Sociolinguistic Assignment Sociolinguistic Assignment

BORROWINGBORROWING

PROGRAM PASCASARJANAPROGRAM PASCASARJANAUNIVERSITAS NEGERI MAKASSARUNIVERSITAS NEGERI MAKASSAR

20092009

CHAPTER ICHAPTER I

INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION

In general, the study of loan words has been mainly centered on the linguistic

processes that o along with lexical borrowing (Deroy, 1956; Calvet,1974 etc.) These

studies have the merit of having identified the different types of lexical borrowing

(both intralingua and Interlingua) and their linguistic processes (phonological

adaptation, lexicalizations, semantic shifts etc). However, as the result of focusing

on the linguistic aspects of loanwords, their sociolinguistic implications have

generally been undermined in mainstream linguistic theory.

This study focus on a multilingual speech community. The influence of

English, French and Arabic is found in the youth.

It is obvious what is meant by ‘borrowing’ when an item is taken over lock and barrel

from one variety into another, e.g. when the name of a French dish like boeuf

bourguignon is borrowed for use as an English term, complete with its French

pronunciation (with a uvular r, etc). English speakers who know that the item is a part

of the foreign language simply reclassify the item by changing its social description

from ‘French’ to ‘English’ (or more probably ‘used by Frenchmen’ to ‘used’ by me’).

In contrast with code-switching, this does not in fact involve any change of variety

when such an item is used in English sentence like Let’s have some boeuf

bourguignon, since boeuf bourguignon is now part of the English language, as far as

the speaker had said Let’s have du boeuf bourguignon, he would have been code-

switching since the word du ‘some’ is French but not English, and would only occur

with a French noun, so we might predict fairly safely that Let’s have du bread would

never occur, unless bread had been borrowed from English into French and therefore

counted as a French word. Words like du are of course much likely to be borrowed as

an individual items than words like boeuf bourguignon, simply because there is likely

to be need for them in the borrowing.

CHAPTER II

DISCUSSION

A. What is Borrowing

It is stated in Wikipedia, the online encyclopedia, that borrow or borrowingIt is stated in Wikipedia, the online encyclopedia, that borrow or borrowing

can mean: to receive (something) from somebody temporally, expecting to return it.can mean: to receive (something) from somebody temporally, expecting to return it.

In language, the use of loan word. The definition of borrowing or loanwords areIn language, the use of loan word. The definition of borrowing or loanwords are

words adopted by the speaker of one language from a different language (the sourcewords adopted by the speaker of one language from a different language (the source

language). The main story: Some speaker know both languages and find it useful tolanguage). The main story: Some speaker know both languages and find it useful to

borrow a word from the source language, perhaps to refer to something beingborrow a word from the source language, perhaps to refer to something being

introduced from the source culture(e.g. espresso),and if this repeated enough timesintroduced from the source culture(e.g. espresso),and if this repeated enough times

the word enters the language and is available for all speakers. In some cases the wordthe word enters the language and is available for all speakers. In some cases the word

may always may always stand out (e.g.,shampoo) and may cause some people to wonder howstand out (e.g.,shampoo) and may cause some people to wonder how

such a word came into the language.such a word came into the language.

A loanword can also be called a borrowing. The noun borrowing refers toA loanword can also be called a borrowing. The noun borrowing refers to

the process of speaker adopting words from a source language into their nativethe process of speaker adopting words from a source language into their native

language. “Loan” and “borrowing” are of course metaphors, because there is nolanguage. “Loan” and “borrowing” are of course metaphors, because there is no

literal lending process. There is no transfer from language to another, and noliteral lending process. There is no transfer from language to another, and no

“returning” words to the source language. The words simply come to be used by a“returning” words to the source language. The words simply come to be used by a

speech community that speaks a different language from the one these wordsspeech community that speaks a different language from the one these words

originated in.originated in.

Borrowing is a consequence of cultural contact between two languageBorrowing is a consequence of cultural contact between two language

communities. Borrowing of words can go in both directions between the twocommunities. Borrowing of words can go in both directions between the two

languages in contact, but often there is an asymmetry, such that more words go fromlanguages in contact, but often there is an asymmetry, such that more words go from

one side to the other. In this case the source language community has some advantageone side to the other. In this case the source language community has some advantage

of power, prestige and or wealth that makes the objects and ideas it brings desirableof power, prestige and or wealth that makes the objects and ideas it brings desirable

and useful at the borrowing language community. For example, the Germanic tribesand useful at the borrowing language community. For example, the Germanic tribes

in the first few centuries A.D. adopted numerous loanwords from Latin as theyin the first few centuries A.D. adopted numerous loanwords from Latin as they

adopted new products via trade with the Romans. Few Germanic words, on the otheradopted new products via trade with the Romans. Few Germanic words, on the other

hand, passed into Latin.hand, passed into Latin.

The actual process of borrowing is complex and involves many usage eventsThe actual process of borrowing is complex and involves many usage events

(i.e. instances of use of the new word). Generally, some speakers of the borrowing(i.e. instances of use of the new word). Generally, some speakers of the borrowing

language know the source language too, or at least enough of it to utilize the relevantlanguage know the source language too, or at least enough of it to utilize the relevant

word. They (often consciously) adopt the new word when speaking the borrowingword. They (often consciously) adopt the new word when speaking the borrowing

language, because it most exactly fits the idea they are trying to express. If they arelanguage, because it most exactly fits the idea they are trying to express. If they are

bilingual in the source language, which is often the case, they might pronounce thebilingual in the source language, which is often the case, they might pronounce the

words the same or similar to the way they are pronounced in the source language. Forwords the same or similar to the way they are pronounced in the source language. For

example, English speakers adopted the word garage from French, at first with aexample, English speakers adopted the word garage from French, at first with a

pronunciation nearer to the French pronunciation than is now usually found.pronunciation nearer to the French pronunciation than is now usually found.

Presumably the very first speakers who used the word in English knew at least somePresumably the very first speakers who used the word in English knew at least some

French and heard the word used by French speakers, in a French-speaking context.French and heard the word used by French speakers, in a French-speaking context.

Those who first use the new word might use it at first only with speakers ofThose who first use the new word might use it at first only with speakers of

the source language who know the word, but at some point they come to use the wordthe source language who know the word, but at some point they come to use the word

with those to whom the word was not previously known. To these speakers the wordwith those to whom the word was not previously known. To these speakers the word

may sound ‘foreign’. At this stage, when most speakers do not know the word and ifmay sound ‘foreign’. At this stage, when most speakers do not know the word and if

they hear it think it is from another language, the word can be called a foreign word.they hear it think it is from another language, the word can be called a foreign word.

There are many foreign words and phrases used in English such as bon vivant,There are many foreign words and phrases used in English such as bon vivant,

mutatis mutandis (Latin), and Fahrvergnuegen (German). However, in time moremutatis mutandis (Latin), and Fahrvergnuegen (German). However, in time more

speakers can become familiar with a new foreign word or expression. The communityspeakers can become familiar with a new foreign word or expression. The community

of users of this word can grow to the point where even people who know little orof users of this word can grow to the point where even people who know little or

nothing of the source language understand, and even use, the novel word themselves.nothing of the source language understand, and even use, the novel word themselves.

The new word becomes conventionalized: part of the conventional ways of speakingThe new word becomes conventionalized: part of the conventional ways of speaking

in the borrowing language. At this point we call it borrowing or loanword. in the borrowing language. At this point we call it borrowing or loanword.

Conventionalization is a gradual process in which a word progressivelyConventionalization is a gradual process in which a word progressively

permeates a larger and larger speech community, becoming part of ever morepermeates a larger and larger speech community, becoming part of ever more

people’s linguistic repertoire. As part of its becoming more familiar to more people, apeople’s linguistic repertoire. As part of its becoming more familiar to more people, a

newly borrowed word gradually adopts sound and other characteristics of thenewly borrowed word gradually adopts sound and other characteristics of the

borrowing language as speakers who do not know the source language accommodateborrowing language as speakers who do not know the source language accommodate

it to their own linguistic systems. In time, people in the borrowing community do notit to their own linguistic systems. In time, people in the borrowing community do not

perceive the words as a loanword at all. Generally, the longer borrowed word hasperceive the words as a loanword at all. Generally, the longer borrowed word has

been in the language, and the more frequently it is used, the more resembles thebeen in the language, and the more frequently it is used, the more resembles the

native words of the language. English has gone through many periods in whichnative words of the language. English has gone through many periods in which

larger numbers of words for a particular language were borrowed. These periodslarger numbers of words for a particular language were borrowed. These periods

coincide with times of major cultural contacts are not sharply delimited, and cancoincide with times of major cultural contacts are not sharply delimited, and can

overlap. For example, the Norse influence of English began already in the 8overlap. For example, the Norse influence of English began already in the 8 thth century century

A.D. and continued strongly well after the Norman Conquest brought a large influxA.D. and continued strongly well after the Norman Conquest brought a large influx

of Norman French to the language.of Norman French to the language.

It is part of the cultural history of English speakers that have always adoptedIt is part of the cultural history of English speakers that have always adopted

loanwords from the languages of whatever cultures they have come in contact with.loanwords from the languages of whatever cultures they have come in contact with.

There have been few periods when borrowing became unfashionable, and there hasThere have been few periods when borrowing became unfashionable, and there has

never been a national academy in Britain, the U.S., or other English-speakingnever been a national academy in Britain, the U.S., or other English-speaking

countries to attempt to restrict new loanwords, as there has been in many continentalcountries to attempt to restrict new loanwords, as there has been in many continental

European countries.European countries.

2. Classification2. Classification

The studies by Werner Betz (1949, 1959), Einar Haugen(1950, also 1956),The studies by Werner Betz (1949, 1959), Einar Haugen(1950, also 1956),

and Uriel Weinreich (1953) are regarded as the classical theoretical works on loanand Uriel Weinreich (1953) are regarded as the classical theoretical works on loan

influence. The basic theoretical statements all depart from Betz’s nomenclature.influence. The basic theoretical statements all depart from Betz’s nomenclature.

Duckworth (1977) enlarges Betz’s scheme by the type “partial substitution” andDuckworth (1977) enlarges Betz’s scheme by the type “partial substitution” and

supplements the system with English terms:supplements the system with English terms:

1.1. ImportationImportation

a.a. foreign wordforeign word = non-integrated word from a foreign language, spelt as is, e.g. E = non-integrated word from a foreign language, spelt as is, e.g. E

cafécafé (from French); Sp. (from French); Sp. whisk(e)ywhisk(e)y (from English) (*the word whiskey in fact (from English) (*the word whiskey in fact

comes from the Irish phrase "uisce beatha" which means the water of life, "aquacomes from the Irish phrase "uisce beatha" which means the water of life, "aqua

vitae"); E weltanschauungvitae"); E weltanschauung (< G Weltanschauung)); It. (< G Weltanschauung)); It. mousemouse ‘computer device’ ‘computer device’

(< E (< E mousemouse ‘rodent; computer device’). ‘rodent; computer device’).

b.b. loan wordloan word = integrated word from a foreign language, orthography adapted = integrated word from a foreign language, orthography adapted

for the receiving language, e.g. E for the receiving language, e.g. E musicmusic (from French "musique"); Sp. (from French "musique"); Sp. chóferchófer

(from French "chauffeur").(from French "chauffeur").

2.2. Partial substitutionPartial substitution::

Composite words, in which one part is borrowed, another one substituted, e.g.Composite words, in which one part is borrowed, another one substituted, e.g.

OE OE Saturnes dægSaturnes dæg ‘Saturday’ (< Lat. ‘Saturday’ (< Lat. Saturni diesSaturni dies), G ), G ShowgeschäftShowgeschäft ‘literally: show- ‘literally: show-

business’ (< E business’ (< E show businessshow business), G ), G Live-SendungLive-Sendung ‘literally: live-broadcast’ (< E ‘literally: live-broadcast’ (< E livelive

broadcastbroadcast).).

3.3. SubstitutionSubstitution

a.a. Loan translationLoan translation

Translation of the elements of the foreign word, e.g. OE Translation of the elements of the foreign word, e.g. OE Monan dægMonan dæg

‘Monday’ (< Lat. ‘Monday’ (< Lat. Lunae diesLunae dies), Fr. ), Fr. gratte-cielgratte-ciel and Sp. and Sp. rasca·cielosrasca·cielos ‘both ‘both

literally: scrape-sky’ (< E literally: scrape-sky’ (< E skyscraperskyscraper), E ), E world viewworld view (< G (< G Welt·anschauungWelt·anschauung),),

AmSp. AmSp. manzana de Adánmanzana de Adán (< E (< E Adam’s appleAdam’s apple; vs. EurSp. ; vs. EurSp. nuez [de la gargantanuez [de la garganta]]

‘literally: nut [of the throat]’).‘literally: nut [of the throat]’).

b. Loan renderingb. Loan rendering

Translation of part of the elements of the foreign word, e.g. E Translation of part of the elements of the foreign word, e.g. E

brother·hoodbrother·hood (< Lat. (< Lat. frater·nitasfrater·nitas [= Lat. [= Lat. fraterfrater ‘brother’ + suffix]) . ‘brother’ + suffix]) .

4.4. Loan creationLoan creation

Coinage independent of the foreign word, but created out of the desire toCoinage independent of the foreign word, but created out of the desire to

replace a foreign word, e.g. E replace a foreign word, e.g. E brandybrandy (< Fr. (< Fr. cognaccognac).).

5.5. Loan meaningLoan meaning

Indigenous word to which the meaning of the foreign word is transferred, e.g.Indigenous word to which the meaning of the foreign word is transferred, e.g.

OE OE cnihtcniht ‘servant + disciple of Jesus’ (< Lat. ‘servant + disciple of Jesus’ (< Lat. discipulusdiscipulus ‘student, disciple of Jesus’), ‘student, disciple of Jesus’),

OE OE heofonheofon ‘sky, abode of the gods + Christian heaven’ (< Lat. ‘sky, abode of the gods + Christian heaven’ (< Lat. caelumcaelum ‘sky, abode of ‘sky, abode of

the gods, Christian heaven’), G the gods, Christian heaven’), G MausMaus and Fr and Fr sourissouris ‘rodent + computer device’ (< E ‘rodent + computer device’ (< E

mousemouse ‘rodent, computer device’). ‘rodent, computer device’).

On the basis of an importation-substitution distinction, Haugen (1950: 214f.)On the basis of an importation-substitution distinction, Haugen (1950: 214f.)

distinguishes three basic groups of borrowings: “(1) distinguishes three basic groups of borrowings: “(1) LoanwordsLoanwords show morphemic show morphemic

importation without substitution. [. . .]. (2) importation without substitution. [. . .]. (2) Loan blendsLoan blends show morphemic substitution show morphemic substitution

as well as importation. [. . .]. (3) as well as importation. [. . .]. (3) Loan shiftsLoan shifts show morphemic substitution without show morphemic substitution without

importation”. Haugen has later refined (1956) his model in a review of Gneuss’simportation”. Haugen has later refined (1956) his model in a review of Gneuss’s

(1955) book on Old English loan coinages, whose classification, in turn, is the one by(1955) book on Old English loan coinages, whose classification, in turn, is the one by

Betz (1949) again.Betz (1949) again.

Weinreich (1953: 47ff.) differentiates between two mechanisms of lexicalWeinreich (1953: 47ff.) differentiates between two mechanisms of lexical

interference, namely those initiated by simple words and those initiated by compoundinterference, namely those initiated by simple words and those initiated by compound

words and phrases. Weinreich (1953: 47) defines words and phrases. Weinreich (1953: 47) defines simple wordssimple words “from the point of “from the point of

view of the bilinguals who perform the transfer, rather than that of the descriptiveview of the bilinguals who perform the transfer, rather than that of the descriptive

linguist. Accordingly, the category ‘simple’ words also includes compounds that arelinguist. Accordingly, the category ‘simple’ words also includes compounds that are

transferred in unanalysed form”. After this general classification, Weinreich thentransferred in unanalysed form”. After this general classification, Weinreich then

resorts to Betz’s (1949) terminology.resorts to Betz’s (1949) terminology.

Models that try to integrate borrowing in an overall classification ofModels that try to integrate borrowing in an overall classification of

vocabulary change, or onomasiological change, have recently been proposed by Petervocabulary change, or onomasiological change, have recently been proposed by Peter

Koch (2002) and Joachim Grzega (2003, 2004).Koch (2002) and Joachim Grzega (2003, 2004).

Ghil’ad.Zuckermann’s analiysis of multi sourced neologization (2003).Ghil’ad.Zuckermann’s analiysis of multi sourced neologization (2003).

Challenges. Einar.Haugen’s classic tpologyof lexical borrowing. While Einar HaugenChallenges. Einar.Haugen’s classic tpologyof lexical borrowing. While Einar Haugen

categorizes borrowing into either substitution or importation. Zuckerman explorescategorizes borrowing into either substitution or importation. Zuckerman explores ,,

Zuckermann explores cases of "simultaneous substitution and importation" in theZuckermann explores cases of "simultaneous substitution and importation" in the

form of camouflaged borrowingform of camouflaged borrowing.. He proposes a new He proposes a new classification classification of multisourcedof multisourced

neologism, words deriving from two or more sources at the same time. Examples ofneologism, words deriving from two or more sources at the same time. Examples of

such such mechanismsmechanisms are phonetic matching, semantic zed phonetic matching and phono- are phonetic matching, semantic zed phonetic matching and phono-

semantic matching. Phono-semantic matching is distinct from semantic matching. Phono-semantic matching is distinct from calquing. calquing. WhileWhile

clquing includes (semantic)clquing includes (semantic) translation translation, it does not consist of , it does not consist of phonetic matching phonetic matching (i.e.(i.e.

retaining the approximate sound of the retaining the approximate sound of the borrowedborrowed word through matching it with a word through matching it with a

similar-sounding pre-existent word/morpheme in the (target language) similar-sounding pre-existent word/morpheme in the (target language)

3. In English Language3. In English Language

English English has many loanwords. In 1973, a computerised survey of about 80,000has many loanwords. In 1973, a computerised survey of about 80,000

words in the old Oxford Dictionary (3rd edition) was published in Ordered Profusionwords in the old Oxford Dictionary (3rd edition) was published in Ordered Profusion

by Thomas Finkenstaedt and D ieter Wolff. Their estimates for the origin of Englishby Thomas Finkenstaedt and D ieter Wolff. Their estimates for the origin of English

words were as follows:words were as follows:

French and Norman French and Norman and, including Old French, Old Norman, Anglo French and and, including Old French, Old Norman, Anglo French and

Anglo Norman: 28.3% Anglo Norman: 28.3%

1.1. Law and government: attorney, bailiff, chancellor, chattel, country, court,Law and government: attorney, bailiff, chancellor, chattel, country, court,

crime, dependent, evidence, government, jail, judge, jury, larceny, noble,crime, dependent, evidence, government, jail, judge, jury, larceny, noble,

parliament, plaintiff, plea, prison, revenue, state, tax, verdict.parliament, plaintiff, plea, prison, revenue, state, tax, verdict.

2.2. Church – abbot: chaplain, chapter, clergy, friar, prayer, preach, priest,Church – abbot: chaplain, chapter, clergy, friar, prayer, preach, priest,

religion, sacrament, saint, sermon. religion, sacrament, saint, sermon.

3.3. Nobility-baron: Nobility-baron: bbaroness, count, countess, duke, duchess, marquis, marquees,aroness, count, countess, duke, duchess, marquis, marquees,

prince, princess, viscount, viscounts, noble, royal (contrast native words: king,prince, princess, viscount, viscounts, noble, royal (contrast native words: king,

queen, earl, lord, lady, knight, kingly, queenly) . queen, earl, lord, lady, knight, kingly, queenly) .

4.4. Military-army: artillery, battle, captain, company, corporal, defense, enemy,Military-army: artillery, battle, captain, company, corporal, defense, enemy,

marine, navy, sergeant, soldier, volunteer.marine, navy, sergeant, soldier, volunteer.

5.5. Cooking-beef: boil, broil, butcher, dine, fry, mutton, pork, poultry, roast,Cooking-beef: boil, broil, butcher, dine, fry, mutton, pork, poultry, roast,

salmon, stew, veal.salmon, stew, veal.

6.6. Culture and luxury goods: art, bracelet, claret, clarinet, dance, diamond,Culture and luxury goods: art, bracelet, claret, clarinet, dance, diamond,

fashion, fur, jewel, oboe, painting, pendant, satin, ruby, sculpture. fashion, fur, jewel, oboe, painting, pendant, satin, ruby, sculpture.

Other-adventure, change, charge, chart, courage, devout, dignity, enamor,Other-adventure, change, charge, chart, courage, devout, dignity, enamor,

feign, fruit, letter, literature, magic, male, female, mirror, pilgrimage, proud, question,feign, fruit, letter, literature, magic, male, female, mirror, pilgrimage, proud, question,

regard, special. regard, special.

Also Middle English French loans: a huge number of words in age, -ance/-Also Middle English French loans: a huge number of words in age, -ance/-

ence, ant/ent, ity, ment, tion, con, de, and pre.ence, ant/ent, ity, ment, tion, con, de, and pre.

Sometimes it’s hard to tell whether a given word came from French orSometimes it’s hard to tell whether a given word came from French or

whether it was taken straight from Latin. Words for which this difficulty occurs arewhether it was taken straight from Latin. Words for which this difficulty occurs are

those in which there were no special sound and/or spelling changes of the sort thatthose in which there were no special sound and/or spelling changes of the sort that

distinguished French from Latin.distinguished French from Latin.

LatinLatin, including modern scientific and technical Latin: 28.24%, including modern scientific and technical Latin: 28.24%

The forms given in this section are the Old English ones. The originalThe forms given in this section are the Old English ones. The original

Latin source word is given in parentheses where significantly different. SomeLatin source word is given in parentheses where significantly different. Some

Latin words were themselves originally borrowed from Greek. It can be deducedLatin words were themselves originally borrowed from Greek. It can be deduced

that these borrowings date from the time before the Angels and Saxons left thethat these borrowings date from the time before the Angels and Saxons left the

continent for England, because of very similar forms found in the other oldcontinent for England, because of very similar forms found in the other old

Germanic languages (old High German, Old Saxons, etc.). The source words areGermanic languages (old High German, Old Saxons, etc.). The source words are

generally attested in Latin writings that were preserved through the ages.generally attested in Latin writings that were preserved through the ages.

Example: Example:

ancor ‘anchor’, butere ‘butter’ (L< Gr. Butyros), cealc ‘chalk’, ceas ‘cheese’ancor ‘anchor’, butere ‘butter’ (L< Gr. Butyros), cealc ‘chalk’, ceas ‘cheese’

(caseum), cetel ‘kettle’, cycene ‘kitchen’,cirice ‘churh’ (ecclesia < Gr.ecclesia),(caseum), cetel ‘kettle’, cycene ‘kitchen’,cirice ‘churh’ (ecclesia < Gr.ecclesia),

disc ‘dish’ (discus), mil ‘mile’ (milia [passuum] ‘a thousand paces’), piperdisc ‘dish’ (discus), mil ‘mile’ (milia [passuum] ‘a thousand paces’), piper

‘pepper’, pund ,pound, (pondo ‘a weight’), sacc ‘sack’ (saccus), sicol ‘sickle’,‘pepper’, pund ,pound, (pondo ‘a weight’), sacc ‘sack’ (saccus), sicol ‘sickle’,

straet ‘street’ ([via] strata ‘sraight way’ or stone-paved road), weall ‘wall’straet ‘street’ ([via] strata ‘sraight way’ or stone-paved road), weall ‘wall’

(vallum), win ‘wine’ (vinum < Gr.oinos)(vallum), win ‘wine’ (vinum < Gr.oinos)

A.A. In Old English Period (600-1100) :In Old English Period (600-1100) :

Apostol ‘apostle’ (apostolus < Gr.apostolus), casere ‘caesar, emperor’, ceasterApostol ‘apostle’ (apostolus < Gr.apostolus), casere ‘caesar, emperor’, ceaster

‘city’ (castra ‘camp’), cest ‘chest’ (cista ‘box’), circul ‘circle’, cometa ‘comet’‘city’ (castra ‘camp’), cest ‘chest’ (cista ‘box’), circul ‘circle’, cometa ‘comet’

(cometa < Greek), maegester ‘master’ (magister), martir ‘martyr’.(cometa < Greek), maegester ‘master’ (magister), martir ‘martyr’.

Germanic LanguagesGermanic Languages, including Old and Middle English: 25%, including Old and Middle English: 25%

Greek:Greek:: 5.32%: 5.32%

No etymology given or unknown: 4.03%No etymology given or unknown: 4.03%

Derived from proper names: 3.28%Derived from proper names: 3.28%

All other languages contributed less than 1%All other languages contributed less than 1%

B.B. Early Modern English Period (1500-1650)Early Modern English Period (1500-1650)

The effects of the renaissance begin to be seriously felt in England. We seeThe effects of the renaissance begin to be seriously felt in England. We see

the beginning of huge influx of Latin and Greek words, many of them learned wordsthe beginning of huge influx of Latin and Greek words, many of them learned words

imported by scholars well versed in those languages. But many are borrowings fromimported by scholars well versed in those languages. But many are borrowings from

other languages, as words from European high culture begin to make their presenceother languages, as words from European high culture begin to make their presence

felt and the first words come in from the earliest period of colonial expansion.felt and the first words come in from the earliest period of colonial expansion.

1.1. Latin Latin

Agile, abdomen, anatomy, area;, capsule, compensate, dexterity, discuss,Agile, abdomen, anatomy, area;, capsule, compensate, dexterity, discuss,

disc/disk, excavate, expensive, fictitious, gradual, habitual, insane, janitor,disc/disk, excavate, expensive, fictitious, gradual, habitual, insane, janitor,

meditate, notorious, orbit, peninsula, physician, superintendent, ultimate,meditate, notorious, orbit, peninsula, physician, superintendent, ultimate,

vindicate Greek (many of these via Latin)vindicate Greek (many of these via Latin)

Anonymous, atmosphere, autograph, catastrophe, climax, comedy, critic, data,Anonymous, atmosphere, autograph, catastrophe, climax, comedy, critic, data,

ecstasy, history, ostracize, parasite, pneumonia, skeleton, tonic, tragedy. ecstasy, history, ostracize, parasite, pneumonia, skeleton, tonic, tragedy.

2. Greek2. Greek

Bound morphemes: -ism, -izeBound morphemes: -ism, -ize

3.3. ArabicArabic

Via Spanish-alcove, algebra, zenith, algorithm, almanac, azimuth, alchemy,Via Spanish-alcove, algebra, zenith, algorithm, almanac, azimuth, alchemy,

admiral.admiral.

Via other Romance languages-amber, cipher, orange, saffron, sugar, zero, coffee.Via other Romance languages-amber, cipher, orange, saffron, sugar, zero, coffee.

C.Modern English (1650 – Present) C.Modern English (1650 – Present)

Period of major colonial expansion, industrial/technological revolution, andPeriod of major colonial expansion, industrial/technological revolution, and

American immigration.American immigration.

Words from European languagesWords from European languages

1.1. French French

French continues to be the largest single source of new words outside of veryFrench continues to be the largest single source of new words outside of very

specialized vocabulary domains (scientific/technical vocabulary, still dominatedspecialized vocabulary domains (scientific/technical vocabulary, still dominated

by classical borrowings)by classical borrowings)

High culture-ballet, bouillabaisse, cabernet, cachet, chaise longue, champagne,High culture-ballet, bouillabaisse, cabernet, cachet, chaise longue, champagne,

chic, cognac, corsage, faux pas, nom de plume, quiche, rouge, roulet, sachet,chic, cognac, corsage, faux pas, nom de plume, quiche, rouge, roulet, sachet,

salon, saloon, sangfroid, savoir faire. salon, saloon, sangfroid, savoir faire.

War and military: bastion, brigade, battalion, cavalry, grenade, infantry, palisade,War and military: bastion, brigade, battalion, cavalry, grenade, infantry, palisade,

rebuff, bayonet.rebuff, bayonet.

Other: bigot, chassis, clique, denim, garage, grotesque, jean(s), niche, shock.Other: bigot, chassis, clique, denim, garage, grotesque, jean(s), niche, shock.

a.a. French CanadianFrench Canadian

For Example: chowderFor Example: chowder

b.Lousiana French (Cajun)b.Lousiana French (Cajun)

For Example: Jambalava For Example: Jambalava

2.2. Spanish Spanish

Armada, adobe, alligator, alpaca, armadillo, barricade, bravado, cannibal, canyon,Armada, adobe, alligator, alpaca, armadillo, barricade, bravado, cannibal, canyon,

covote, desperado, embargo, enchilada, guitar, marijuana, mesa, mosquito, mustang,covote, desperado, embargo, enchilada, guitar, marijuana, mesa, mosquito, mustang,

ranh, taco, tornado, tortilla, vigilante.ranh, taco, tornado, tortilla, vigilante.

3.3. ItalianItalian

Alto, arsenal, balcony, broccoli, cameo, casino, cupola, duo, fresco, fugue,Alto, arsenal, balcony, broccoli, cameo, casino, cupola, duo, fresco, fugue,

gazette(via French), ghetto, gondola, grotto, macaroni, madrigal, motto, piano,gazette(via French), ghetto, gondola, grotto, macaroni, madrigal, motto, piano,

opera, pantaloons, prima, donna, regatta, sequin, soprano, opera, stanza, stucco,opera, pantaloons, prima, donna, regatta, sequin, soprano, opera, stanza, stucco,

studio, tempo, torso, umbrella, viola, violin.studio, tempo, torso, umbrella, viola, violin.

From Italian American immigrants:From Italian American immigrants:

Cappuccino, espresso, linguini, Mafioso, pasta, pizza, ravioli, spaghetti,Cappuccino, espresso, linguini, Mafioso, pasta, pizza, ravioli, spaghetti,

spumante, zabaglione, zucchini.spumante, zabaglione, zucchini.

4.4. Dutch, FlemishDutch, Flemish

a.a. Shipping, naval terms:Shipping, naval terms:

Avast, boom, bow, bowsprit, buoy, commodore, cruise, dock, freight, keel,Avast, boom, bow, bowsprit, buoy, commodore, cruise, dock, freight, keel,

keelhaul, leak, pump, reef, scoop, scour, skipper, sloop, smuggle, splice, tackle,keelhaul, leak, pump, reef, scoop, scour, skipper, sloop, smuggle, splice, tackle,

yawl, yacht.yawl, yacht.

b.b. Cloth industry: bale, cambric, duck (fabric), fuller’s earth, mart, napCloth industry: bale, cambric, duck (fabric), fuller’s earth, mart, nap

(of cloth), selvage, spool, stripe.(of cloth), selvage, spool, stripe.

Art: easel, etching, landscape, sketch.Art: easel, etching, landscape, sketch.

War: beleaguer, holster, freebooter, furlough, onslaught.War: beleaguer, holster, freebooter, furlough, onslaught.

Food and drink: booze, brandy (wine), coleslaw, cookive, cranberry, crulles,Food and drink: booze, brandy (wine), coleslaw, cookive, cranberry, crulles,

gin, hops, stockfish, waffle.gin, hops, stockfish, waffle.

Other: bugger (orig. French), crap, curl, dollar, scum, split (orig. nauticalOther: bugger (orig. French), crap, curl, dollar, scum, split (orig. nautical

term), uproar.term), uproar.

5.5. GermanGerman

Bum, dunk, feldspar, quartz, hex, lager, knackwurst, liverwurst, loafer,Bum, dunk, feldspar, quartz, hex, lager, knackwurst, liverwurst, loafer,

noodle, poodle, dachshund, pretzel, pinochle, pumpernickel, sauerkraut,noodle, poodle, dachshund, pretzel, pinochle, pumpernickel, sauerkraut,

schnitzel, zwieback, (beer)stein, lederhosen, dirndl.schnitzel, zwieback, (beer)stein, lederhosen, dirndl.

2020thth century German loanwords: blitzkrieg, zeppelin, strafe, U-boat, century German loanwords: blitzkrieg, zeppelin, strafe, U-boat,

delicatessen, hamburger, frankfurter, wiener, hausfrau, kindergarten,delicatessen, hamburger, frankfurter, wiener, hausfrau, kindergarten,

Oktoberfest, schuss, wunderkind, bundt (cake), spritz (cokies), (apple)Oktoberfest, schuss, wunderkind, bundt (cake), spritz (cokies), (apple)

strudel.strudel.

6.6. Yiddish (most are 20Yiddish (most are 20thth century borrowings) century borrowings)

Bagel, Chanukkah, (Hanukkah), chutzpah, dreidel, kibitzer, kosher, lox,Bagel, Chanukkah, (Hanukkah), chutzpah, dreidel, kibitzer, kosher, lox,

pastrami (orig. from Romanian), schlep, schlemiel, schlimazel, gefilte fish,pastrami (orig. from Romanian), schlep, schlemiel, schlimazel, gefilte fish,

goy, klutz, knish, matzoh, vey, schmuck, schnook.goy, klutz, knish, matzoh, vey, schmuck, schnook.

7.7. ScandinavianScandinavian

Fjord, maelstrom, ombudsman, ski, slalom, smorgasbordFjord, maelstrom, ombudsman, ski, slalom, smorgasbord

8.8. Russian:Russian:

Apparatchik, borscht, czar/tsar, glasnost, icon, perestroika, vodka.Apparatchik, borscht, czar/tsar, glasnost, icon, perestroika, vodka.

9.9. Words from other parts of the wordWords from other parts of the word

Sanskrit:Sanskrit: ayatar, karma, mahatma, swastika, yoga ayatar, karma, mahatma, swastika, yoga

HindiHindi: bandanna, bangle, bungalow, chintz, cot, cummerbund, dungaree,: bandanna, bangle, bungalow, chintz, cot, cummerbund, dungaree,

juggernaut, jungle, loot, maharaja, nabob, pajamas, punch (the drink), juggernaut, jungle, loot, maharaja, nabob, pajamas, punch (the drink),

DravidianDravidian: curry, mango, teak, pariah: curry, mango, teak, pariah

Persian (Farsi)Persian (Farsi): check, checkmate, chess: check, checkmate, chess

Arabic:Arabic: bedoin, emir, jakir, gazelle, giraffe, harem, hashish, lute, minaret, bedoin, emir, jakir, gazelle, giraffe, harem, hashish, lute, minaret,

mosque, myrrh, salaam, sirocco, sultan, vizier, bazaar, caravan.mosque, myrrh, salaam, sirocco, sultan, vizier, bazaar, caravan.

The reasons for English's vast borrowing include:The reasons for English's vast borrowing include:

(to a relatively small extent) the existence of other languages native to(to a relatively small extent) the existence of other languages native to

Britain;Britain;

the invasion of England by the Vikings and the Normans;the invasion of England by the Vikings and the Normans;

its modern importance; andits modern importance; and

the flexibility of its syllable structure.the flexibility of its syllable structure.

This lack of restrictions makes it comparatively easy for the English languageThis lack of restrictions makes it comparatively easy for the English language

to incorporate new words. However, the English pronunciations of loanwords oftento incorporate new words. However, the English pronunciations of loanwords often

differ from the original pronunciations to such a degree that a native speaker of thediffer from the original pronunciations to such a degree that a native speaker of the

language it was borrowed from is not able to recognize it as a loanword when spoken.language it was borrowed from is not able to recognize it as a loanword when spoken.

English has often borrowed words from the cultures and languages of theEnglish has often borrowed words from the cultures and languages of the

British Colonies. For example, words borrowed from Hindi include syce/sais, dinghy,British Colonies. For example, words borrowed from Hindi include syce/sais, dinghy,

chutney, pundit, wallah, , pajama/pyjamas, bungalow/ and jodhpur. Other exampleschutney, pundit, wallah, , pajama/pyjamas, bungalow/ and jodhpur. Other examples

include: trek, aardyark laager, wildebeest, veld and from Afrikaans; orangutan,include: trek, aardyark laager, wildebeest, veld and from Afrikaans; orangutan,

shirang, amok from (Malay); and siambok shirang, amok from (Malay); and siambok viavia Afrikaans from Malay. Afrikaans from Malay.

English also acquires loanwords in which foreign sounds are part of theEnglish also acquires loanwords in which foreign sounds are part of the

foreign pronunciation. For example, the Hawaiian word ‘a’a is used by geologists toforeign pronunciation. For example, the Hawaiian word ‘a’a is used by geologists to

specify lava that is relatively thick, chunky, and rough. The Hawaiian spellingspecify lava that is relatively thick, chunky, and rough. The Hawaiian spelling

indicates the two glottal stops in the word, but the usual English pronunciation, [ˈɑ.ɑ],indicates the two glottal stops in the word, but the usual English pronunciation, [ˈɑ.ɑ],

does not contain the glottal stop. In addition, the English spelling usually removes thedoes not contain the glottal stop. In addition, the English spelling usually removes the

okina and macron diacritic.okina and macron diacritic.

a.a. AffixesAffixes

The majority of English affixes, such as "un-", "-ing", and "-ly", were presentThe majority of English affixes, such as "un-", "-ing", and "-ly", were present

in older forms in Old English. However, a few English affixes are borrowed. Forin older forms in Old English. However, a few English affixes are borrowed. For

example, the agentive suffix -er, which is very prolific, is borrowed ultimately fromexample, the agentive suffix -er, which is very prolific, is borrowed ultimately from

Latin. The English verbal suffix -ize comes from Greek -ιζειν via Latin Latin. The English verbal suffix -ize comes from Greek -ιζειν via Latin -izare-izare..

4. Other languages4. Other languages

Direct loans, Direct loans, expressions translated word-by-word, or even grammaticalexpressions translated word-by-word, or even grammatical

constructions and orthographical conventions from English are called anglicisms.constructions and orthographical conventions from English are called anglicisms.

Similarly, loans from Swedish - like the word smorgasbord - are called syeticisms orSimilarly, loans from Swedish - like the word smorgasbord - are called syeticisms or

svecisms. In French, the result of perceived over-use of English loanwords andsvecisms. In French, the result of perceived over-use of English loanwords and

expressions is called franglais.. English loanwords in French include 'le weekend', 'leexpressions is called franglais.. English loanwords in French include 'le weekend', 'le

job' (in France) or 'la job' (in Canada) and 'le biftek' (beefsteak). Denglish is Englishjob' (in France) or 'la job' (in Canada) and 'le biftek' (beefsteak). Denglish is English

influence on German.. Another popular term is Spanglish, , the English influence oninfluence on German.. Another popular term is Spanglish, , the English influence on

the Spanish language and Dunglish the English influence on the Dutch language.the Spanish language and Dunglish the English influence on the Dutch language.

During the Ottoman period, Turkish literature became heavily influenced byDuring the Ottoman period, Turkish literature became heavily influenced by

Persian and Arabic borrowings. During more than 600 years of the Ottoman EmpirePersian and Arabic borrowings. During more than 600 years of the Ottoman Empire

the literary and official language of the empire was a mixture of Turkish, Persian, andthe literary and official language of the empire was a mixture of Turkish, Persian, and

Arabic, which is now called Ottoman Turkish, , considerably differing from theArabic, which is now called Ottoman Turkish, , considerably differing from the

everyday spoken Turkish of the time. Many Turkish, Persian and Arabic words wereeveryday spoken Turkish of the time. Many Turkish, Persian and Arabic words were

also loaned to other languages of the empire, such as Bulgarian and Serbian. After thealso loaned to other languages of the empire, such as Bulgarian and Serbian. After the

empire fell in World I and the Republic of Turkey was founded, the Turkish languageempire fell in World I and the Republic of Turkey was founded, the Turkish language

underwent an extensive language reform led by the newly founded Turkish Languageunderwent an extensive language reform led by the newly founded Turkish Language

AssociationAssociation,, during which many loanwords were replaced with equivalent words during which many loanwords were replaced with equivalent words

derived from Turkic roots. The language reform was a part of the ongoing culturalderived from Turkic roots. The language reform was a part of the ongoing cultural

reform of the time, in turn a part in the broader framework of Ataturk’s Reforms, ,reform of the time, in turn a part in the broader framework of Ataturk’s Reforms, ,

and included the introduction of the new Turkish alphabet. Turkish also has manyand included the introduction of the new Turkish alphabet. Turkish also has many

loanwords derived from French, such as pantaloon for 'trousers' and loanwords derived from French, such as pantaloon for 'trousers' and komikkomik for 'funny' for 'funny'

(from Fr. (from Fr. comiquecomique), all of them pronounced very similarly (except for the French), all of them pronounced very similarly (except for the French

pronunciation of the letter 'r').pronunciation of the letter 'r').

The Italian government has recently expressed its displeasure over theThe Italian government has recently expressed its displeasure over the

borrowing of English words and syntax in Italian. English words are often used whereborrowing of English words and syntax in Italian. English words are often used where

they are more convenient than a longer Italian expression, as in "computer" for orthey are more convenient than a longer Italian expression, as in "computer" for or

"week-end" for; but also where equally convenient Italian words already exist, as in"week-end" for; but also where equally convenient Italian words already exist, as in

"fashion" for "fashion" for modamoda and "meeting" for and "meeting" for conferenzaconferenza..

CHAPTER IIICHAPTER III

CONCLUSSIONCONCLUSSION

The definition of borrowing or loanwords are words adopted by the speakerThe definition of borrowing or loanwords are words adopted by the speaker

of one language from a different language (the source language).of one language from a different language (the source language). The noun borrowing The noun borrowing

refers to the process of speaker adopting words from a source language into theirrefers to the process of speaker adopting words from a source language into their

native language. Borrowing is a consequence of cultural contact between twonative language. Borrowing is a consequence of cultural contact between two

language communitieslanguage communities

English English has many loanwordshas many loanwords that consist of Latin that consist of Latin, including modern scientific, including modern scientific

and technical Latin: 28.24%, and technical Latin: 28.24%, Germanic LanguagesGermanic Languages, including Old and Middle, including Old and Middle

English: 25%, English: 25%, Greek:Greek: 5.32%, no etymology given or unknown: 4.03%, derived from 5.32%, no etymology given or unknown: 4.03%, derived from

proper names: 3.28%, all other languages contributed less than 1%.proper names: 3.28%, all other languages contributed less than 1%.

Words are occasionally borrowed with a different meaning than the meaningWords are occasionally borrowed with a different meaning than the meaning

in the source language. Among the most well-known examples of the German wordin the source language. Among the most well-known examples of the German word

HandyHandy, which is a borrowing of the English adjective this is, but means and is thus a, which is a borrowing of the English adjective this is, but means and is thus a

noun. Conversely, in English the prefix noun. Conversely, in English the prefix --, taken from German, is used in a way that it, taken from German, is used in a way that it

is rarely used in German.is rarely used in German.

Words borrowed into different languages are sometimes spelled as in theWords borrowed into different languages are sometimes spelled as in the

original language (such as many of the loanwords above). Sometimes loanwordsoriginal language (such as many of the loanwords above). Sometimes loanwords

retain original (or near-original) pronunciation, but undergo a spelling change toretain original (or near-original) pronunciation, but undergo a spelling change to

represent the orthography of the adopting language. represent the orthography of the adopting language.

REFERENCES

Hudson, R.A, 1987, Sociolinguistics, Cambridge University press

Online