VIOLENCE VIOLENCE

Jivan FlorinJivan Florin

VIOLENCEVIOLENCE Violence is the aggressive behaviour showcased by an individual. The dictionary Violence is the aggressive behaviour showcased by an individual. The dictionary

defines it as, "the intentional use of power or physical force, threatened or actual, defines it as, "the intentional use of power or physical force, threatened or actual, against oneself, another person or against a group or community that either results against oneself, another person or against a group or community that either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, mal-in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, mal-development or deprivation." This is a comprehensive definition of violence and very development or deprivation." This is a comprehensive definition of violence and very well describes all the related aspects of violence.well describes all the related aspects of violence.

Violence is an expression of aggression. There can be various reasons that cause this Violence is an expression of aggression. There can be various reasons that cause this kind of behaviour. Various unfavourable social situations or circumstances in life kind of behaviour. Various unfavourable social situations or circumstances in life affect an individual. The reaction to those situations is variable. Those who are short affect an individual. The reaction to those situations is variable. Those who are short tempered or unable to cope with the changing environment find it hard to behave tempered or unable to cope with the changing environment find it hard to behave rationally. This frustration comes out in the form of anger and violent behaviour. rationally. This frustration comes out in the form of anger and violent behaviour. Though, environmental factors are responsible but only to an extent. Psychologists Though, environmental factors are responsible but only to an extent. Psychologists believe that violent traits are inherent in nature. Hence genetic make-up does play a believe that violent traits are inherent in nature. Hence genetic make-up does play a role.role.

Violence is of several kinds. One can exhibit violence in physical, Psychological, or Violence is of several kinds. One can exhibit violence in physical, Psychological, or sexual form or simply by neglecting someone to the point of deprivation. The extent sexual form or simply by neglecting someone to the point of deprivation. The extent of violence ranges from self, to family and friends, to community and the largest of violence ranges from self, to family and friends, to community and the largest expression is the entire war situation between and/ or within the nations. Violence expression is the entire war situation between and/ or within the nations. Violence has affected civilizations. It is evident from the historical facts that wars that are the has affected civilizations. It is evident from the historical facts that wars that are the epitome of violence have ruined millions of lives. Those who resort to violence justify epitome of violence have ruined millions of lives. Those who resort to violence justify their action by citing various reasons but in the end it is only the personal perception their action by citing various reasons but in the end it is only the personal perception that leads to such kind of behaviour.that leads to such kind of behaviour.

Interpersonal Conflict and Interpersonal Conflict and ViolenceViolence

In a very real sense, interpersonal conflict is the stuff of In a very real sense, interpersonal conflict is the stuff of life.life.

Interpersonal conflict truly is everywhere. We have road Interpersonal conflict truly is everywhere. We have road rage on suburban highways, battles of the bands, rage on suburban highways, battles of the bands, disputes between neighbors over property lines, disputes between neighbors over property lines, arguments between workers and bosses. The list goes on arguments between workers and bosses. The list goes on and on.and on.

Some interpersonal conflict is a micro-level version of the Some interpersonal conflict is a micro-level version of the international and national disputes which are the focus of international and national disputes which are the focus of this knowledge base. In other words, flight, fight, and this knowledge base. In other words, flight, fight, and unite are the options we have in facing any intractable unite are the options we have in facing any intractable conflict. Interpersonal and international conflict are not conflict. Interpersonal and international conflict are not the same, of course. However, in some ways it is the same, of course. However, in some ways it is easiereasier to to prevent international conflict from turning violent because prevent international conflict from turning violent because collective decisions have to be made, often by hundreds collective decisions have to be made, often by hundreds of people.of people.

Not surprisingly, individuals can have their greatest Not surprisingly, individuals can have their greatest impact in the ways that interpersonal conflicts unfold. impact in the ways that interpersonal conflicts unfold. Unlike national or international conflicts which are Unlike national or international conflicts which are decided at sites distant from London, England, New decided at sites distant from London, England, New London, Conn., or New London, South Africa, these erupt London, Conn., or New London, South Africa, these erupt and are best solved as close to "home" as possible.and are best solved as close to "home" as possible.

Some interpersonal conflict is a micro-level version of the Some interpersonal conflict is a micro-level version of the international and national disputes which are the focus of international and national disputes which are the focus of this knowledge base. In other words, flight, fight, and this knowledge base. In other words, flight, fight, and unite are the options we have in facing any intractable unite are the options we have in facing any intractable conflict. Interpersonal and international conflict are not conflict. Interpersonal and international conflict are not the same, of course. However, in some ways it is the same, of course. However, in some ways it is easiereasier to to prevent international conflict from turning violent because prevent international conflict from turning violent because collective decisions have to be made, often by hundreds collective decisions have to be made, often by hundreds of people.of people.

War War There have been between 20 and 40 wars going on around the There have been between 20 and 40 wars going on around the

world. Since 1945, almost all of them have occurred in the Third world. Since 1945, almost all of them have occurred in the Third World and almost all of them have been extremely bloody in large World and almost all of them have been extremely bloody in large part because they are fought over race, religion, ethnicity, or part because they are fought over race, religion, ethnicity, or language, which can bring out the worst in people and have led to language, which can bring out the worst in people and have led to some of the bloodiest conflicts the world has ever seen.some of the bloodiest conflicts the world has ever seen.

Until recently, most political scientists defined war as an armed confrontation between two internationally recognized states that resulted in a certain number of deaths on the battlefield, typically 1,000 per year. Since the end of World War II, however, almost all wars have been civil wars fought largely within a single country and pitting the state against its domestic enemies. And with the launch of the war against terrorism following the 9/11 attacks, we are engaged in a fight that is not confined to a single region and includes a party that has no desire to gain control of any particular state. In short, we have had to expand what we mean by war to include all systematic political violence in which at least one of the parties is a sovereign state.

By that definition, there have about 14,500 wars which claimed the lives of at least 3.5 billion people throughout recorded history. Depending on where one sets the threshold for the number of deaths, there have been between 224 and 560 wars since 1816.

Wars have also gotten a lot bloodier. Three hundred years ago, most wars were fought by poorly armed and poorly trained soldiers. Relatively few people died, especially in the civilian population. The industrial revolution, however, "modernized" warfare with the creation and spread of such lethal weapons as the machine gun, airplanes and missiles laden with bombs, and, of course, weapons of mass destruction. Well over 100 million people died in the 20th century's wars. Some of them were so-called "quiet crises" because they did not get much coverage in the western media, including the 1990s civil war in the Democratic Republic of Congo (formerly Zaire) which took 2.5 million lives.

Terrorism Terrorism Terrorism has taken on new importance for most people since the attacks Terrorism has taken on new importance for most people since the attacks

on the World Trade Center in New York and the Pentagon in the suburbs on the World Trade Center in New York and the Pentagon in the suburbs of Washington, D.C., on 11 September 2001. In three daring attacks using of Washington, D.C., on 11 September 2001. In three daring attacks using airliners (as well as a fourth that failed when passengers forced the plane airliners (as well as a fourth that failed when passengers forced the plane to crash land), terrorists took ten times more lives than they had in any to crash land), terrorists took ten times more lives than they had in any previous incident in the U.S. and did so in a manner so audacious that it previous incident in the U.S. and did so in a manner so audacious that it shocked virtually everyone around the world.shocked virtually everyone around the world.

But, terrorism is not new. Historians debate when the first instance of But, terrorism is not new. Historians debate when the first instance of terrorism occurred. However, it was no later than the 1790s, when the terrorism occurred. However, it was no later than the 1790s, when the revolutionary government in France used the term to refer to the way revolutionary government in France used the term to refer to the way they treated members of the nobility and clergy as well as others who they treated members of the nobility and clergy as well as others who opposed their regime.opposed their regime.

Scholars also disagree about what terrorism actually entails, as the Scholars also disagree about what terrorism actually entails, as the cliche, "one person's terrorist is another's freedom fighter" suggests. As cliche, "one person's terrorist is another's freedom fighter" suggests. As the Council on Foreign Relations' Terrorism Question and Answer project the Council on Foreign Relations' Terrorism Question and Answer project has put it, most definitions of terrorism include the following:has put it, most definitions of terrorism include the following:

It involves premeditated violence aimed at civilians and designed to It involves premeditated violence aimed at civilians and designed to provoke fear in a much broader target population.provoke fear in a much broader target population.

It is political and not criminal in nature.It is political and not criminal in nature. One of the most widely cited lists of terrorist organizations compiled by One of the most widely cited lists of terrorist organizations compiled by

the United States State Department listed 31 such groups in 2001. Some, the United States State Department listed 31 such groups in 2001. Some, such as al Qaeda or the Real IRA (which broke from the main IRA when such as al Qaeda or the Real IRA (which broke from the main IRA when the latter supported the talks which led to the Good Friday Accords of the latter supported the talks which led to the Good Friday Accords of 1998) unquestionably belong on any such list. Others are more 1998) unquestionably belong on any such list. Others are more problematic, including the Israeli Kach, the Palestinian Liberation problematic, including the Israeli Kach, the Palestinian Liberation Organization, and the GAM movement seeking independence for Aceh Organization, and the GAM movement seeking independence for Aceh from Indonesia.from Indonesia.

Finally, deciding who is a terrorist is complicated by the fact that many Finally, deciding who is a terrorist is complicated by the fact that many states are involved. The United States government, for instance, has long states are involved. The United States government, for instance, has long complained about state-sponsored terrorism, actions by its adversaries, complained about state-sponsored terrorism, actions by its adversaries, which, it claims, support the activity of the groups on its annual list of which, it claims, support the activity of the groups on its annual list of terrorist organizations. However, there are those who argue that some terrorist organizations. However, there are those who argue that some American allies, including Israel today, the United Kingdom during the American allies, including Israel today, the United Kingdom during the height of "the troubles" in Northern Ireland, and South Africa during the height of "the troubles" in Northern Ireland, and South Africa during the apartheid years all engaged in activities that smacked of terrorism.apartheid years all engaged in activities that smacked of terrorism.

Suicide Bombers Suicide Bombers History has revealed that terrorists are capable of carrying out bold and History has revealed that terrorists are capable of carrying out bold and

destructive acts that at first glance appear to be unexplainable. What kind of destructive acts that at first glance appear to be unexplainable. What kind of person would sacrifice his or her own life in order to kill innocent people? person would sacrifice his or her own life in order to kill innocent people? What could possibly motivate a young person to become a suicide bomber?What could possibly motivate a young person to become a suicide bomber?

In the wake of many tragic events, it can be difficult to analyze objectively In the wake of many tragic events, it can be difficult to analyze objectively the causes and processes leading up to them. For many, understanding the the causes and processes leading up to them. For many, understanding the motives behind suicide bombing comes dangerously close to excusing or motives behind suicide bombing comes dangerously close to excusing or approving it. It may seem easier just to assume that the people involved are approving it. It may seem easier just to assume that the people involved are "evildoers" or "callous fanatics delighting in the carnage they have created." "evildoers" or "callous fanatics delighting in the carnage they have created." [1] Any extreme measures taken against them will be regarded, not simply [1] Any extreme measures taken against them will be regarded, not simply as appropriate and justified, but as obligatory. However, terrorism is not a as appropriate and justified, but as obligatory. However, terrorism is not a simple phenomenon with easy explanations. Although many people cite simple phenomenon with easy explanations. Although many people cite "evil" as a prime motivator, there seems to be no single, complete theory "evil" as a prime motivator, there seems to be no single, complete theory about what brings about such behavior. Usually a wide variety of motives about what brings about such behavior. Usually a wide variety of motives and causal factors are involved.and causal factors are involved.

Unsurprisingly, many people have attempted to understand suicide bombing Unsurprisingly, many people have attempted to understand suicide bombing in terms of the abnormality of the individuals responsible. However, if only in terms of the abnormality of the individuals responsible. However, if only those with some kind of psychopathology could be terrorists, terrorism would those with some kind of psychopathology could be terrorists, terrorism would not be the large problem that it is. Research shows no indication that not be the large problem that it is. Research shows no indication that terrorists are crazy or psychopathic or that they lack moral feelings. terrorists are crazy or psychopathic or that they lack moral feelings.

Most terrorists are not psychologically deviant and do not operate outside Most terrorists are not psychologically deviant and do not operate outside the normal rules of behavior, but are instead ordinary people from the normal rules of behavior, but are instead ordinary people from unremarkable backgrounds. In fact, research indicates that terrorists tend to unremarkable backgrounds. In fact, research indicates that terrorists tend to have considerable insight into their own actions and are aware of how others have considerable insight into their own actions and are aware of how others view them. view them.

They believe that their violent actions, while somewhat regrettable, are They believe that their violent actions, while somewhat regrettable, are justified and noble. Moreover, their emotional commitment to their cause justified and noble. Moreover, their emotional commitment to their cause and comrades is indicative of normal human psychology. Often their actions and comrades is indicative of normal human psychology. Often their actions do not ultimately stem from hatred, but rather from love of their own group do not ultimately stem from hatred, but rather from love of their own group and culture that they believe is threatened and requires protection.and culture that they believe is threatened and requires protection.

It is important to note at the outset that the use of the term 'suicide' to It is important to note at the outset that the use of the term 'suicide' to characterize these attacks reflects an outsider's view. Those who commit or characterize these attacks reflects an outsider's view. Those who commit or advocate such attacks do not regard them as acts of suicide, but rather as advocate such attacks do not regard them as acts of suicide, but rather as acts of martyrdom. While suicide is associated with hopelessness and acts of martyrdom. While suicide is associated with hopelessness and depression, the actions of the bombers are seen as a matter of heroism and depression, the actions of the bombers are seen as a matter of heroism and honor.honor.

War Crimes War Crimes The concept and issue of war crimes are both relatively new. Of course, inhuman acts have been committed in wars The concept and issue of war crimes are both relatively new. Of course, inhuman acts have been committed in wars

throughout history. However, it was only with the Holocaust and other genocidal atrocities of World War II that politicians, throughout history. However, it was only with the Holocaust and other genocidal atrocities of World War II that politicians, lawyers, and average citizens alike began to think of some of the horrors of war as crimes for which perpetrators could be held lawyers, and average citizens alike began to think of some of the horrors of war as crimes for which perpetrators could be held legally accountable.legally accountable.

Before then, individual soldiers could be tried for individual crimes such as rape or murder. However, it was only when political Before then, individual soldiers could be tried for individual crimes such as rape or murder. However, it was only when political and military leaders began to systematically target large civilian groups because of their nationality, ethnicity, gender, or and military leaders began to systematically target large civilian groups because of their nationality, ethnicity, gender, or religion that we began to see the necessity of holding political leaders accountable for their political decisions in a court of law.religion that we began to see the necessity of holding political leaders accountable for their political decisions in a court of law.

It has long been considered acceptable for the victors to try the leaders of defeated countries for violations of international law It has long been considered acceptable for the victors to try the leaders of defeated countries for violations of international law after the completion of a war. However, it has only been in the last century and a half that rules and procedures for doing so after the completion of a war. However, it has only been in the last century and a half that rules and procedures for doing so have begun to be codified and regularized. The first major step came with the development of the Geneva Conventions for the have begun to be codified and regularized. The first major step came with the development of the Geneva Conventions for the treatment of prisoners of war, civilians, and others during combat. The Conventions were largely written by the International treatment of prisoners of war, civilians, and others during combat. The Conventions were largely written by the International Committee of the Red Cross and have been ratified by many, though not all, states. They continue to be updated, most Committee of the Red Cross and have been ratified by many, though not all, states. They continue to be updated, most recently to include civil as well as international wars.recently to include civil as well as international wars.

The other major turning point came at the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials of leading German and Japanese officials after World The other major turning point came at the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials of leading German and Japanese officials after World War II. The Nuremberg Trials were particularly important because they made steps toward defining what is meant by crimes War II. The Nuremberg Trials were particularly important because they made steps toward defining what is meant by crimes against peace ("planning, preparation, initiation, or waging of a war of aggression, or a war in violation of international against peace ("planning, preparation, initiation, or waging of a war of aggression, or a war in violation of international treaties") and against humanity ("murder, extermination, enslavement, deportation, and other inhumane acts committed treaties") and against humanity ("murder, extermination, enslavement, deportation, and other inhumane acts committed against any civilian population before or during the war, or persecutions on political, racial, or religious grounds").Those against any civilian population before or during the war, or persecutions on political, racial, or religious grounds").Those precedents were later approved by the General Assembly of United Nations and are now considered to be part of the main precedents were later approved by the General Assembly of United Nations and are now considered to be part of the main body of international law. After the systematic use of rape by Serbs in Bosnia and Croatia in the first half of the 1990s, it was body of international law. After the systematic use of rape by Serbs in Bosnia and Croatia in the first half of the 1990s, it was added to the list of crimes.added to the list of crimes.

There is, unfortunately, a considerable lack of clarity in these and other definitions, which have been offered for war crimes. There is, unfortunately, a considerable lack of clarity in these and other definitions, which have been offered for war crimes. First, there has been a very definite reluctance on the part of the international community to prosecute war crimes that either First, there has been a very definite reluctance on the part of the international community to prosecute war crimes that either fall below a certain undefined magnitude or to even consider those that receive little or no coverage in the Western press. fall below a certain undefined magnitude or to even consider those that receive little or no coverage in the Western press. Second, as has been the case throughout history, it has proven all but impossible to hold victors accountable for alleged war Second, as has been the case throughout history, it has proven all but impossible to hold victors accountable for alleged war crimes. Thus, there have been credible accusations against the United States for its bombing of Serbia during the Kosovo crisis crimes. Thus, there have been credible accusations against the United States for its bombing of Serbia during the Kosovo crisis in 1999 and for the impact of its sanctions on Iraq since the Gulf War of 1991. Similarly, many critics accuse Israel of violating in 1999 and for the impact of its sanctions on Iraq since the Gulf War of 1991. Similarly, many critics accuse Israel of violating international law in its continued occupation of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip and its more general treatment of international law in its continued occupation of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip and its more general treatment of Palestinians.Palestinians.

What's more, the prosecution of war crimes is highly controversial. Tens of millions of civilians lost their lives in fighting What's more, the prosecution of war crimes is highly controversial. Tens of millions of civilians lost their lives in fighting beginning with the Second World War, most of them on "religious, racial, or political grounds." Yet, there were only four war beginning with the Second World War, most of them on "religious, racial, or political grounds." Yet, there were only four war crimes tribunals convened between 1945 and the end of the century. The first two tried the leaders of Germany and Japan. The crimes tribunals convened between 1945 and the end of the century. The first two tried the leaders of Germany and Japan. The others were created to prosecute alleged perpetrators of genocide in the former Yugoslavia and in Rwanda.others were created to prosecute alleged perpetrators of genocide in the former Yugoslavia and in Rwanda.

War crimesWar crimes

Genocide Genocide Genocide is generally defined as the intentional Genocide is generally defined as the intentional

extermination of a specific ethnic, racial, or religious group. extermination of a specific ethnic, racial, or religious group. Compared with war crimes and crimes against humanity, Compared with war crimes and crimes against humanity, genocide is generally regarded as the most offensive crime. genocide is generally regarded as the most offensive crime. At worst, genocide pits neighbor against neighbor, or even At worst, genocide pits neighbor against neighbor, or even husband against wife. Unlike war, where the attack is husband against wife. Unlike war, where the attack is general and the object is often the control of a geographical general and the object is often the control of a geographical or political region, genocide attacks an individual's identity, or political region, genocide attacks an individual's identity, and the object is control -- or complete elimination -- of a and the object is control -- or complete elimination -- of a group of people.group of people.

The history of genocide in the 20th century includes:The history of genocide in the 20th century includes: the 1915 genocide of Armenians by Turks; the 1915 genocide of Armenians by Turks; the attempted extermination of European Jews by Nazis the attempted extermination of European Jews by Nazis

during World War II; during World War II; the widespread genocide in Cambodia during the 1970s; the widespread genocide in Cambodia during the 1970s; the "ethnic cleansing "in Kosovo by Serbs during the 1990s; the "ethnic cleansing "in Kosovo by Serbs during the 1990s; the killing of Tutsis by Rwandan Hutus in 1994.the killing of Tutsis by Rwandan Hutus in 1994. Since 1948, the United Nations has defined genocide as Since 1948, the United Nations has defined genocide as

"acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, "acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial, or religious group, as such.“a national, ethnical, racial, or religious group, as such.“

Actions included in this definition are:Actions included in this definition are: Killing members of a group; Killing members of a group; Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of a Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of a

group; group; Deliberately inflicting on a group conditions of life Deliberately inflicting on a group conditions of life

calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; or in part;

Imposing measures intended to prevent births within a Imposing measures intended to prevent births within a group; group;

Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group. Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group. Notice that in the U.N. definition, murder is not the only Notice that in the U.N. definition, murder is not the only

way to destroy a group. For example, the recent Australian way to destroy a group. For example, the recent Australian practice of forcibly removing biracial Aborigine children practice of forcibly removing biracial Aborigine children from their parents could be classified as genocide, since from their parents could be classified as genocide, since the goal of this practice was to assimilate the children into the goal of this practice was to assimilate the children into mainstream Australian culture, and thus slowly erode the mainstream Australian culture, and thus slowly erode the Aborigine culture and population.Aborigine culture and population.

Refugees Refugees Refugees are people who leave their homes in order to seek safety, Refugees are people who leave their homes in order to seek safety,

oror refuge. In general, people become refugees to flee violence, refuge. In general, people become refugees to flee violence, economic disparity, repression, natural disasters, and other harsh economic disparity, repression, natural disasters, and other harsh living and working conditions. In the context of intractable conflict, living and working conditions. In the context of intractable conflict, refugees are those who flee from inevitable, often long-term violence refugees are those who flee from inevitable, often long-term violence and other difficult living conditions brought on by the conflict. The and other difficult living conditions brought on by the conflict. The United Nations more narrowly defines refugees as "persons who are United Nations more narrowly defines refugees as "persons who are outside their country and cannot return owing to a well-founded fear outside their country and cannot return owing to a well-founded fear of persecution because of their race, religion, nationality, political of persecution because of their race, religion, nationality, political opinion, or membership in a particular social group."opinion, or membership in a particular social group."

Though all people who flee conflict can be called refugees, refugee Though all people who flee conflict can be called refugees, refugee agencies commonly distinguish between refugees and internally agencies commonly distinguish between refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs) to decide who is covered by international displaced persons (IDPs) to decide who is covered by international law and receives assistance and who doesn't. For the most part, little law and receives assistance and who doesn't. For the most part, little assistance reaches a person fleeing a conflict until he or she crosses assistance reaches a person fleeing a conflict until he or she crosses an international border. The United Nations High Commissioner for an international border. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), established in 1950, distinguishes refugees and Refugees (UNHCR), established in 1950, distinguishes refugees and IDPs this way: "When a fleeing civilian crosses an international IDPs this way: "When a fleeing civilian crosses an international frontier, he or she becomes a refugee and as such is eligible to frontier, he or she becomes a refugee and as such is eligible to receive international protection and help. If a person in similar receive international protection and help. If a person in similar circumstances is displaced within his or her home country and circumstances is displaced within his or her home country and becomes an internally displaced person, then assistance and becomes an internally displaced person, then assistance and protection is much more difficult."protection is much more difficult."

On Jan. 1, 2002, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees On Jan. 1, 2002, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees estimated that there were more than 12 million refugees in the estimated that there were more than 12 million refugees in the world.[4] This number of refugees has remained relatively constant world.[4] This number of refugees has remained relatively constant at greater than 10 million since 1981. Some refugees have been at greater than 10 million since 1981. Some refugees have been living in camps for most of their lives. For example, Afghans have living in camps for most of their lives. For example, Afghans have lived in camps in Pakistan and Iran since the early 1980s when the lived in camps in Pakistan and Iran since the early 1980s when the Soviet Union invaded their nation. While some return each year to Soviet Union invaded their nation. While some return each year to resettle, almost equal numbers leave to escape new regional resettle, almost equal numbers leave to escape new regional fighting. The number of Afghan refugees living abroad now stands at fighting. The number of Afghan refugees living abroad now stands at over 3.5 million.over 3.5 million.

Currently, Asia hosts nearly 50 percent of the world's refugee Currently, Asia hosts nearly 50 percent of the world's refugee population, with Africa and Europe both hosting just over 20 percent. population, with Africa and Europe both hosting just over 20 percent. Ongoing conflicts in Afghanistan, Iraq, central Africa (Angola, Sudan, Ongoing conflicts in Afghanistan, Iraq, central Africa (Angola, Sudan, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Burundi), and Bosnia-Democratic Republic of Congo, and Burundi), and Bosnia-Herzegovina have either created new refugees or prevented refugees Herzegovina have either created new refugees or prevented refugees from returning home in 2001. Each of these countries now has over from returning home in 2001. Each of these countries now has over 400,000 refugees living abroad, with Afghanistan having at least 400,000 refugees living abroad, with Afghanistan having at least seven times more than any other.seven times more than any other.

Humiliation Humiliation A leading researcher on humiliation, Dr. Evelin Lindner, defines humiliation A leading researcher on humiliation, Dr. Evelin Lindner, defines humiliation

as "the enforced lowering of a person or group, a process of subjugation as "the enforced lowering of a person or group, a process of subjugation that damages or strips away their pride, honor or dignity." Further, that damages or strips away their pride, honor or dignity." Further, humiliation means to be placed, against ones will, in a situation where one humiliation means to be placed, against ones will, in a situation where one is made to feel inferior. "One of the defining characteristics of humiliation is made to feel inferior. "One of the defining characteristics of humiliation as a process is that the victim is forced into passivity, acted upon, made as a process is that the victim is forced into passivity, acted upon, made helpless." Johan Galtung, a leading practitioner, agrees with Lindner that helpless." Johan Galtung, a leading practitioner, agrees with Lindner that the infliction of humiliation is a profoundly violent psychological act that the infliction of humiliation is a profoundly violent psychological act that leaves the victim with a deep wound to the psyche.leaves the victim with a deep wound to the psyche.

Historically, maintaining hierarchical societies meant that elites Historically, maintaining hierarchical societies meant that elites scrupulously guarded their honor against attempts to soil or humiliate it, scrupulously guarded their honor against attempts to soil or humiliate it, while some form of more or less institutionalized humiliation was part of the while some form of more or less institutionalized humiliation was part of the reality for the lower echelons of a community. As long as such a reality is reality for the lower echelons of a community. As long as such a reality is accepted as the norm, and it is believed that this structure helps to achieve accepted as the norm, and it is believed that this structure helps to achieve and maintain common societal goals, the system is considered acceptable. and maintain common societal goals, the system is considered acceptable. Though some people in lower ranks may wish to be on a higher level, they Though some people in lower ranks may wish to be on a higher level, they do not view the system itself as flawed. By contrast, in societies such as do not view the system itself as flawed. By contrast, in societies such as Somalia, with its non-hierarchical egalitarian clan structures, Lindner's Somalia, with its non-hierarchical egalitarian clan structures, Lindner's research shows that attempts to humiliate people are fervently resented, at research shows that attempts to humiliate people are fervently resented, at least by the males of the major clan families. The more egalitarian a least by the males of the major clan families. The more egalitarian a society, be it pre-hierarchical or post hierarchical, Lindner asserts, the less society, be it pre-hierarchical or post hierarchical, Lindner asserts, the less use there is for institutionalized humiliation, particularly as a way to use there is for institutionalized humiliation, particularly as a way to maintain order, and the less acceptable it is. maintain order, and the less acceptable it is.

Lindner's research on humiliation and the effect of humiliation on groups is Lindner's research on humiliation and the effect of humiliation on groups is related to her segmentation of human history into three phases of related to her segmentation of human history into three phases of development and her categorization of the ideal types of human societies development and her categorization of the ideal types of human societies that can be found in these stages. Most relevant here is the connection that can be found in these stages. Most relevant here is the connection between humiliation, conflict, and the human rights revolution.[5] When between humiliation, conflict, and the human rights revolution.[5] When subordinate groups become aware of human rights values and adopt them subordinate groups become aware of human rights values and adopt them into their value system, they reframe their formerly accepted subordination into their value system, they reframe their formerly accepted subordination as humiliating circumstances that can no longer be deemed to be as humiliating circumstances that can no longer be deemed to be acceptable. In other words, when people redefine their situation and acceptable. In other words, when people redefine their situation and interpret formerly "normal" subjugation as structural violence, they begin to interpret formerly "normal" subjugation as structural violence, they begin to clash with the system. This clash can translate into violence. This can occur clash with the system. This clash can translate into violence. This can occur gradually, or a sudden change in power can lead to immediate devastating gradually, or a sudden change in power can lead to immediate devastating violence. violence.

Humiliation, Trauma, and Humiliation, Trauma, and Victimhood Victimhood

What is the difference between humiliation, trauma, and victimhood?What is the difference between humiliation, trauma, and victimhood?

The answer is both simple and complex. One may be traumatized without being humiliated. For The answer is both simple and complex. One may be traumatized without being humiliated. For example, one's home may be destroyed by an earthquake, in which the victim may be example, one's home may be destroyed by an earthquake, in which the victim may be devastated and traumatized but not humiliated. This differs from the situation in which soldiers devastated and traumatized but not humiliated. This differs from the situation in which soldiers kick someone out of their home in the middle of the night and bulldoze it or set the home on fire. kick someone out of their home in the middle of the night and bulldoze it or set the home on fire. This latter case exemplifies the use of humiliation as a weapon by some people upon other This latter case exemplifies the use of humiliation as a weapon by some people upon other people. More still, one may even be a victim of violence without feeling humiliated. The people. More still, one may even be a victim of violence without feeling humiliated. The difference between feeling humiliated or not in these cases may depend on the subjective difference between feeling humiliated or not in these cases may depend on the subjective framing of the situation by each person involved when violence is perceived as accidental and framing of the situation by each person involved when violence is perceived as accidental and non-intentional, similar to natural disaster, it may not be felt as humiliation. Importantly, the non-intentional, similar to natural disaster, it may not be felt as humiliation. Importantly, the more a victim is aware of human rights values, the more likely they are to feel humiliated. When more a victim is aware of human rights values, the more likely they are to feel humiliated. When one is acted upon in a way that undermines one's sense of equal dignity, as it is enshrined in one is acted upon in a way that undermines one's sense of equal dignity, as it is enshrined in human rights, the psychological damage of humiliation is being inflicted. It is this damage that is human rights, the psychological damage of humiliation is being inflicted. It is this damage that is particularly hard to recover and heal from. Lindner believes that humiliation is the necessary particularly hard to recover and heal from. Lindner believes that humiliation is the necessary concept for defining victimhood as "victimhood" and as such has to be considered as the key concept for defining victimhood as "victimhood" and as such has to be considered as the key ingredient that makes conflict comprehensible and thus preventable and manageable. According ingredient that makes conflict comprehensible and thus preventable and manageable. According to Lindner, "victimhood at the hands of fellow human beings must entail the notion of to Lindner, "victimhood at the hands of fellow human beings must entail the notion of humiliation, otherwise it would not be seen as victimhood but as pro-social event or natural humiliation, otherwise it would not be seen as victimhood but as pro-social event or natural disaster."disaster."

Solutions: ViolenceSolutions: Violence

  I think I have an excellent solution to end violence in our communities. First of all, people have to I think I have an excellent solution to end violence in our communities. First of all, people have to care! I mean, how is anything going to get done if no one takes the time to help? I hear people care! I mean, how is anything going to get done if no one takes the time to help? I hear people saying that the violence is getting out of hand, but yet they do nothing to help. It makes me sick saying that the violence is getting out of hand, but yet they do nothing to help. It makes me sick to think about it.to think about it.

Second, parents should talk to their kids about violence; they should set an example for them. If Second, parents should talk to their kids about violence; they should set an example for them. If our generation knows what's right, and does something good to help the situation, then our our generation knows what's right, and does something good to help the situation, then our children will have a better world to live in.children will have a better world to live in.

Finally, we should take this situation with violence seriously. I feel, and this is my opinion, that no Finally, we should take this situation with violence seriously. I feel, and this is my opinion, that no one is taking this problem seriously. I mean, some people actually make violence into a joke. one is taking this problem seriously. I mean, some people actually make violence into a joke. Doesn't anyone realize that today's children are seeing this and are getting the idea that violence Doesn't anyone realize that today's children are seeing this and are getting the idea that violence is good? This is wrong! I personally do not want my children to grow up in a world that is full of is good? This is wrong! I personally do not want my children to grow up in a world that is full of violence, and I'm sure that there are other people who agree that something should be done, but violence, and I'm sure that there are other people who agree that something should be done, but yet no one does.yet no one does.

All I'm asking is for everyone to take a good look at our world, and see how violence has All I'm asking is for everyone to take a good look at our world, and see how violence has distorted our way of life, and maybe then something can be done. ?distorted our way of life, and maybe then something can be done. ?