violence in greek drama

Violence in Greek drama *

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TheTangledWaysofZeus:AndOtherStudiesInandAroundGreekTragedyAlanH.Sommerstein

Printpublicationdate:2010PrintISBN-13:9780199568314PublishedtoOxfordScholarshipOnline:September2010DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199568314.001.0001

ViolenceinGreekdrama*AlanH.Sommerstein(ContributorWebpage)

DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199568314.003.0003

AbstractandKeywords

ThischapterseekstoidentifyandexplaintheconstraintsontheonstagepresentationofviolenceinGreekdrama.Itfindsthatthereweretwoconventions:thattheaudiencemustneverwitnessanyactoroccurrencethatimpingedonahumanoranimalbodysoastobetheproximatecauseofadeath,andthatintragedy,theaudiencemustnotwitnessanypersoninflictingablowonanyotherperson.Thefirstconventionwasbasedonreligiousconsiderations,andwasunbreakable;thesecondwasbasedonartisticconsiderations(orperhapsjustongenerictradition),andisbrokeninoneplay,PrometheusBound,forthespecialpurposeofemphasizingtheunimaginableagoniesthatPrometheusissuffering.

Keywords:drama,tragedy,violence,death,religious,Prometheus


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Itisaclichthatviolence,especiallyviolentdeath,wasnotpresentedvisuallyontheGreektragicstage.Yetviolencecouldbepresentedverbally,throughmessengerspeechesorotherformsofnarrative,withvirtuallynolimitsontheintensityofthehorrorsdescribed;norwerethedramatistsintheleastsqueamishaboutpresentingonstagetheresultsofviolenceinthemostappallingformtheblindedOedipusorPolymestor,thedismemberedcorpseofPentheuswhoseheadadornshismother'sthyrsos,Aiasamidsttheanimalshehastorturedandslaughtered.Theconventionisevidentlyaverypowerfulone;butwhatpreciselyaretheconstraints,andhowaretheytobeexplained?

AnyconventionalpracticeorconstraintinGreekdramamightinprinciplebeascribedtocausesofone(orperhapsmorethanone)ofseveralkinds.

1.Religion.Ontheonehand,theproductionofplayswaspartofafestivalofDionysos,andthegodhimselfwasconsideredtobewatchingtheperformances;henceitmightinprinciplebethecasethatcertainkinds[42]ofspectaclewereavoidedasbeingpotentiallyoffensivetohim.Ontheotherhand,certainactsandutteranceswereforbiddenabsolutelybyreligiouslaws,andthesewouldalsobeavoidedindrama;1forexample,thoughtwoofAristophanes'survivingplayshavechoruses(p.31) consisting,respectively,ofwomencelebratingtheThesmophoriaandofdeceasedinitiatesoftheEleusinianMysteries,neithercontainsanythingthatmightdivulgeanyofthesecretelementsoftheseritualstothosewhodidnotalreadyknowthem.22.Competitionrules.Thisiscertainlytheappropriateexplanationfortherequirementthatthechorusconsistoffifteen(earliertwelve)members,andalmostcertainlyalsofortherestrictionoftragedytoamaximumofthree(earliertwo)speakingactors,withallthatflowsfromthat.33.Theatricalpracticality.Therearemanythingsthatsimplycouldnotbedoneonstage,giventheresourcesoftheAtheniantheatre.Therecouldnotbeabruptchangesofscene,exceptintherarecaseswherethechorusmadeatemporaryexit.Beforetheinventionofthemechane,ithadbeenimpossibleforcharacters,evengods,tobeseenflying;contrariwise,afterthecreationoftheskene,itbecamevirtuallyimpossible4fortheentireactionofaplaytobesetindoors.Atalltimes,becauseoftheuseof[43]masks,itwasimpossibleforcharacterstoeat,5thoughthey(p.32) could(andinsatyrdramaandcomedy,sometimesdid)mimedrinking.64.Aesthetic/artisticconsiderations.Thelanguage,metre,music,costumes,masks,etc.,oftragedyweresubjecttomanyconventionsthatmadethem,ingeneral,muchmorerestrainedandstylizedthanthoseofcomedy(satyrdramabeinginmostrespectsintermediatebetweenthetwo),andmostofthesecaninoriginhavehadnootherrationalethanthedramatists'beliefthattheywereartisticallyappropriatetothegenre.5.Inertia.Onceaconventionhasbecomeestablishedwithinagenreitmaybecome,asitwere,aruleofthecraft,andbemaintainedbyitspractitionersfornoreasonthatcanbearticulatedexceptthatitiswhattheyhavealwaysdone.It


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isgenerallydifficultorimpossibletodistinguishaconventionmaintainedforthisreasonfromonemaintainedforaesthetic/artisticreasons,particularlysincethosewholivewithinaculturaltraditionareverypronetoinvent(andthenhandon,aspartofthetradition)ostensiblyrationalexplanationsforirrationalfeaturesofthetradition;butsometimesitcanbediscernedthatatraditionalpracticewhichisirrationalorarbitraryunderthecircumstancesobtainingatthetimeunderconsiderationwouldhavebeenrationallyexplicable,oreveninevitable,underthecircumstancesofanearliertime.Inthecaseofdrama,onecanwellenvisagethatthecircumstancesofitsearlyhistory(oneactor,nobackscene,etc.)mighthavegivenrisetoconventionsthatcametoberegardedaspartoftheessenceofthegenre,andcontinuedtobeobservedevenwhenthecircumstancesfromwhichtheyhadarisennolongerexisted.Whetheranysuchfossilconventionscaninfactbeidentifiedisanothermatter.

IbeganbysayingitwasaclichthatviolencewasnotpresentedvisuallyontheGreektragicstage.Butviolence(andlikewiseitsGreekequiv[44]alents,anditsderivatives)doesnothaveasingle,universallyagreedmeaning;andsomeactsthatmostpeoplewouldregardasviolentunquestionablycanbepresentedvisuallyonthetragicstage.Mostofus,Iamsure,wouldregarditasanactofviolenceifapersonwasseizedanddraggedagainstherwillfroma(p.33) holyplaceinwhichshehadtakensanctuary;andintragedywefindnolessapersonagethanPoseidonagreeingwithus.7Yetactionssuchasthatarecertainlynotkeptoffthetragicstage:forcibleseizure,detention,andrestraintareinfactrelativelycommon,andmanhandlinganddraggingarenotunknown.8Onlytwokindsofonstageviolencearecompletely,oralmostcompletely,avoidedintragedy:killing(includingsuicide)andstriking(whetherwithabodypartorwithaweaponorotherimplement).Thesetwoformsofviolencewillnowbeexaminedinmoredetail.

Killingisneverrepresentedonstage,incomedy9orintragedy(twoapparentexceptionswillbeconsideredpresently).Thisappliesaliketokillingbyswordorpoisonoranyothermeans;itappliestohomicide,tosuicide,todeathbyaccidentoractofgod.Butitisonlytrueunderaveryprecisedefinitionofkilling.Whatmaynotbeshownistheactthatcausesdeaththeblowoftheweapon,thetyingofthenoose10(notthatthatcouldhavebeenstagedanyway,regardlessofconventions),thedrinking[45]ofthepoison(which,contrariwise,wouldhavebeenveryeasytosimulate,andwouldhavemadeamostconvenientdeviceforpresentingsomeoftragedy'smany(p.34) femalesuicides).Thereisnobaronthestagepresentationofdeathitself,andinfactitoccurstwiceinsurvivingtragedy,inEuripides'AlkestisandHippolytos,inbothofwhichthetitlecharacterisbroughtonstagedyingfromtheeffectofanactofgodthatwehavenotseenactuallytakeplace.Stillless,ofcourse,isthereanybarontheexhibitiononstageofthecorpsesofthosewhohavediedbyviolence;inatleastonecase(NeoptolemosinEuripides'Andromache)weseeacharacterdeadwhomwehadnever,duringtheplay,seenalive.

Justaswemayseetheeventsthatfollowafatalact,wemayalsoseetheeventsleadinguptoit.Intwocases,bothofthemsuicides,ourviewiscutoffonlyattheverylast


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moment.ThemorefamousandmorecontroversialcaseisthatofthesuicideofAias.Atthebeginningofhislastspeech(Soph.Aias81522)heannouncesthathehasjustplantedhisswordintheground,readytofalluponit;atitsendhemakesitplain(864)thathehasspokenhislastwordsonearth.Ifwedidnotknowtheconventions,andifwedidnothavetherestoftheplay,wemightwellbetemptedtosupposethatthesuicideitselfhadoccurredinsightoftheaudience.Butinfactweknowfrom8912thatwhenTekmessadiscovershisbody,sheisinagrove()and,crucially,outofsightofthechorus11(whoaskeachotherwhosevoicetheyarehearing).Itfollowsthattheswordmusthavebeenplantedwheretheaudiencecouldnotseeit,andthatthefatalstrokeit(passively)deliversoccursoffstage.12Lessproblematic,fromourpointofview,13isthesuicideofEuadneinEuripides'Suppliants:sheleapstoherdeath(ontheburningfuneralpyreofherhusband[46]Kapaneus)fromsomeelevatedpoint,nodoubtontheskeneandnodoubtlandsbehindit,sothatweseetheleapbutnotthefatal(p.35) landing.14Similar,inasense,iswhathappensinSophocles'Niobe(fr.441a):weapparentlyseeApolloandArtemisshoottheirarrowsatNiobe'schildren,buttheyareshootingintothehouse(cf.line4)15andthereforewewillnotseethearrowshittheirmark.Anotherwaywherebytheaudiencecanbetakentothebrinkofakillingonstage,butnotoverit,isforthekillingitselftobepreventedatthelastmomentbysomeinterveningcause;theclosestshaveofthiskindisinSophocles'Philoktetes(1299302)whereNeoptolemosforciblypreventsPhiloktetesfromshootingthearrowwhichhehasaimedatOdysseusandwhich,ifloosed,wouldcertainlyhavebeenfatal.16

Itisnotonlyhumanswhomaynotbekilledonstage,inanyformofdrama;thesameprohibitionseemstoapplytoanimals.17IntwoplaysofAristophanes,Peace(9371022)andBirds(8481057),elaboratepreparationsaremadeforasacrifice,andsomeofthepreliminaryrituals(inPeace,allofthem)areperformedonstage;inboththeyareabruptlycutshort,andtheactualslaughtertakesplaceoutofsightoftheaudience.Eachtime,tobesure,anexcuseisgiven:inPeaceitissaidthatabloodysacrificeoughtnottotakeplaceinthepresenceofthegoddessPeace(101920);inBirdsthesacrificehasbeeninterruptedfivetimesbyannoyingvisitors,andPeisetairosdecideshemustgetoutoftheirwayifheeverwantstofinishit(let'sgetawayfromhereasquicklyaswecan,Birds1056).InPeace,additionally,wearegivenajokyextradramaticreasonforkeepingthesacrificeoffstagetosaveasheepforthechoregos(Peace1022).Infact,however,thecostofasheeporgoatwouldbetrivialin(p.36) comparisonwiththechoregos'overallexpensesparticularlysincehecould(andseeminglyasaruledid,atleastforcomedy)chooseaninfe[47]rioranimal18andtheavoidanceofonstagesacrificemusthaveadifferent,andprobablyareligious,explanation.Onemightthinkofsuggestingthatitwouldbethoughtinappropriate,perhapsdangerous,tohaveperformersgothroughthemotionsofmakinganofferingtoagodwhenthewholeprocedurewasonlyapretence;butthiscannotbeso,sinceotherkindsofofferingnotinvolvingbloodshed(e.g.libationsandtheburningofincense)arecommonindrama.Moreplausiblyitmightbearguedthattheproblemwaspreciselythatinoneimportantrespecttheprocedurewouldnotbeapretence.Slaughtercouldnotbesimulated;19arealanimalwouldhavetobereallykilled,notinordertopleasethegodtowhomitwasostensiblybeingofferedbutmerelyforthepurposeofmakingashow.Thecomplex,and


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partlyobfuscatory,ritualsthatsurroundedGreekanimalsacrificeandespeciallyitscentralact20showhowseriousamatterthetakingofadomesticbeast'slifewasperceivedtobe,eventhoughitwasanecessitybothforhumansandforgods;itwouldhavebeenunthinkabletodosuchathingoutsideitstrueritualcontext.

Ifthatexplanationofwhyanimalslaughterwasavoidedindramaiscorrect,itevidentlycannotbeapplieddirectlyinexplainingwhydramaalsoavoideddirectpresentationofthekillingofhumans;forsimulatingthatwouldhavepresentednodifficultytoproducers.Butaquitedifferentparallelmaybesuggestive.Tragedytalksincessantlyaboutkillingbutnevershowsus(asimulationof)theactitself,thoughitcancomeveryclosetodoingso.Inpreciselythesameway,comedy,especiallyOldComedy,talksincessantlyaboutsexbutnevershowsus(asimulationof)theactitself,though,again,itcancomeveryclosetodoingso.21Sexandkilling(includingsuicide)(p.37) couldbothcauseritualpollution(Parker[48]1983:74143),andbothwereprohibitedinsanctuaries(aswaschildbirth);22whenwefindthat(simulationsof)botharealsoavoidedindramawhichwasperformedinasacredplace,duringafestival,andinthepresenceofthegod'simage,altar,andpriestthelikeliestexplanationisthatwearedealingwithanextensionofthistaboo.HowdeeplyentrencheditwasiswellexemplifiedbyapassageinAristophanes'Frogs(107982)where,inacatalogueoftheshockingimmoralitiesofEuripideandrama,givingbirthintemplesisgivenprecedenceoverbrothersisterincest.23

Thustheavoidanceofkillingintragedyisprobablytobeascribedtoreligiousconsiderations.Whatoftheotherformofviolencethattragedyavoids,striking?Therecanbenoquestionhereofareligiousprohibition:blowsarefrequentlystruckincomedy,andinafamoussurvivingscene(Ar.Frogs61573)Dionysoshimselfissubjectedtoaflogging.Yetintragedy,fullthoughitisofquarrelsandangrywords,noone(thatweknowof)everinflictsablowonanotherperson24withoneremarkableexception,towhichwewillcome.Asintheothercaseswehaveconsidered,therearesomecloseapproaches,butthelineisnevercrossed,25asmaybeseenbyanexaminationofthepassagesconcerned.

(p.38) InAeschylus'Suppliants(825ff.)theEgyptianswhoattempttoseizetheDanaids,withaviewtoforcingthemintomarriagetotheircousins,makesomeextremelycolourfulthreats,rangingfromdraggingbythehair(884,909)todecapitation(840)andincludingthepromisetogetyousit[49]tingintheboat,streamingblood(847);yetwhentheArgivekingcomestotheirrescuehecanthreatentheEgyptianheraldwithcondignpunishmentshouldyoulayafingeronthem(,925),implyingthattheyhavenotatthatmomentbeentouched.Ofmenacingchoreographytherehasdoubtlessbeenplenty;ofviolentcontact,none.

TowardstheendofAeschylus'AgamemnonafiercequarrelbreaksoutbetweenAigisthosandthechorusofArgiveelders.Aigisthosordershisbodyguardtohavetheirswordsattheready(16501);thechorusmaypreparetomountadoomeddefencewiththenearestthingtheyhavetoaweapon,theirwalkingsticks(1652)butatthemomentwhenthestormisabouttobreak,Klytaimestraintervenes,begsAigisthostodesist


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(16546),andsendstheeldershome(1657ff.).26

WhenOedipuslearnsthatheisnot,ashehadthought,thesonofPolybosofCorinth,buthadbeenbroughttoCorinthasababybyashepherdwhohad,inturn,beengivenhimonMountKithaironbyanothershepherdworkingforLaios,heordersthelattertobesummonedandinterrogateshim.TheThebanshepherd,however,notonlyprovesreluctanttoanswerhisquestions,butisfuriouswiththeCorinthianwho,withoutbeingaskedto,answersthemforhim,andheatleastthreatenstheCorinthianwithviolence(Soph.OT1146),asisshownbyOedipus'urgentresponse(Stop,don'thithim,1147).Itisnotclearfromthispassagealonewhetherablowisactuallydelivered,buttheCorinthiandoesnotcryout(indeed,heneverspeaksagain),andsincebothmenareaged(990,1001,1009,1013,111213,1121,1147,1153)itisareasonablesuppositionthat(p.39) theThebandoesnomorethanraisehisfistorstaff.Alittlelater,stillprovingrecalcitrant,heisthreatenedbyOedipuswithbeatingortorture27(11524);thethreatisenoughtocrackhisresistanceforthemoment,thoughithastoberenewedeachtimeanotherquestionisput(1158,1166).28

[50]InEuripides'Andromache,AndromacheandhersonareabouttobeledofftotheirdeathsbyMenelaoswhenPeleusarrives(Andr.545)inresponsetoamessageshehadsenthimsometimeearlier(7990).Shesupplicateshimtosaveher,andheatonceorderstheattendantsguardingthecondemnedpairtoreleasethembeforesomeonegetshurt(5778).Menelaostellsthemtodisregardtheorder,andsaystoPeleusyouwillnevertakeheroutofmyhand(587);towhichPeleusrepliesYes,Iwill,whenIhavebloodiedyourheadwiththisstaff(588).29Onthesewordshenodoubtbrandishesthestaff,butheisnotwithinstrikingrange,asMenelaos'tauntingreplyshows:Touchme,andyou'llknowcomecloser!(589).Theconfrontationthereuponturnsintoaverbalagon,whichasusual30leadstonodecisiveconclusion;butthenPeleussimplyorderstheattendantsoutoftheway(71516)thatImaydiscoverwhetheranyoneisgoingtostopmeuntyingthiswoman'shandsandnoone,Menelaosincluded,makesanyattempttointerfere.

Morethanadecadelater,inHelen,wefindanotherinstance,onasmallerscale,ofthesamepattern.Theoklymenos,rushingintothepalacetotakerevengeonhissisterTheonoeforhelpingHelenandMenelaosescape,isobstructedbyaslaveofTheonoe,*whoseizeshisrobe(1629)andwillnotletgo.Getoutofmyway,saysTheoklymenos(1628);Iwon't,saystheservantandthenforninelinesnothinghappens,asthetwoconductahemistichomythicverbalfencingbout.TheactionunfreezeswhenTheoklymenossaysYou(p.40) seemtolongfordeath(1639),towhichtheslavegivesaresolutereply,andatthatpointtheDioskoroiappear.Thereisnosignthatanyblowhasbeenstruck.

TheevenbrieferconfrontationofMenelaosandtheOldManinIphigeneiaatAulis(30916)hasfeaturesreminiscentofboththescenesjustmentioned.TheOldMan(aservantofAgamemnon),onhiswayfromAulistoArgoswithalettercountermandingAgamemnon'spreviousinstructionstosendIphigeneiatoAulis,hasbeeninterceptedby


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Menelaos,whohasseized,openedandreadtheletter.TheOldMantriestograbitback,andatugofwarensues;Menelaos,inalmostthesame[51]wordsPeleushadusedtoMenelaos!inAndromache,threatenstobloodyyourheadwithmysceptre;theOldMan,liketheservantinHelen,retortsthatitisgloriousforaslavetodieforhismaster.Amomentlater,however,heisappealingtoAgamemnonforassistance,andMenelaosisevidentlyinfirmpossessionoftheletter.HadMenelaosstrucktheOldMan,thelatterwouldcertainlyhavecomplainedtoAgamemnonofthisassaultbyMenelaosonaslavenothis;sowecansafelyassumethattherewasagainnoblow,andthatMenelaoswasabletoteartheletteroutoftheOldMan'shand(ashehadalreadydoneoncebefore)simplybecausehewastheyoungermanandhadthestrongerarmsandfingers.

EveninthelateRhesostheconventioncontinuestobeobserved.TheauthorcarefullykeepstheGreeksandTrojansapart,forallbutseventeenlinesoftheplay.WhentheGreekraiders,OdysseusandDiomedes,arriveonthescene(565),eventhechorusareabsent,andDolonhasalreadybeenkilled.Parisisseenapproachingat627,butAthenatellsOdysseusandDiomedestoignorehim,andgetsridofhimherselfbyprovidingsomedisinformation31whiletheyareslayingRhesosoffstage.Butthen,unexpectedly,theydomeettheenemyonstageafterall,asthechorusreturnwithmenacingwordsandactions;butmenacesisalltheyare,becausethechorus,notknowingforcertainwhethertheyhavemetfriendsorfoes,cannotattackuntiltheyhaveaskedforthepassword(684,688)andOdysseusknowsit.

ImentionedthattherewasonegreatexceptiontotherulethatnopersonstrikesanotherinGreektragedy.Thisistheimpalingof(p.41) Prometheus.Nottheclampingofhisarms,chest,andlegs([Aesch.]Prom.5562,7181);thatismerelyamoredrasticversionofthecommonenoughactionsofseizure,arrest,orphysicalrestraint.Butthedrivingofawedgerightthroughhischest(645)isunique:notonlyisitablow,32butifthevictimwerenotimmortal,itwouldbeafatalblow.

[52]CommentatorsandcriticsdonotappeartohavetakenonboardtheuniquenessofthisactionnotonlyinAeschylusbutinalltragedy.Theyhave,ofcourse,triedtoexplainhowitwasmanagedtheatricallythatPrometheusshouldseemtobeimpaled,butnotwhyitwasacceptablefortheaudiencetoseehimseeminglyimpaled,inbreachofsostrongaconvention.WhetherornotPrometheusBoundisbyAeschylus,itiscertainlyafifthcenturyplay,andwasalmostcertainlyperformedinAthens.33Either,then,theconventionthatprohibitedthestrikingofblowsintragedywasforsomereasonnotapplicableinthiscase,oritwasdeliberatelybrokenforeffect.

Thisquestioncannotbedecidedseparatelyfromthatofhowtoexplaintheconventionitself.If,forexample,theavoidanceofstrikingwasbasedonreligiousconsiderationsoronacompetitionrule,itwouldhavebeennomorepossibletobreaktheconventionthanitwouldhavebeentohaveafourthspeakingactorintragedyortopresentsimulatedsexonstageincomedy;ifitwasapurelyartisticnorm,anoccasionalbreachofitmightwellberiskedifitwasdramaticallyeffective,asmight(say)theuseoflexemesfromanundignifiedstratumofvocabulary(Sommerstein2002),oramajor,signalledchangeofimaginarylocation(suchasoccursinAeschylus'Eumenidesandprobably34Sophocles'


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Aias).

(p.42) Infact,ofthefiveexplanatorystrategies(15)above,wecanquicklyruleoutareligiousone(1);fortheoccasionandtheenvironmentofperformancewerenolesssacredinthecaseofcomedythanoftragedy,yetthereisnorestrictiononthestrikingofblowsincomedy.Forthesamereason,theconventioncanhardlybeamatteroftheatricalpracticality(3).35Onemightfleetinglythinkthatitcouldbeahistoricalhangover,duetoinertia(5),fromthedaysofsingleactordrama,whenitwouldnothavebeenpossibleforonecharactertostrikeanother.However,eveninsingleactordrama,violentconfrontationbetweenacharacterandthechoruswouldstillhavebeenapossibility;aswehaveseen,thisisavoidedbya[53]whiskerinAgamemnon,anditprobablyoccurredfromtimetotimeincomedy.36Andinanycase,suchanexplanationwould,asitwere,explaintoomuch:insingleactortragedyitwouldhavebeenequallyimpossibleforonecharactertoseize,hold,ordraganother,yetaswehaveseenthisbecomesquitefrequentatleastfromthe440sonwards.

Itishardlyplausibleprimafaciethatthereshouldhavebeenaruleofthetragiccompetition(1)prohibitingthestrikingofblows;inanycasesucharule,ifithadexisted,wouldhavehadtobeobservedwithoutexceptionandtheviolationoftheconventioninPrometheusisaboutastotalandasspectacularasitcouldpossiblyhavebeen.

Thustheonlykindofexplanationavailabletousisanaesthetic/artisticone(4):tragicdramatistsfelt(and/orexpectedtheiraudiencestofeel)thattheinflictionofblowsbyonedramatispersonaonanotherwouldingeneralnotbeappropriatetothetypeofeffect(p.43) which,astragicdramatists,theyweretryingtocreate,37andthereforeavoidedpresentingitwhileimplicitlyreservingtherighttodosoinexceptionalcircumstances.Ifso,theauthorofPrometheusBoundevidentlyconsideredthatthecircumstancesofhisplaywereexceptional.HewasalreadycommittedtoshowingPrometheusbeingsubjected,onstage,toabodilypunishmentequivalenttotheAthenianpenaltyofapotympanismos(cf.Sommerstein1996a:30910)thoughinonewayevengreaterinasmuchasitcouldnotbeterminatedbydeathandwasindeedintendedtolastforever(267);buthecouldhavedonethisandhadhenotwrittenverses649,hewouldhavedoneit,veryneatlywithoutviolatingthenostrikingconvention.Butthiswasnotenoughforhim.Prometheus'agoniesmustbe[54]showntoexceedallhumanboundsnotonlyintheirdurationbutalsointheirintensity:hemustbeshownsuffering,overanextendedperiod,thepainofawoundthatnomortalcanimaginebecausenomortalcouldsurviveit.Moreover,ifthiswoundistobeinflictedatall,itmustbeinflictedonstage.Prometheusistospendtheentireplayonstageclampedandpinnedtoarock,andthereforewehavetoseetheclampingandpinningbeingdone.Inprinciple,tobesure,theplaycouldhavebegun(asPrometheusUnboundpresumablydid)withPrometheusalreadyinhisbonds,andhecouldhaveinformedusinaprologueofwhathadjusthappenedtohim;butthenwewouldlosetheopeningscene,andtheplaywouldseemevenmorestaticthanitalreadyis.WewouldalsolosethevividsenseoftheruthlessnessofZeus'styrannyconveyedbytheimplacabilityofKratosandBia,38norwouldweseehowextremelyreluctantHephaistosistocarryoutthepunishmentofPrometheus'crimeeventhough


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(asKratosremindshim,78)hewasthevictimofitifanyonewas.Whetherthisartisticdecisionbytheauthorwasacorrectoneis(p.44) anothermatteramatter,inthefirstinstance,fortheaudienceandthecompetitionjudgestodecide;andwedonotknowwhattheirdecisionwas.39Whatwecansayisthattheauthor'sdecisionisofapiecewithwhathedoesinseveralotherscenesoftheplayinwhichhegoesclosetoorbeyondthenormallimitsoftragicpracticeforspectaculareffectforexampletheflyingentryofthechorus,thegratuitoususeofthemechaneandofafourleggedbirdintheOkeanosscene,andtheswallowingupofPrometheusandhisrockattheendoftheplayandthatwhetherornotthisapproachwonhimsuccessinthecompetition,itdidnotwinhimimitators.

Wemayconclude,then,thattheclichwithwhichwebegancanbedisassembledintotwoconventions.Thefirstbasedonreligiousconsiderations,andunbreakablewasthattheaudiencemustnot,inanyformofdrama,witnessanyactoroccurrencewhichimpingedonahumanoranimalbodysoastobetheproximatecauseofadeath.Thesecondconventionappliedonlytotragedy;itwasbasedonartisticconsiderations,[55]andwefinditbrokeninoneproductionwhichweknowtohavebeenexceptionalinotherways.Itwasthattheaudiencemustnot,intragedy,witnessanypersoninflictingablowonanyotherperson.Wecansafelyassumethatthetragicdramatistswerefullyconsciousofthisconvention,atleastbythetimeofAeschylus'maturity:Aeschylus,Sophocles,andEuripidescanallbefoundteasingtheaudience,asitwere,withthepossibilitythattheymightviolateit,whilebeingcarefulnottotransgressthelimitstheconventionset.Wedonotknowwhofirstmadeitpartofthetragicdramatist'sstylemanual,orwhy.Oneobviouspossibilitytoconsiderinitiallyisthattheobjectwastodrawacleardistinctionbetweentragedyandsatyrdrama,especiallyoncetheyhadbeguntobeproducedtogetherbythesamepoetsaspartofthesamecompetition;butthisisunlikelyinviewofthefactthatinsatyrdramatoo,sofarasourevidencegoes,theinflictionofblowswasnormally(p.45) avoided.40Perhapsatfirstitwassimplytakenforgrantedthatperformersintheearly,simpletragicandsatyricperformanceswouldnothiteachother(afterall,theycertainlywouldnothavedonesointhepredramaticchoralperformancesfromwhichthesegenresoriginated),andthistacitassumptionwasonlyarticulatedasaconsciousconventionwhenthereappearedonthescenethenewgenreofcomedy,which,likethefromwhichittookitsname,hadnosuchinhibitions.41

Addendap.34n.13ithasbeenplausiblysuggestedbyScottScullion(seeMorwood2007:21920)thatwhatthechoruscanseeisnotthepyreitselfbutthesmokerisingfromit.

p.39thespeakerwhomI,likeDiggle(1994),Kovacs(2002),Burian(2007:2889),andothers,haveidentifiedasaslaveofTheonoe(orSecondServantorthelike),islabelled.bythesolemanuscript,andthisattributiontothechorusleaderhasbeendefendedbyseveralrecentcritics(e.g.Dale1967:1656;Kannicht1969:ii.4224;Taplin1977:90;Allan2008:338).Thisspeaker,however,isapersonwhoisinsomesenseaslavebothofTheoclymenusandofTheonoe(usingthewordinreferencetoboth:1627,1640)andwhohasatleastascloseaconnectionwiththelatteraswiththeformer(being


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readytodiedefyingTheoclymenusforTheonoe'ssake:16401);whereasthechorushavenotatanytimeduringtheplaygivenanyindicationthattheyconsiderthemselves(p.46) Theonoe'sslavesinanysenseatall,neverspeakingofherastheirmistressbutalwaysastheyoungwomanorthemaidenortheNereid'sdaughterortheprophetess(318,324,328,515,996).Heisperhapsanoldfamilyslave(hismaskandhairwillhavemadehisageevident)whohadonceservedthevirtuousProteus.

p.41n.34Scullion'sthesisisnomoresatisfactoryinthemodifiedformofferedbyHeathandOkell(2007),whosuggest(p.364)thatthegroveinwhichAjax'sbodywillbefound,partofthewild,unoccupiedterritorybeyondthecamp,isrepresentedbyoneoftheflankingdoorsoftheskeneconcealedbyappropriatelypaintedscenery.Ajaxwouldnotchooseforhissuicideaspotwithinsightofhisownhut;that,indeed,wouldbeinconsistentwithhisdeclaredintentiontogotoanuntroddenplacewherehewouldnotbeseenbyanyone(Aj.6579),norcouldhehaveknowninadvancethatTecmessaandthechorus,warnedbyamessengerthathehaddeceivedthem,woulddepartfromthecampinsearchofhim,thusconvenientlyleavingtheareaclearforhimtoreturnto.WhetherweassumewithScullionthatAjaxdoesnotgototheseashoreatall,orwithHeathandOKellthathegoesthereandthencomesbacktothegrove,wewouldhavetoputhimdownasafoolwhosecarefulplantodeceivehisfriendsandevadetheireffortstosavehimdependedforitssuccessonaflukishcoincidence.SeealsoFinglass(2009:273).Finglass(forthcoming)notesfurther,asLobeckhaddonein1835,thatTeucer'salarmedandurgentresponsetotheinformationthatEurysacesisalonebythehut(Aj.9859)wouldbeabsurdifthehutwereonlyafewstepsaway;Scullion'scounterargument(1994:1234)effectivelyelidesthewordsasiftheydidnotexist,whileHeathandOKellseemtoelidetheprecedingwordwhentheysaythatEurysacesisbroughtto[Teucer]fromwhereheisbeingkeptsafe[emphasismine:AHS]inthecamp(HeathandOkell2007:374n.36).

Notes:(*)IammostgratefultoEleanorOKell,andtoananonymousrefereeforOrdiaPrima,fortheircommentsonearlierversionofthischapter.

(1)Aeschylus,tobesure,issaidtohavebeenaccusedofdivulgingsecretsoftheEleusinianMysteriesinhisplays,andthisstorywaswellenoughestablishedinAristotle'stimeforhimapparentlytotakeitstruthforgranted(EN1111a810).Buteveniftrue,itofcourseprovesonlythat,aswewouldexpect,suchdivulgationwaspunishablenotthatAeschylushadactuallydonewhathewasaccusedof.Atanyrate,ifcharged,hemustcertainlyhavebeenacquitted,sinceifconvictedhecouldhardlyhaveescapedthedeathpenalty.SeeSommerstein(1996a:256).

(2)AistophanessailsnearthewindofthisprohibitioninThesm.62633,whenthedisguisedmalewhohasinfiltratedtheThesmophoriaistestedbybeingaskedquestionsaboutlastyear'sritualsbuthethenquicklysnatchesawaytheforbiddenfruit:theoldman'sanswers,though(atfirst)apparentlyaccurate,revealonlywhatallmalespectatorsthoughttheyknewanywaythatifwomenassembletogetherintheabsenceofmen,


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theirmainactivitywillbedrinking.Weshallsoonbeseeingmanyotherexamplesofthisployofthreateningtoviolateaconventionandthenavoidingtheviolation,oftenatthelastmoment.

(3)Forexample,thesendingawayofTekmessaatSoph.Ai.9859,andhersilencefromthetimeshereturns(1168)tilltheendoftheplay:evidentlythereturningTekmessaisplayedbyanonspeakingperformer,becausefrom1316to1373threespeakingactorswillbeonstageplayingotherparts(Teukros,Agamemnon,Odysseus).Ontheparallelruleincomedy(wherethelimitinAristophanes'timewasfour),seeMacDowell(1994).

(4)Virtually,becausethereisatleastonecloseapproach;thereisgoodreasontobelievethatthegreatcontestinAristophanes'Frogs(8301478)isimaginedastakingplaceinthehallofPlouton'spalace,withhisthroneandtheChairofTragedyvisibletotheaudience(seeSommerstein1996c:229).Thiswouldbedonebymeansoftheekkyklema.

(5)Olson(1998:313)wasmorethanjustifiedinrejectingthesuggestionofSommerstein(1984:152n.36thatthechorusofAristophanes'Peacebeginat1315(his1317)toeatthefoodthatTrygaioshasplacedbeforethem;ashepointsout,theverylastwordsoftheplay(,)showthatthechorushavethenstillnotbeguntoeatthetheysawroamingaboutunattendedat1314.Theyarepresumablyjustabouttodoso(perhapstheyalreadyhavefoodintheirhands)whentheyareinterruptedbythereturnofTrygaios.

(6)Cf.Eur.Kykl.55178;Ar.Knights10524.

(7)Eur.Tro.70':Athenahasjustdescribedthisseizureasanactofhybrisagainstherandhertemple,andPoseidonisinfullagreement.

(8)Cf.[Aesch.]Prom.passim;Soph.Ant.939(Antigone),OT1522(AntigoneandIsmene),Phil.81418,100354,13002(Philoktetes),OC83147(Antigone),87286(Oedipus),possiblyalso(asarefereeforOrdiaPrimasuggests)OT115266wheretheThebanshepherdmayhavebeensubjectedtoarmtwistingorotherlowgradephysicalpressureduringhisinterrogation;Eur.Herakleidai6176(Iolaos),Andr.425726(Andromache),Hek.12826(Polymestor),Tro.7869(Astyanax),IT45669(OrestesandPylades),Hel.1629(Theoklymenos),Or.15671672(Hermione),Ba.43452(Dionysos),andaboveallAndromeda(frr.122,127,128).SeealsoFitzpatrick(2003:255)onSophocles'AiasLokros,wheretheaudiencemayhaveseenAiasdraggingKassandraawayafterseizingherfromAthena'stemple.Thereappear,however,tobenoinstancesinthesixundisputedplaysofAeschylus.

(9)Itisalmost,butperhapsnotquite,trueinourevidencethatdeathcannotevenoccurduringtheactionofacomedy.Theexception,ifthereisone,appearsinEupolis'Demes(fr.99.),where(ifKrte'sbrilliantrestoration''[]iscorrect)Aristeidesordersasykophanttobetakenawayforexecution;cf.Sommerstein(2000a:442,4489n.33).


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(10)Morestrictly,perhaps,thekickingawayofthestool(orequivalentact);itwouldpresumablynotbeimpossibleforacaptive,say,toappearonstagewithahalteraroundherneck.

(11)Garvie(1998:211),whoisforotherreasonscommittedtotheviewthatthesuicide[took]placeinfullviewoftheaudience(ibid.203),isforcedtosupposethatat891thechorusmustbelookinginthewrongdirection.Sincethechorushavebeenonthescene,searchingforAias,since866,theycouldhardlyhavefailedtoseethecorpsebynowifithadbeenvisibletotheaudience,andmoreover,onhearingTekmessa'ssuddencry,theywouldinstinctivelyhaveturnedtowardsitssource(fortheyperceivewherethevoiceiscomingfrom,thoughnotwhoseitis).

(12)Whereexactlythiswasinthetheatricalspace,andhowandwhenthebodywasbroughtintotheprominentpositionwhichitcertainlyoccupiesby1003atlatest,aredifficultquestionswhichfortunatelyarenotgermanetothepresentdiscussion.

(13)Thoughinsomerespectsnolessdifficultindetail(e.g.thechoruscanapparentlyseeKapaneus'pyre:Supp.9803,100911).*

(14)If,whenEuadnemadeherleap,shehadfoundherselffallingintoadeeppoolinsteadofontoapyre,shewouldprobablyhavesurvived;itisthusnottheleapthatkillsher,buttheimpactand/orthefire.

(15)Alternatively,assuggestedbyEwansinEwans,Ley,andMcCart(2000:169),Apollo(onstage)maybegivinginstructionstoArtemis(within)toshootthegirlcoweringinastoreroom.

(16)ForPhiloktetes'arrows,inheritedfromHerakles,nevermisstheirtarget(Phil.105,198).

(17)HeraklesinPrometheusUnboundshottheeaglethatwastormentingPrometheus(Aesch.fr.200);butthisbirdwillnothavebeenvisibletotheaudience(cf.WinningtonIngram1983:191),anymorethanwerethebirdsthatIonthreatenstoshootinEur.Ion15483.

(18)Cf.Ar.Birds9012(nothingbutbeardandhorns);Men.Dysk.438(it'snearlydeadalready),Sam.399404.

(19)Itwouldnothavebeenpossibletorepresenttheanimalbyadummy,sinceasacrificialbeasthadtobeled,notcarried,tothealtar.AfourleggedpantomimeanimalseemstohavebeenusedforthedonkeyinAristophanes'Wasps(foritbraysoncueat179and180),butwouldhardlyhavebeenworkableforanybeastsmallerthanthat.

(20)SeeBurkert(1972/1983),esp.38.

(21)NotablyinAr.Lys.90453(whereMyrrhinesaysyes,inaminute,ortheequivalent,atleastsixtimestoherdesperatelyfrustratedhusbandKinesias,andthen,


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whenshehasnoexcusesleftforprocrastination,runsaway)andThesm.120110(wheretheScythianarchertakesthedancinggirlElaphionsomewherejustoffstage,andreturns,highlysatisfied,ninelineslater).

(22)Whoseonstagepresentation,evenhadtherenotbeenreligiousconsiderationstellingagainstit,wouldalmostcertainlyhavebeenjudgedimpracticable.

(23)Herodotos(2.64),notingthatapartfromtheGreeksandEgyptiansalmostnonationknowntohimprohibitssexinsanctuaries,andreferringtotheplausibleargumentthatsuchactscannotbeoffensivetothegodssinceanimalsandbirdsfreelymateonsacredsites,feelsimpelledtoaddThesepeople[i.e.barbariansotherthanEgyptians],citingargumentslikethis,dowhatIformypartfinddistasteful[emphasismine].

(24)Charactersandchoreutaimay,however,strikethemselves;breastandheadbeatingaresometimesexplicitlyattestedintragictexts(e.g.Aesch.Pers.1054;Cho.301,4238)andmayhavebeencommoninotherpassagesoflamentation(significantlycalledatleastasearlyasAristotle,Poet.1452b24);seeFoley(1993).

(25)IthasoftenbeenthoughtthatthelineisinfactcrossedintheprologueofEuripides'Herakleidai.TheconfrontationoftheHeraldandIolaosendswiththelatterlyingsprawledontheground(756),andrecenteditors(Wilkins1993;Kovacs1995;Allan2001)speakofhisbeingknockeddown;but'begone(67)isanoddwordtoaccompanyablow,anditismorelikelythattheHeraldmerelydragsorpushesIolaosoutofhiswayandtheoldmanstumblesandfalls.

(26)Thereisasomewhatsimilarconfrontationbetweenthechorus(oldmenagain)andKreoninSophocles'OedipusatKolonos(83586),whenKreon'smenhaveseizedAntigoneandhehimselfisattemptingtoseizeOedipus.ThechorusseemtocrowdaroundKreon(8424,856),andonecanwellimagine(thoughnothinginthetextmakesitcertain)thattheybrandishtheirsticks;buttheyfailtopreventtheseizure(Kreon'slastwordsinthescene,,'(883),markhisapparenttriumph)andcanonlycryoutforassistance,whichrapidlyarrivesintheshapeofTheseus.

(27)Towhich,asaslave(1123),heislegitimatelyliable.

(28)Itispossiblethatsomeformofphysicalpressureotherthanblowswasappliedtotheoldman(seen.8above).

(29)candenoteeitheraruler'ssceptreoranoldman'swalkingstick;Peleusisinfactstillaking(Andr.223),butduringtherescuescene(545765)hisageismentionedfourteentimesandhisstatusasaruleronlyonce(andthatafterMenelaos'departure:75960).InIA311(seebelow)itisanothermatter,sinceMenelaosisnotanoldman.

(30)TheagoninEuripidesrarelyachievesanything(Lloyd1992:15).

(31)PretendingtobeParis'guardiangoddessAphrodite,sheassureshimthatthe


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rumourhehasheard,thatthereareGreekspiesintheTrojancamp,isfalse(661).

(32)Probablyonlyone.Hephaistos,thoughreluctanttoperformhisterribleduty,finisheseachtaskwithremarkablespeedoncehehasbegunit(e.g.securingPrometheus'legs,,intheintervalbetweenlines74and75);evidentlyheworkswithdivineease,andonehammerstrokethereforeoughttobeenoughforthewedging.Thearmclampsneedmorethanone(cf.58),butthatisbecauseHephaistosdoesnotatfirstputforthhisfullstrength(asKratoswarninglycomplains).

(33)AristophanesadaptsProm.59and613inKnights759and836respectively(425/4),andKratinos'Ploutoi,producedafewyearsearlier(probablyin429:West1979a:141;KasselandAustin1983:204,206),isbasedtoasubstantialextentonPrometheusUnbound(cf.especiallyKratinosfr.171).

(34)Scullion(1994:10928)arguesthatthereisnochangeofsceneatAias814;againstthis,seeGarvie(1998:2034).*

(35)See,however,n.37belowontheproblemsofstrikingblowswhenwearingmasks.

(36)InthesurvivingcomediesofAristophanestherearemanythreatsofviolencebythechorusagainstindividualcharactersor(lessoften)viceversa;thereisnoabsolutelyclearcaseofsuchathreatbeingcarriedout(thoughwateristhrownoverthechorusatPeace969,andonehalfofthechorusdolikewisetotheotherhalfatLys.3815),butOlson(2002:153)iswillingtoacceptthatinAch.2803,whentheAcharniansbreakupDikaiopolis'phallicprocessionandputhisdaughterandslavestoflight,theyhaveletlooseawildvolleyofstones(perhapsrepresentedbybitsofleatherorthelike,heprudentlyadds),anditishardlylikelythattheseallmissedtheirtargets.

(37)Itmayberelevantthat,asEleanorOKellpointsouttomefromexperience,itisdifficulttoplaceablowwithprecisionwhenwearingamask.Intragedy,ablowthatwentwildmightproducealudicrouseffect,andonethatconnectedtoowell(andhurt)riskedbreakingtheboundarybetweenfictionandreality,whichtragedyingeneralstrictlyrespects.Incomedy,onemightargue,thelatterwouldbenogreatproblem,andtheformermightactuallybeanadvantage.

(38)Mademanifest,wemustsuppose,bytheappearanceofbothofthem,aswellasbythewordsoftheformer.

(39)WeknowthatAeschylus'sonEuphorionwonfourvictorieswithsuitesofhithertounperformedplayswhichhepresentedastheworkofhisfather(Suda3800),andmuchtheleastimplausiblehypothesisabouttheauthorshipofthePrometheusplaysisthattheywerewrittenbyEuphorionaspartofsuchaproduction(West1990b:6772).Wecannotbesure,however,thatEuphorionwonfirstprizeeverytimeheusedthisploy.

(40)InthesatyriccorpusofKrumeich,Pechstein,andSeidensticker(1999)plusEuripides'Kyklops,whosetexttheydonotincludethereisnopassageorfragmentindicatingclearlyorevenprobablythatsomeoneisorhasbeenstruck,onstage,by


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anotherperson(statementsaboutintentionsforthefuturearenotadequateevidence,inviewofthefrequencyofunrealizedthreatsinallthedramaticgenres).ThenearestapproachisatEur.Kykl.6834,wheretheblindedPolyphemoshitshisheadonarock(partoftheskenewall?)asaresultofbeingmisdirectedbythechorus.

(41)ThischapterwasoriginallypublishedinOrdiaPrima3(2004)4156(thelastpagecontainedonlybibliography).IammostgratefultoEdicionesdelCopistaforgivingpermissionforthisrepublication.

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