepare for the turbulent times ahead

of him:

All these things demonstrate the necessity that our young men should furbish up

their armour. Not literally their swords and spears, but that mental armour which

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will enable them to take the lead and direct the unthinking masses.You are fast

hastening to the time when you must take your position. Leave no stone unturned

to gain all the knowledge you may now.Examine every question thoroughlynever go off half cockeda gun that does is the most dangerous weapon.xvi

While many students were excited about the future and the opportunities that could arise

for them, they also heeded the advice of their elders and took the time to discuss the

issues and contemplate the possible consequences of their actions.

The anticipation that Virginia would follow South Carolina continued to grow

through December and January as the General Assembly met on 7 January 1861 and

called for a special convention set for February 13th to debate the question of secession.xvii

The enthusiasm that University of Virginia students felt for the secession movement was

not widely shared throughout Virginia. There were still numerous Unionists who

opposed the special convention that would put secession to a vote. The decision for

Virginias secession would be made by delegates elected by the popular vote, so three

weeks of local but intense campaigning followed. Candidates ran as secessionists,

unionists, or moderates.xviii To the joy of conservatives and the chagrin of ardent

secessionists, less than 20 percent of secessionist candidates were elected to the

delegation. The conservative, pro-union sentiment still clearly dominated Virginia in

February. They remained in session discussing secession until March, which left many

ardent secessionists like Edmund Ruffin very frustrated: The Va. Convention continues

to do nothing, & the worthless legislature of Va., which now has nothing to do, continues

in session, so as to be spectator the Convention.xix Fire-eaters used this period of

inactivity and indecision to speak to the delegates and to garner support inside and

outside of the Convention. Combined with the perceived threat of President Lincolns

first inaugural address in which he stated that, the Union of these States is perpetual,

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the fire-eaters agitation influenced Virginians to become swayed by the benefits of

secession in mid-March.xx Secession was finally put to a vote on April 8th and the

unionists prevailed, winning 88-45.xxi

During this waiting period the students actively promoted secession and organized

militia companies at the university to ready themselves for Virginias exit from the

Union. Before students returned to their homes for the winter holiday, they requested

permission from the chairman of the faculty to form two separate companies, calling

themselves the Southern Guard and the Sons of Liberty.xxii Those who returned to

Charlottesville for the second semester found the grounds less populated because some of

their peers chose not to return, stating that they should be at home preparing

[them]selves for military service.xxiii Membership in the Southern Guard and Sons of

Liberty provided returning students the opportunity to combine their education with

military preparation to defend Virginia and their way of life against any northern

oppression.

The manner in which the groups met served dual purposes as they both prepared

for combat and advertised their cause by drilling on the University grounds. The

Southern Guard and Sons of Liberty had officers that led regular members in military

exercises. They drilled regularly during the winter and became quite proficient, the

experience thus being very useful to them later.xxiv Some of the officers were students at

the University of Virginia while the higher-ranking officers were generally selected

alumni from the Virginia Military Institute. The two companies were distinguishable

from each other by their different uniforms: the Sons of Liberty wore a red shirt, trimmed

with black velvet and brass buttons, a dark blue cape, and a white belt with a brass buckle

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and the Southern Guard wore a simpler uniform of a blue shirt, pantaloons, and a cap.xxv

Uniforms helped legitimize the groups and bolstered group cohesion and pride. Members

drilled on the grounds of the university at Carrs Hill and on The Lawn, two well-known

and accessible points of the universitys layout. The Lawn was a traditional and revered

meeting place on campus where students heard announcements (like the election results)

and was surrounded on two sides by dormitories, an instructional building on the third,

and the Rotunda on the fourth. The Rotunda stood as a beacon of Thomas Jeffersons

legacy and inspired students to follow in the founders footsteps.

Students utilized the symbolic power of the Rotunda to meet their own ends in

February 1861. Seven students, who came to be known as the immortal seven planned

a demonstration on the grounds to show the state assembly that they supported South

Carolinas secession and that Virginia should follow suit. Randolph H. McKim, R.C.M.

Page, James M. Garnett, John Latane, William Wirt Robinson, George Bedinger, and P.

Lewis Burwell had a copy of the Confederate flag sewn in the town of Charlottesville,

bought a saw, and arranged for a pole to be placed on Carrs Hill. The seven were

determined to break into the Rotunda and unfurl the flag atop the universitys most-prized

building, declaring their support for the Confederate States of America. While the

student body applauded the efforts of the immortal seven, the professors had a more

mixed reaction. The beloved Professor Bledsoe told them to remove it, but only after

saying that no doubt the young men who put the flag up there are the nicest gentlemen

in Collegeand I hope some of you who love it will go up there and take it down; but

gentlemen, do it gently. He supported their cause, but did not believe the flag should be

flown until Virginia had actually seceded. However, his less-popular counterpart,

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Professor Minor, reflected the conservative, pro-Union professors attitude, saying Flag

of my country, can it be/ That in thy place a rag I see.xxvi The students removed it

accordingly, but would not be placated. They unfurled it from the pre-arranged pole on

Carrs Hill. Though the professors ended the demonstration of southern nationalism, the

action took its effect on the grounds and in the community of Charlottesville.

Similar flags were seen sprouting throughout the university and the residents of

Charlottesville followed the students example and raised flags of their own.xxvii The

university and community were further affected by the student activists as other students

and people from the community watched the companies during drills, which kindled a

martial flame in the onlookers.xxviii James Garnett recounted that the companies drilled

regularly during the winter and became quite proficient.xxix The University Magazine

noted that by February the military spirit has become irrepressible. The consequence is

we now have in our midst two companies of student-soldiery, officered, armed, and

uniformed and already able, we modestly venture, to stand all in a row, with toes out

and eyes front.xxx The activities of the students also inspired some of their professors

who formed their own companies, though others remained tied to their conservative

opinions and opposed the secession movement and their preparations for confrontation

with the north.xxxi Professor Schele, who had some knowledge of military operations,

trained his willing colleagues in drills and military formations. Another professor

recounted that the company performed its evolutions in a private room; but later on,

grew bold enough to appear on the Lawn, to the boundless amusement of the better

drilled students.xxxii The student movement had really taken hold on the grounds as now

the respected professors were following the progressive actions of their pupils and

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preparing themselves for the defense of their homeland.

The student movement further gained popularity and respect from the outside

community as the Southern Guard and Sons of Liberty interacted with other local

volunteer military companies and demonstrated their skills by participating in parades

that were held on campus and that ran through the town of Charlottesville.xxxiii Members

of the companies, like University of Virginia students Randolph Fairfax and John S.

Patton, also used their military skills to pay homage to Thomas Jefferson by participating

in a parade on April 13th at the University in celebration of Jeffersons birthday. While

they performed a battalion drill on the Lawn of the University of Virginia with the

Albemarle Rifle Company and the Monticello Guard, Captain Edward S. Hutter received

a telegram that he then read to the gathered onlookers: Fort Sumter has surrendered

and the Palmetto Flag now floats over its walls.xxxiv Those in attendance were either

very pleased or greatly dismayed by the news. The fall of the United States fort meant

that the Virginia Legislature would have to make a final decision: remain in the Union or

join the Confederacy. James Garnett voiced the opinion of pro-secession students that the

Civil War began on April 15, the day that President Lincoln called for 75,000 men to

crush the so-called rebellion.xxxv He believed that it was this action, coupled with the

surrender of Fort Sumter, that hurried up [the] old fogy Convention and compelled it to

secede.xxxvi

In a letter to the editor of the Daily Richmond Examiner, a student described the

atmosphere at the university, that Everybody here is on the qui vive for political news.

Study is no longer fashionable. Excitement is intenseyou have no idea how intense.

Hordes of students have left.Last night the University, in some localities was brilliantly

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Coleman came amongst us to wish us godspeed.xliii Always the professor, Coleman

scolded the 300 student-soldiers in kindly fashion for running away from our books,

but far more eloquent than the reproof upon his lip was the smile in his eye.xliv

Though he did not want to make the decision for the students who sought his counsel on

the matter of Harpers Ferry, Lewis Coleman did confess his sorrow that he did not leave

them with an inspiring speech as they left the University of Virginia. He realized that

some of them [he] may never see again, and upon the verge of so important a step, [he]

failed to urge upon them the performance of their whole duty in this matter.xlv

After receiving the messages from their beloved professors, the companies

rendezvoused with their fellow volunteers of the Albermarle Rifles and Monticello Guard

at the Charlottesville train station.xlvi They all disembarked at Stratsburg and began their

18-mile march to Winchester, but were slowed by the unexpected pain in their feet and

pro-Unionists who had not yet heard that Virginia was seceding from the Union. An

onlooker described the student militia, stating that, the greatest enthusiasm prevailed

among them, and each and every one seemed anxious for an opportunity of vindicating

the honour of Virginia, and meeting the enemy in battle.xlvii However, by the time they

arrived at Harpers Ferry, the students found the arsenal burned to the ground by northern

forces and had to wait until April 22nd to receive their next assignment. The students

were unhappy to hear that the governor was ordering them to return to the University of

Virginia to finish the school term after only four days of action at Harpers Ferry

instead of allowing them to continue their defense of Virginia from other Northern

offenses.xlviii Governor Letcher tried to assuage their disappointment by telling them that

in their ranks there was too much talent to be risked in one body.xlix The university

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volunteers were disappointed that they did not see action at Harpers Ferry, but they

nevertheless reveled in what they had accomplished since the companies were formed: I

think we were rather glad that we were leaving the Ferry, though our military ardor was

not quite cooled down by our short but arduous campaignon the whole we were very

much pleased with our expedition, and considered war fine fun in those days.l

The students who chose to return to the University of Virginia realized that they

had already partaken in what would become a turning point in American history. Some

of the company members kept an autograph book and had their fellow members sign

them, recounting their time in the Southern Guard and Sons of Liberty and their

expedition to Harpers Ferry. Most of the messages also look forward to future battles

and the honor that they believed they would earn on the battlefield. David Barton wrote a

message to Edward Hutter applauding him for his past actions and encouraging him in

future endeavors: I shall never forget the time spent at Harpers Ferry under your

command. Your prudent and manly deportment at that place are to me sufficient

assurances of your future successmay the cause of the South continue to be as dear to

you as present.li The light-hearted and confident feel of the notes depicted the common

feeling of anticipation and excitement of the moment, where the students-turned-soldiers

believed that together they could defeat any Yankee rabble that dared attack them. Their

time at the university and their involvement in the student militias bound these young

men together as brothers. R.W. Hunter wrote of this brotherhood in J. Compton Frenchs

book, writing that, with kindest regard and most affectionate recollections of our college

intimacy, I subscribe myself your sincere friend and well-wisher.lii In a message to

Randolph H. McKim, Nelson Kinloch summed up his love for his fellow student-soldier

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and also the hope for a better future:

Our college intercourse is, I fear, forever past: but it has sufficed to form afriendship the bonds of which the lapse of time can only strengthen.Farewell

dear Ran, words can but faintly express my feelings with you. May we meet

again on those bright shores where tears never dim the eye, and where parting isnot known.liii

It was these feelings of loyalty to one another and the Southern Cause that motivated

many students to withdraw from the University of Virginia upon their return to

Charlottesville and enlist together in the same companies in the burgeoning ranks of the

Confederate Army.

The students who were members of the Southern Guard and Sons of Liberty were

their generations activists. They took advantage of the opportunities afforded them by

their standing in society and by the University of Virginia to take a stand for the most

important issue of their lifetime. They banded together to use their capabilities and

common ideals to change their society and become the leaders they so desperately

wanted to be. Through their involvement with the volunteer militias, they inspired their

community, their peers, elders, and themselves. They came to believe that together they

could bring about change, and by Gods grace, win the forthcoming war against the

North. The secession movement gave these young men of Virginia the opportunity for

leadership they had so long desired, to prove their manliness in their own right and to

maintain their honor through action.

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i I wish to acknowledge historian Peter Carmichael as it was The Last Generation: Young Virginians in

Peace, War, and Reunion that brought to my attention the student movement at the University of

Virginia. Carmichaels article Crusading Confederates further highlighted the student activities in the

secession movement at the University of Virginia. Both works provided the building blocks for mythesis, which specifically examines the influence the university environment had on the young men at

the University of Virginia and how the bonds formed there were manifested in the student movement

and led them into the Civil War.ii Daily Richmond Examiner. Vol. XIV no. 46. 22 April 1861. Newspaper, Albert and Shirley Small

Special Collections Library, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va.iii James M. McPherson. Battle Cry of Freedom. 235.iv Betsy Fleet and John D.P. Fuller, eds. Green Mount, Letter from Fred to Benny, October 29, 1860. 38.v Torget and Ayers. Two Communities in the Civil War. 77.vi Betsy Fleet and John D.P. Fuller, eds Green Mount, Letter from Fred to Benny, October 29, 1860.

p.38.vii Torget and Ayers. Two Communities in the Civil War. 78.viii Ibid. 80-81.ix Betsy Fleet and John D.P. Fuller, eds Green Mount, Letter from Fred to Benny, November 10 th, 1860.,40.x Ibid.xi Ibid.xii Ibid, Letter from Charles Ellis Munford to Sallie, November 10th, 1860, in Ellis-Munford-Young

Papers. Manuscript, Albert and Shirley Small Special Collections Library, University of Virginia,

Charlottesville, Va.xiii Letter from Charles Ellis Munford to Sallie, November 10th, 1860, in Ellis-Munford-Young Papers.xiv Ibid.xv Ibid.xvi George Wythe Munford to Charles Ellis Munford. 9 December 1860. In Ellis-Munford-YoungPapers, Manuscript, Albert and Shirley Small Special Collection Library, University of Virginia,

Charlottesville, Va.xvii Capt. James Mercer Garnett. Personal Recollections of the University of Virginia.xviiiWilliam C. Davis and James I Robertson, Jr. eds. Virginia at War, 1861. (Lexington: University Press

of Kentucky, 2005), 2-3.xix As quoted in Virginia at War, 1861. 7.xx As quoted in William Gienapp. This Fiery Trial. 90.xxi William C. Davis and James I Robertson, Jr. eds. Virginia at War, 1861. 8-14.xxii Journals of the Chairman of the Faculty of the University of Virginia, 1858-1861. December 13th

1860., Manuscript, Albert and Shirley Small Special Collections Library, University of Virginia,Charlottesville, Va.xxiii Socrates Maupin Papers, 1831-70, Accession #4215, Albert and Shirley Small Special Collections

Library, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va.xxiv Capt. James Mercer Garnett. Personal Recollections of the University of Virginia.xxv Philip A. Bruce. History of the University of Virginia. 265.xxvi As quoted in W.G. Bean. Stonewalls Man: Sandie Pendleton. 31-32.xxvii Philip A. Bruce. History of the University of Virginia. 267-269., Papers of John Shelton Patton.xxviii Philip A. Bruce. History of the University of Virginia. 267.xxix Capt. James Mercer Garnett. Personal Recollections of the University of Virginia.xxx John S. Patton. Jefferson, Cabell, and the University of Virginia. 204.xxxi Ibid. 204-5.xxxii Philip A. Bruce. History of the University of Virginia. 279.


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xxxiii Rev. Philip Slaughter. A Sketch in the Life of Randolph Fairfax. 15.xxxiv Papers of John Shelton Pattonxxxv Capt. James Mercer Garnett. Personal Recollections of the University of Virginia.xxxvi Ibid.xxxvii Daily Richmond Examiner, Vol. XIV, no. 43. April 18, 1861. Newspaper, Manuscript, Albert

and Shirley Small Special Collections, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va.xxxviii

Ibid., John S. Patton. Jefferson, Cabell, and the University of Virginia. 208-209.xxxix William C. Davis and James I. Robertson, Jr. eds. Virginia at War, 1861. 18.xl Journals of the Chairman of the Faculty of the University of Virginia, 1858-1861. 17 April 1861.,

Manuscript, Albert and Shirley Small Special Collections, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va.xli Rev. Philip Slaughter. A Sketch of the Life of Randolph Fairfax. 15.xlii Ibid.xliii Philip A. Bruce. History of the University of Virginia. 276-279.xliv Gordon W. McCabe. Virginia Schools Before and After the Revolution, an address. 27 June 1888.58-60.xlv J.L. Burrows, D.D. The Christian Scholar and Soldier: Memoirs of Lewis Minor Coleman.

(Richmond: Bailey & Co., 1864).xlvi Ibid.xlvii Daily Richmond Examiner, Vol. XIV no. 46. April 22 1861. Newspaper, Rare Book, Albert and

Shirley Small Special Collections, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va.xlviii Ibid., Philip A. Bruce. History of the University of Virginia, 278.xlix John S. Patton. Jefferson, Cabell, and the University of Virginia. 210-211.l James Garnett. Personal Recollections of the University of Virginia.li Edward Hutters Album and Autograph Book of the University of Virginia.lii Belonging to J. Compton French (1860-1861). Bohns Album and Autographs of the University of

Virginia, with a short history, and beautifully illustrated with twenty steel engravings and portraits of

the professors and officers. (Richmond: J.W. Randolph, 1859). Rare Book, Manuscript, Albert andShirley Small Special Collections, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va.liii Autograph Album of Randolph H. McKim, Session 1859-1860 (Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott & Co.,

1859). Rare Book, Manuscript, Albert and Shirley Small Special Collections, University of Virginia,Charlottesville, Va.


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Bibliography

Primary

University of Virginia Albert and Shirley Small Special Collections

Autograph Album of Randolph H. McKim, Session 1859-1860 J.B. Lippincott & Co.:

Philadelphia, 1859.

Belonging to J. Compton French (1860-1861). Bohns Album and Autographs of the

University of Virginia, with a short history, and beautifully illustrated with twenty steel

engravings and portraits of the professors and officers. J.W. Randolph: Richmond, 1859.


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Bohns Album and Autographs of the University of Virginia, with a short history, and

beautifully illustrated with twenty steel engravings and portraits of the professors and officers.

John Murphy & Co.: Baltimore, 1859.

Burrows DD, J.L. The Christian Scholar and Soldier: Memoirs of Lewis Minor Coleman.

Smith, Bailey & Co.: Richmond, 1864.

Correspondence and Papers of Socrates Maupin, 1835-1870.

Daily Richmond Examiner. Vol. XIV, no. 43. April 18, 1861.

Daily Richmond Examiner. Vol. XIV no. 46. April 22 1861.

Ellis-Munford-Young Papers. George Wythe Munford to Charles Ellis Munford. 9 December

1860.

-- Letter from Charles Ellis Munford to Sallie, 10 November 1860.

Garnett, Capt. James Mercer. Personal Recollections of the University of Virginia at the

Outbreak of the War of 1861-65.

Journals of the Chairman of the Faculty of the University of Virginia. (1858-1861)

McCabe, Gordon W. Virginia Schools Before and After the Revolution with a sketch of

Frederick William Coleman, M.A., and Lewis Minor Coleman, M.A.. An address delivered

before the society of the alumni of the university of Virginia, June 27 th 1888. Chronicle Steam

Book und Job Office: Charlottesville, 1890.

Papers of John Shelton Patton. Manuscript.

Other Primary Sources

Fleet, Betsy and John D.P. Fuller, eds. Green Mount: A Virginia Plantation Family

During the Civil War. University of Kentucky Press: Lexington, 1962.

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Bean, W.G. Stonewalls Man: Sandie Pendleton. University of North Carolina Press:

Chapel Hill, 1959.

Bruce, Philip A. History of the University of Virginia 1819-1919, vol. 3. MacMillan

Company: New York, 1921.

Carmichael, Peter S. Civil War Times Illustrated. "Students and Secession in the Old

Dominion." May 2006, p. 26-33.

Carmichael, Peter S. The Last Generation: Young Virginians in Peace, War, and

Reunion. University of North Carolina Press: Chapel Hill, 2005.

Davis, William C. and James I. Robertson, Jr. eds. Virginia at War, 1861. University

Press of Kentucky: Lexington, 2005.

Gienapp, William E., Ed. This Fiery Trial: the Speeches and Writings of Abraham

Lincoln. Oxford University Press: Oxford, 2002.

McPherson, James M. Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era. Ballantine Books:

New York, 1988.

Patton, John S. Jefferson, Cabell and the University of Virginia. New York: Neale

Publishing Co., 1906.

Slaughter, Rev. Philip, D.D. A Sketch of the Life of Randolph Fairfax. 3rd ed. Innes and

Co.: Baltimore, 1878.

Torget, Andrew J. and Edward L. Ayers, eds. Two Communities in the Civil War. W.W.

Norton Company & Inc.: New York, 2007.

virginia's student secession movement

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