World War IWar on the Western Front Reasons for the stalemate on the Western FrontFailure of the Schlieffen PlanFailure to anticipate supply problems created by the rapid advance through Belgium and France. German infantry was exhausted by long flanking move-ments on the poor roads of northern France. French reinforcements and re-serve armies could be moved from west to east, thus holding up the German advance. Failure to adequately protect the eastern front (Eastern Prussia) against Russian attack, which, when it came, caused Moltke to panic. He moved vital troops from the Western Front just when they were most needed. Failure to maintain a strong right flank up to the north. This left insufficient manpower to circle Paris from the west. French armies were forced back upon the Verdun forts, regarded as impregnable, thus blocking the march on Paris from the south.

British military strengthIn the words of the Kaiser, the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) was a ‘con-temptible army’, but it still prevented German forces from circling around Paris. Also, as long as the British Royal Navy controlled the High Seas and English Channel, the German prospects for victory were poor. A J P Taylor wrote, in ‘War by Timetable’: “When cut down to essentials, the sole cause for the outbreak of war in 1914 was the Schlieffen Plan- a product of the belief in speed and offensive… All were trapped in ingenuity of their military preparations, the Germans most of all.”

Failure of the offensive strategiesIn the decade prior to 1914 military plans created fear and suspicion among the Great Powers, increasing the likelihood of war.It was assumed that the combination of artillery and the offensive spirit of the infantry would prove overwhelming to any defending force, even one of equal size. This assumption had its roots in the Napoleonic doctrine of frontal as-sault backed by powerful direct artillery fire. It was widely held in the century following the Battle of Waterloo that the way to win battles was to press hard in the centre with the main infantry force, with artillery providing close support. The French were not the only proponents of this doctrine, just the most zeal-ous. Hence, there was little understanding of the role of firepower technolo-gies (advent of the rapid-fire, breech-leading artillery, and the machine gun) that would favour the defence.

The Nature of Trench Warfare and life in the trenches dealing with experiences of Allied and German soldiers

Trench systems usually comprised a front line a support (reserve) trench. These were separated by as much as 200 metres of open ground (sometimes much less) connected by a complex system of communication trenches. De-sign and construction were adapted to the terrain and fighting methods.The front-line trench was where troops positioned themselves for launching an attack on the enemy, or awaited such an attack. These were supported with observation posts and machine gun nests. Further back were the reserve trenches where reinforcements would wait to be called up to the front line. Connecting the trenches was a series of communications trenches that stretched back even further to first-aid posts and supply depots.

No-man’s land was usually between 300 and 500 metres wide. It was com-mon for the opposing sides to be much closer to each other- near Zonnebeke the British and Germans were only six or seven metres apart during the fight-ing in 1915.No-man’s land presented a nightmare scenario for most soldiers. Leaving one’s trench and going over the top into that area made one an easy target for enemy machine guns. No-man’s land was full of carters and the combina-tion of mud, heavy rain and artillery bombardment made it a fearful quagmire through which it was difficult to walk, let alone fight.

The preparations that preceded a typical Western Front battle were:• The increase n firepower, limitless supplies and vast numbers of men• Careful planning in moving a vast force• The increase of reconnaissance aircraft over the Western Front• Soften up the opposing front line and drive the defenders out of their

trenches• Location along the front• Heavy artillery

The Weaponry of WWI

Type Basic Information

The rifle Range: 500m (1000 en-masse)

Type Basic Information

Had become easy in the hands of trained troops by 1914

Machine gun Key weapon on Western FrontExcellent defensive weaponRange: 500-1000mSingle weapon could wipe out hundreds of advancing troopsHeavy

Artillery Purpose: soften up enemy trenches, attack heavily fortifiedAdvantage of mobility, limited impact Tactics increased in sophistication

Other weapons Grenades: Favoured by attacking forces because of portability. Small bombs that could be thrown easily.Flamethrower: Caused terror in opposing troops. Effectiveness limited. Short range and duration compatibilityMortars: Commonly used. Small bombs launched from tubes. High trajectory, limited range, limited attack on close rival trenches

Aircraft Useful for reconnaissance of enemy positionsEffective bombing was a generation away

Gas Most fearful weaponCanisters fired into enemy positionsOn impact they exploded and allowed gas to escapeCould burn, blind and suffocate

Lice There was not a soldier in the trenches who did not have lice. The men never be-came used to it and their constant biting forced the men to scratch continuously. Constant scratching caused the skin to break and sores to develop. Boils, impetigo and ulcers could develop

Rats They were often the size of dogs. Food could never be left out as it would attract rats. The horror of rats often brought out the humour of the men in the trenches. there are many accounts of soldiers describing their competition to kill rats and the ingenious way in which they worked at this. Some soldiers even developed some affection for ‘their rats’ and gave them names.

In the trenches, winter temperatures were known to fall to -15 degrees Cel-sius. The cold caused great hardship for the soldier to spend weeks on end in a trench. It was impossible to escape. Frostbite affected many men and often led to infection, gangrene and later amputation. The cold made sleep almost impossible. The military authorities adamantly refused to recognise shell shock and ac-cused those who displayed symptoms, and worse, cowardice. Shell shock was caused by the stresses created by the nature of war at the front.

Overview of strategies and tactics to break the stalemate including key battles: Verdun, the Somme, PasschendaeleBattle of Verdun

When and where? The Battle of Verdun was from 21 February to 8 December 1916, and it was on the

Western Front on the outskirts of Verdun in France

German aims To wear down the French to the point of exhaustion. Falkenhayn knew the French wouldn’t give up Verdun, so his stated aim became to ‘bleed the French white’. He told one of his officers at the time that his aim was not to defeat, but to annihilate France

French aims On 26 February, General Pétain pledged ‘they shall not pass’. Verdun became a symbol of French resistance, the epitome of the nation will not surrender a sacred city

Conditions The French were willing to sacrifice everything for Verdun. As French resistance in-creased, however, Falkenhayn increased his determination to take Verdun. Verdun had become the killing fields for French and German soldiers. The battleground be-came a cocktail of fog, smoke, confusion, carnage and destruction. It saw the intro-duction of flamethrowers and phosphene gas

The facts/results Verdun had been held- it appeared to be a French victory, but fighting spirit had been broken and the French army was close to mutiny. The French govt, badly shaken, was also near to collapse

The Battle of the SommeWhen and where? The Battle of the Somme was from July to Novem-

ber 1916

Haig’s aims To bombard German front-lines, create a gap, then unleash closely coordinated infantry and cavalry who would rush through, scattering the German de-fenders

Haig's aims (according to Haig) Relieve pressure on the French at Verdun. Prevent Germany from transferring troops to the east. Wear down German forms in the west

Preparations (Germany) • Occupied ridges & high ground of the Somme bat-tlefield

• Reinforced concrete shelters up to 12 metres un-derground in the soft earth and chalk. Most in-fantry men remained hidden. Observers took up positions above ground

• Barbed wire was set up in no-man’s land and in front of the trenches

• Many German infantry men carried light machine guns

Preparations (Allies) • ‘Kitchener’s Army’ of volunteers lacked training and was not much of a fighting force

• The British had one gun for every 50 metres, the French, one for every 18 metres

The Third Battle of Ypres/ The Passchendaele Campaign When and where? July to November 1917

Took place in the small Belgian village Ypres

Haig’s aims To relieve the French who had suffered major losses in 1917 and who were still reeling from the mutinies of that. Further wearing down of German army

Haig's aims (according to Churchill)

The power of the defensive has produced a deadlock, and the British army is destined to be a holding force throughout 1918 until the Americans can be-come a decisive factor.’

Conditions Haig was proposing to push his men through a slimy corpse-filled swamp so dreadful that infantry units took 5 hours to cover 1 mile without having to fight. Supplies and ammo were taken by donkeys or men, who collapsed under the effort

The battle The main battle commenced on 31 July 1917, but Germans had already aban-doned their front line trenches in favour of ‘flexible defence in depth.’ Haig ordered another push, hoping to strike a defensive blow with an assault against the strategic town of Passchendaele. Massive artillery bombardment commenced on 9 October against German lines. Mustard gas used by Ger-mans as well as fighter planes were sent to strafe British trenches

Results The attack failed to break through Ludendorff’s defences. From June to November British losses were 300,000 killed and wounded. Ger-man losses were 260,000. Relations between the British Army High Command and the govt came close to breaking completely. Haig and David Lloyd George were both blamed

Changing attitudes of Allied and German soldiers to the war over timeBritainThe early response to the war was excitement and eagerness to join up. The factors that encouraged enlistment were:• Propaganda- very persuasive, made Germany look evil and threatening• Ignorance- no knowledge of the nature of modern warfare• Peer pressure- Acceptance into the army meant being acknowledged as

one of the nation’s elite• Influence of women- Women used in propaganda, young recruits desired to

impress women

The factors leading to declining recruitment were:• Futility of war- War-weariness, appearance of disillusionment• The reality of trench life- Lack of compassion from generals, was about

staying alive, getting home and looking after your pals• Casualties- Battle of Somme- 20,000 dead first day, enormous loss of life,

never-ending lists of wounded, physical and psychological patients

GermanyEarly response to war:• Enthusiasm over whole country

• Expected a quick war• Same motivations as Britain• Germany had conscription in place

Propaganda:• Defensive war- encircled by Allies• Govt convinced Germany that Britain was evil

German soldiers became disillusioned because:• Food shortages- result of Allied blockade• Resulted in major strikes• Families starving

Germany in November 1918:• Revolution• Rebellion• Kaiser abdicates and flees• Germany declares a Republic• Signed the armistice

The home fronts in Britain and GermanyTotal war and its social and economic impact on civilians in Britain and GermanyTotal War: The complete dedication of a nation’s resources and people to the war effort.

Elements of total war:• Govt control over production, communications and the marketing of the na-

tion’s resources.• Govt direction of the nation’s labour resources.• Govt mobilised previously unused resources, e.g.: female labour.• Govt control of the allocation of resources.• Govt taking on functions that it previously would not have considered.• Conscription.• Propaganda.• Censorship.• Security.

German civilian life due to total war:• Food- rationing due to severe shortages.• Transport- have to walk everywhere.

• Employment- decided by the govt.• Health- poor due to food shortages and the cold in winter.• Censorship- wouldn’t know what’s going on in the war because the govt

keeps it from everyone.• Psychological impact: low morale, resentment of govt.

Recruitment, conscription and propaganda in Britain and GermanyAs the war progressed, govt recruitment propaganda became more radical because less men wanted to join the army, so enlistment numbers dropped.

Posters started to plain different emotions such as patriotism, romantic notion of love and duty, guilt, shame and humiliation.

Britain’s move from reliance on a voluntary army to the introduction of con-scription:1914- 700,000 men had volunteered.1915- 1.34 million had volunteered by January. Lower height and physical requirement. Expansion of age bracket. Derby Scheme- failed.1916- Military Service Act- calls up all people with no family. Lots of people excluded—> mutiny. May- conscription- Second Military Service Act- anyone can be called up if physically fit.

Propaganda: The deliberate presentation of a one-sided view of an issue. Its aim is to convince the audience of a particular point of view. It isn’t fair, bal-anced or rational.

The variety of attitudes to the war and how they changed over time in Britain and GermanyBRITAINVery early opposition to the war came from socialists and determined paci-fists.

Reasons why opposition to the war appeared in Britain: • War-weariness• Zeppelin raids and attacks• Food shortages due to submarine warfare• Socialist and pacifist voices• Lack of compassion shown by their generals

Arguments raised by opponents of war:

• Useless destruction of men• Costing so much money but not getting anywhere• They were being deceived into thinking that war was about freedom, but re-

ally it was just about power

Reasons for low anti-war dissent in Britain:• Effective British propaganda—> maintained support for the war• Less economic strain due to the navy maintaining adequate food supply• Highly disciplined labour force- the result of a highly disciplined class struc-

ture• Lloyd George’s govt paid attention to the needs of the works on the home

front- cooperation with organised labour

GERMANYVery early opposition to the war came from the German Peace Society, George Crosz, and Socialists.

Why opposition to the war appeared in Germany:• War-weariness• No more spirit• Class division • Lacked a Lloyd George figure• Deterioration of economic conditions• Extreme shortages

The impact of the war on women’s lives and experiences in BritainWhy historians debate the revolutionary effect the war had on women:• They thought the war brought significant and long-lasting change in the life-

styles of women socially• They thought that the war had a revolutionary effect on the lives of women

and society’s perception of them• It changed due to their efforts in the war

What was the size of the female muni-tions workforce?

1914- 212,0001918- 700,000 to 950,000

Why was this work so crucial? You can’t fight a war without munitions and this war needed an unusual amount because of the barricades and bombardments

Why was this work dangerous? Many of them got TNT poisoningExplosionsReally long shifts—> tiredness—> accidents

Why were women so keen to do this kind of work?

Good pay- two to three times moreMade them feel significant and useful

The ways in which British women were able to contribute to the war effort be-tween 1914 and 1918:• The munitions industry• Police force• Land army• Armed services- Women’s Royal Force (WRAF), Women’s Royal Naval

Service (WRNS), Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC)

The attitude of suffragettes towards the war: • Encouraged men to enlist• Sought the internment of foreigners• Demanded harsh treatment of conches

The impact the war had on middle-class women:• Changed position in society• Many middle class women felt free from the domestic restraints• More literate• Not willing to go back to their old lives• Contribution to war effort was praised

How and why women found a new kind of freedom during the war:• The way they dressed• Shorter clothes instead of floor-length dresses• Smoking, swearing, drinking• Doing things that men were allowed to do• Wore cosmetics

Turning PointsImpacts of the entry of the USA and of the Russian withdrawalWhy the United States entered into WWI:• German and Austrian behaviour in US—> Spies destroyed factories—> Passport frauds—> Created strikes—> Manufactured bombs to destroy factories and ships• The Zimmerman Telegram

—> Germany sent a telegram to Mexico to say they will support them if they declare war against the US—> The British intercepted it and later published it as evidence of German treachery• German unrestricted submarine warfare—> Sank the Lusitania, a US ship—> Said they wouldn’t hit ships with goods, but they backed down from that policy

The impact of the American entry into WWI:• Economic: They did not make a huge impact because Britain had already

been relying on America’s supplies• Morale: Inflated British morale. Deflated German morale• Naval warfare: Immediate impact. Convoy systems• Military: No immediate military impact until 1918. Took part in the second

battle of the Marne

Impact of the Russian withdrawal from the war:• Germany believed they had a chance of victory• The Allies would have been in despair if the US wasn’t coming• The Allies weren’t surprised or greatly worried• Germany didn’t use any of the resources they acquired to good use

Ludendorff’s Spring Offensive and the Allied responseThe scale of the first German attack was 3 million rounds of artillery in one day over 65km wide. There were 38,000 British casualties and 21,000 prison-ers of war. Then many waves went over the top.

The German advance began to slow down because supplies were running short and the American force was starting to be felt.

The Allied counteroffensive began on 8 August when British, Canadian, French and Australian troops advanced without any barrage. Ludendorff later described it as the ‘black day of the German army… it put the decline of our fighting power beyond all doubt.’

Allied Victory Events leading to the armisticeAllied advantages in war of attrition:• The failure of the Schlieffen Plan• Allied economic and military superiority • The Allied Blockade• Strains on the German home front

• Entry of the US into the war

Reasons for the Allied victory and German collapseFactors leading to the rapid German collapse: • Exhaustion of the German army—> Thrown all they had at Allies in Spring Offensive—> Germany had no reserves. Conscripted young boys and old men—> Industry nearing state of collapse• Arrival of the US—> since March Germany had numerical superiority over the Allies but this was disappearing as US troops arrived—> Played a significant part in the counteroffensive• Improved Allied generalship—> By 1918 many of the Allie’s poor performing generals had been replaced by experienced junior officers —> Allied commanders seemed to have learnt some lessons from the years of slaughter—> Knew how to make better use of tanks—> Allied use of mass tank formations proved to be a crucial factor in the fi-nal months of war• Ludendorff’s role—> Failed to develop tank warfare—> No contingency plans

The roles and differing goals of Wilson, Clemenceau and Lloyd George

Wilson’s Ideas Explanation

National Self-Determination The right of people to rule themselves and decide for themselves

Open covenants of peace Public display of treaties. No more secret agreements

Colonial claims Local population have a say based on their wishes. Imperial rule must cease

Internationalism Nations to put the common international good before their own interests/ national benefit

League of Nations Where they discuss and arbitrate upon nationally so they can peacefully

Wilson’s Ideas Explanation

resolve disputes and cooperate

Clemenceau’s attitude Explanation

Desire for security To never be attacked by Germany again. He wanted to destroy the army, Navy and Air Force so they couldn’t support another war

Desire for compensation Germany to pay for reconstruction. Severe reparation payments from Ger-many

Attitude towards Wilson A sentimental internationalist. He can have his ideals, but France will sat-isfy itself with compensation and security