CHAPTER 2: PERCEPTION, LEARNING, VALUES, AND ETHICS

The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of general principles of human behavior that are the most relevant for understanding job behavior. In addition, motivation is considered separately in Chapter 6. Chapters 2 and 3 highlight topics typically covered in an introductory psychology course.

CHAPTER OUTLINE AND LECTURE NOTES

I. PERCEPTION: HOW PEOPLE INTERPRET THE WORLDMost of us interpret what is going one in the world outside of us as

we perceive it--not as it really is. Perception deals with the various ways in which people interpret things in the external world and how they act on the basis of these perceptions.

A. Why Perceptual Problems ExistBoth characteristics of the stimulus and the mental processes of

people can lead to distorted perceptions.

1. Characteristics of the Stimulus. Perceptual problems are the most likely to be encountered when the stimulus or cue to be perceived has an emotional meaning (such as money).

2. Mental Processes of People. The devices that people use to deal with sensory information play a major role in creating perceptual problems.

a. Selective Attention. The major contributor to perceptual distortions is the tendency for us to attend to the stimuli most relevant to our needs. Selective attention is giving exclusive attention to something at the expense of other aspects of the environment.

b. Denial. If the sensory information is painful to us, such as hurting our self-esteem, we tend to go one step beyond selective attention. Denial is the process of excluding from awareness an important aspect of reality.

c. Stereotyping. A common method of simplifying perception is to evaluate an individual or thing based on our perception of the group or class to which the person or object belongs. Stereotypes ignore individual differences.

d. Halo Effect. This is the tendency to color everything that we know about a person because of on recognizable favorable or unfavorable trait.

e. Projection. Another shortcut in the perceptual process is to project our own bad faults onto others instead of making an objective appraisal of the situation.

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f. Perceptual Congruence. Perceptual errors do not always occur. Sometimes we have a high degree of perceptual congruence (the degree to which people perceive things the same way). At times, however, people can agree on a distorted perception.

B. Attribution Theory: How We Perceive the Causes of Behavior

Perception also involves attempts to explain the causes of behavior. Attribution theory is the process by which people ascribe causes to the behavior they perceive. Most people are more likely to attribute a person's actions or result to personal characteristics than to outside forces. A general tendency is to attribute achievements to good inner qualities, yet attribute failure to adverse factors within the environment.

People attribute causes after gathering information about three dimensions of behavior. Consensus concerns whether other people behave similarly. Distinctiveness concerns whether the behavior in question occurred in other situations. Consistency concerns the regularity of behavior. We attribute behavior to personal factors when we perceive low consensus, low distinctiveness, and high consistency. We attribute behavior to external causes when we perceive high consensus, high distinctiveness, and low consistency.

II. HOW PEOPLE LEARNMuch learning takes place in work settings. Learning is a lasting

change in behavior based on practice or experience. Yet you can learn something and store it in your mind without changing your behavior. Several types of learning are described in this chapter.

A. Classical Conditioning: Learning Simple Habits and ReflexesClassical conditioning helps explain simple types of learning. The

unconditioned stimulus is the natural stimulus that brings forth the unconditioned response. The conditioned stimulus is the previously neutral stimulus that now acts like an unconditioned stimulus, and brings forth a conditioned response. Without an occasional reward, the conditioned response extinguishes. How well the response generalizes and discriminates is also important.

B. Operant Conditioning: Learning through the Consequences of Behavior

Operant conditioning, the cornerstone of behaviorism, takes place as a consequence of behavior.

1. Learning versus Motivation. People cannot be motivated to do something they do know how to do, yet they can be motivated to learn.

2. Reinforcement Strategies. Reinforcement refers to how behaviors are selected and retained. Four different reinforcement strategies are described here. Positive reinforcement is receiving a reward for making a desired response. Negative reinforcement (or avoidance learning) is being rewarded by being relieved of discomfort. Punishment is the introduction of an unpleasant

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stimulus as a consequence of having done something wrong. The threat of punishment works in about the same way. Extinction is the weakening or decreasing the frequency of undesirable behavior by removing the reward for such behavior. It is the absence of reinforcement.

3. Primary and Secondary Reinforcers. A primary reinforcer is one that is rewarding by itself, such as food or water. A secondary reinforcer is one whose value must be learned through association with other reinforcers.

4. Schedules of Reinforcement. Under a continuous schedule, behavior is reinforced every time it occurs. Under an intermittent schedule, the learner receives a reward after some instances of engaged in the desired behavior--but not after each instance.

5. Shaping of Behavior. Instrumental learning can also be used to help people learn a skill a step at a time. Shaping is the process of learning through approximations until the total skill is learned. As the learner improves in the ability to perform the task, more skill is required to receive the reward.

C. Modeling and Informal Learning: Learning Complicated SkillsComplicated skills require more than stimulus-response learning.

Two important cognitive processes that help in learning complicated skills are modeling and informal learning. Modeling occurs when you learn a skill by observing another person perform the skills. Modeling is a form of social learning because it is learned in the presence of others.

Informal learning is planned or unplanned learning that occurs in a setting without a formal classroom, lesson plan, instructor, or examination. The central premise of such learning is that employees acquire important information outside of a formal learning situation. Informal learning is a variation of implicit learning, or learning that takes place unconsciously and without an intention to learn.

D. E-Learning: A Method of Delivering Content for LearningIn e-learning (or distance learning) the learner studies

independently outside of a classroom setting, and interacts with a computer in addition to studying course material. E-learning is still based on principles of learning. Relevant here is that e-learning is dependent upon cognitive process of the learner, especially self-motivation and self-discipline.

III. HOW VALUES AND BELIEFS INFLUENCE JOB BEHAVIORValues and beliefs are other factors influencing job behavior. A

value refers to the importance a person attaches to something. Values are also tied in with enduring beliefs that one's mode of conduct is better than an opposite mode of conduct. Understanding values is a popular topic, as exemplified by the belief that Generation X and Generation Y people have values that contrast Baby Boomers. (See Table 3-1.) For example, Generation X and Generation prefer teamwork over hierarchy; and Baby Boomers are more career oriented.

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A. How Values are LearnedValues are learned in the normal maturation process, including the

use of role models. The communication of attitudes also helps form values. Unstated, but implied, attitudes may also shape values. Many key values are also learned through religion and thus become the basis for society's morals.

B. Clarifying Your ValuesValue-clarification exercises ask you to compare the relative

importance you attach to different objects and activities. Self-assessment Exercise 2-1 is a typical method of value clarification.

C. The Stability of ValuesPersonal values are a more important aspect of behavior to the

extent that they remain stable for long periods of time. If our values change weekly, monthly, or yearly they are not likely to guide our activities. A person's life stage and circumstances influence which values are dominant at the time. A study of intellectually gifted people measured stability of values between ages 13 and 33. A specific finding was that Theoretical, Economic, Aesthetic, and Religious values are more likely to be dominant during adulthood if they were dominant during adolescence. Political and Social values were found to be less stable.

D. The Mesh between Individual and Job ValuesWhen the values of employees mesh with those required of the job,

performance tends to be higher. When the demands made by the organization or a manager conflict with the basic values of the individual, the person suffers from person-role conflict. A clash in values between the person and the company can also occur when the company believes that the individual's values falls below their standards.

IV. ETHICS AND JOB BEHAVIORValues are closely tied in with ethics, the study of moral obligations

or separating right from wrong. Ethics convert values into action. A person's values influence which kinds of behavior he or she believes are ethical.

A. The Extent of Ethical ProblemsEthical problems exist in the workplace, even if the majority of

managers and other workers are ethical. A study of 2,390 workers found that 76 percent of workers say they have witnessed unethical or illegal behavior by coworkers in the past year. It was also found that 61 percent of workers suspected that higher ups would be disciplined less severely for ethical violations than would other workers.

C. Causes of Ethical ProblemsEthical problems are created by the (1) characteristics of people,

(2) the characteristics of the environment, (3) the combined influence of people and the environment, and (4) the nature of the relationship between people.

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1. Characteristics of People. The bad apple explanation of unethical behavior suggests that people behave unethically primarily because of negative personal characteristics.

2. Characteristics of the Environment. The bad barrel explanation of unethical behavior suggests that people behave unethically primarily because of negative environmental influences. The study mentioned above found that the "pressure cooker atmosphere" drives people toward unethical behavior.

3. Interaction of Individuals and the Environment. The combined influence of the individual and the environment can cause unethical behavior. The person behaves unethically depending on circumstances that could trigger certain unethical tendencies. The environment might encourage unethical behavior.

4. The Strength of Relationships Among People. People who have close ties to each other are more likely to behave ethically toward each other on the job. In contrast, if a weak relationship exists between two people, either party is more likely to engage in an unethical relationship.

D. A Guide to Ethical Decision MakingA practical way of improving ethical decision making is to run

contemplated decisions through an ethics test when any doubt exists. For example, when faced with an ethical dilemma, ask yourself the following six questions:

1. Is it right?2. Is it fair?3. Who gets hurt?4. Would you be comfortable if the details of your decision were

reported on the front page of your local newspaper, television, or your company's e-mail system?

5. Would you tell your child (or young family member or relative) to do it?

6. How does it smell?

The above test is useful for decisions that are neither obviously ethical or unethical.

COMMENTS ON DISCUSSION QUESTIONS AND ACTIVITIES

1. Give an example of a situation in which it is true that "perception is moreimportant than reality."

A false report was filed about a food-poisoning death associated with eating

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a meal at a particular restaurant. Although the report was false by objective

standards many present and prospective customers perceived the restaurant to have low standards of food preparation. The customer base deteriorated so rapidly that the restaurant was forced to go out of business. To change the perception, the restaurant re-opened under a new name in another location. The restaurant was no longer perceived to be unsafe.

2. Give an example of a situation in which it is not true that "perception is more

important than reality."

An adolescent boy decides to go ice-skating. He perceives the ice to be thick enough for safe skating. However, the physical reality is that the ice is too thin for skating. The boy sinks through the ice, proving that in this instance reality is more important than perception. (Fortunately he is saved from drowning by a friend who accurately perceived his problem.)

3. Provide an example of knowledge or skill that you have learned implicitly, or

without a conscious intention to learn.

Both minor and major information might be learned implicitly. On the minor side, a person might learn that the Jeep Liberty has the fifth wheel attached to the back door through having seen several of these vehicles by chance. On the major side, a worker might have seen somebody administer cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) to a drowning victim. Although the person did not intend to learn this live-saving maneuver he or she is able to use CPR to another person who was involved in an automobile accident.

4. What steps can a company take to encourage informal learning among employees?

A key step to encourage informal learning is to establish spaces whereemployees would interact with each other. Lounges are effective,

and so arecommon areas where employees walk on the way to their work

areas.Company-sponsored luncheon or dinner banquets can also

facilitate the interaction necessary for informal learning.

5. How do the following statements by students illustrate a key finding of attribution theory? "I earned an A in my information systems

course." "Theinstructor gave me a D in my applied psychology course."

According to attribution theory, we attribute favorable outcomes to our inner

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qualities. ("I earned an A…"). In contrast, we attribute unfavorable outcomes

to external forces. ("My instructor gave me….")

6. Give an example from you own life in which a value of yours led to the formation of a goal.

An example of a value leading to a goal could take this form: A workerstrongly values continuous learning and self-development. She

thereforeestablishes a goal of acquiring three new job-related skills for the upcoming year.

7. Why might it be true that people with strong work values live longer than people with weaker work values?

Strong work values appear to prolong life in two important ways. People with strong work values are passionate about life, thereby living longer

because they have an important purpose in live. An important purpose, in

turn, helps prolong life. Strong work values prolong life also because thinking that work is central to life helps reduce stressors such as feeling overworked or believing that working is meaningless.

8. According to several studies, business firms that practice high ethics are generally more profitable than those with low ethics. What explanation can you offer for this finding?

One possible reason that more ethical firms are more profitable is that they are better managed in general, thus leading to higher profitability. Another possibility is that more ethical firms attract higher-caliber employees who tend to be more productive. Furthermore, more ethical firms may attract and retain customers more readily.

9. A dominant trend in industry since the late 1980s has been to lay off workers during business downturns in order to decrease costs and improve profits (known as downsizing). What is your opinion of the ethics of downsizing?

As with many issues in business, downsizing falls into the gray area. Managers who believe they have an ethical obligation to generate a fair return for stockholders might think that downsizing is ethical because it prevents losses and improves profits. In contrast, people who believe that business firms are morally obliged to look out for the welfare of workers might think that downsizing is unethical.

10. Ask an experienced supervisor or manager how he or she trains workers.Relate his or her answer to learning theory.

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The modal answer is likely to be that the supervisor or manager usesmodeling, or asks coworkers to be models for new workers. Supervisors and managers may not be aware of how much operant conditioning and

informal learning takes place.

COMMENTS ON EXERCISES AND CASES

Clarifying Your Values

Students enjoy this exercise. An intriguing outcome is that some students are surprised by the ranks they assign to some of the statements. It would be illuminating to calculate which items received the highest and lowest ranks.

The Stunning Plaque

This case illustrates the controversial nature of business ethics. Many people would not even question the ethics of the small company that sells recognition plaques, whereas other people question the integrity of the company.

1. What ethical issues do you perceive in this firm calling itself “State License Documentation”?

A problem with the title, “State License Documentation” is that the recipient of the envelop is likely to think he or she is receiving an important document from the motor vehicle bureau. As such, the title is deceptive.

2. What might be a more accurate name to give the firm selling the plaques?

A term like “Recognition Plaques Inc.” would be more accurate and less deceptive.

3. What perceptions are most people likely to have when they receive an envelop in the mail addressed “State License Documentation”?

As mentioned above, the term “State License Documentation” implies an official document from the state in regard to automobile driving or in some cases, a license to practice a profession.

4. What is the true nature of the business of SLD? (What business are they really in?)

State License Documentation is in the business of satisfying the recognition needs of people who have been cited in the press, or have written articles.

The Socially Conscious Restaurant

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This case touches on many facets of human behavior. We retain the case, with an updating, from earlier editions because of its continuing popularity. This case is also suited for the next chapter because it concentrates upon individual differences among people.

1. What will be your biggest challenge in this assignment?A major challenge is that the manager is faced with the prospects of training a highly heterogeneous workforce, even with respect to values and ethics.

2. What cautions should you exercise in using general learning principles in

training your employees?

The employees will most likely learn at different rates. Some will catch on quickly to the routine, using almost any learning method. Others will require a slow conditioning process.

3. How might the values and ethics of your staff have a negative impact on the operations of the restaurant, and how can you handle this problem?

Values and ethics might possibly interfere with learning. Some of the former prisoners may rebel against such a slow method of making up for lost income during their incarceration. A starting point would be to openly discuss the values of the employees, and their conflicts.

Pondering an Ethical Dilemma

As with many role plays, students may need guidance in incorporating ideas from the course into their discussions. A natural tendency is to conduct a discussion without introducing new knowledge. Someone in this group should take the initiative to run the ethical dilemma through the 6-question ethical screen. The ethics of the situation are complicated by the fact that the jobs in question could make a big difference in the financial well being of the Pakistani children.

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EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

Multiple Choice

(a) 1. The visual image received by the eyea. has many possible interpretations.b. is quite accurate unless the person has

a visual problem.c. becomes more accurate with age.d. is typically black and white during the

day.

(c) 2. You are the most likely to encounter perceptual problems when the stimulus to be perceived has a(n)

a. negative quality.c. emotional quality.

b. familiar look.d. physiological

nature.

(d) 3. We are the most likely to pay attention to a stimulus (object or words)

when the stimulusa. is subdued.b. is colorful.c. fits the needs of others.d. fits our needs.

(b) 4. Denial is the most likely to take place when the information being processed is

a. confusing.c. misperceived.

b. painful.d.

complex.

(d) 5. Stereotypes can lead to perceptual errors in evaluating another personbecause we

a. are overly influenced by one positive trait about the individual.

b. are overly influenced by one negative trait about the individual.

c. tend to believe that person has the same faults we do.

d. tend to ignore the uniqueness of the individual.

(c) 6. A manager with a history of cheating on expense accounts, tells a new

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member of his group not to cheat on her expense report after she

returns from her upcoming business trip. The manager is most likely using the mental process calleda. denial.b. stereotyping.c. projection.d. the halo effect.

(a) 7. Because Ashley has a winning smile, you uncritically accept hertechnical suggestions. Your perception is being influenced

bya. the halo effect.

c. stereotyping.b. denial.

d. expectancy..

(b) 8. When most employees perceive the company as having outstanding products, the situation is referred to as

a. perceptual defense. c. selective perception.

b. perceptual congruence. d. stereotyping.

(d) 9. You learn the name of the founder of the company simply because

you have passed by his statue in the company lobby a hundred times.

You have most likely learned the name througha. behavior shaping.b. instrumental learning.c. classical conditioning.d. implicit learning.

(a) 10. A key aspect of e-learning is that the learnera. studies independently outside of a

classroom.b. brings a laptop computer to the

classroom.c. acquires information without really trying

to learn.d. studies in a small group.

(b) 11. A major contributor to lowering the dropout rate in distance learning is toa. have daily lesson assignments.

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b. provide some kind of emotional support to the learner.

c. combine videos with the required reading.

d. have people work together in small groups at least once a week.

(c) 12. Maria wins a quality award at her company. We are most likely to attribute Maria's accomplishment to external causes if a. few other employees have won quality awards.

b. she won three other quality awards previously.c. she has not produced high quality in

other situations. d. she bragged about her receiving the

award.

(c) 13. Virtually every automobile driver will stop the car when seeing a

flashing red train signal. This type of learning is referred to as

a. positive reinforcement.c. classical conditioning.

b. negative reinforcement.d. modeling.

(b) 14. An employee is told, "If you perform well, we will give you a more comfortable cubicle." The operant conditioning strategy being used here is classified as

a. positive reinforcement.c. classical conditioning.

b. negative reinforcement.d. office behaviorism.

(c) 15. Which of the following reinforcement schedules is the most effective at

sustaining behavior?a. variable punishment

c. intermittentb. negative reinforcement

d. continuous

(a) 16. A manager teaches an unskilled worker a procedure such as repairing

a complex machine, one small step at a time. The method best suited

to such learning is called

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a. shaping.c. classical

conditioning.b. operant conditioning.

d. modeling.

(d) 17. Which of the following is the best example of informal learning? a. A worker attends a company training program, while

wearing cut-offjeans and a tank top.

b. The company conducts a training program in a log cabin in the

woods.c. A worker's supervisor coaches him on

how to handle a customer complaint.

d. A worker learns about a productivity suggestion while ordering a

bagel and coffee in the company cafeteria.

(b) 18. A psychological value refers basically toa. your moral behavior.

b. the importance you attach to something.c. the strength of your desire.d. the financial worth you attach to

something.

(a) 19. Values are frequently learned through a. modeling.

c. behavior shaping.b. trial and error.

d. classical conditioning.

(a) 20. A study of the stability of values between adolescence and twenty years later suggested that

a. some values are more likely to be stable than others.

b. most values change rapidly from one year to another.

c. males have more stable values than females.

d. females have more stable values than males.

(d) 21. A clash between individual and job values for workers often leads to

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a. unethical behavior.c. good job performance.

b. workaholism.d. person-role conflict.

(c) 22. Ethics has mostly to do witha. the legality of a person's actions.

b. how hard people work.c. the moral choices a person makes.d. business etiquette and manners..

(d) 23. According to the bad barrel explanation of unethical behavior, workers

behave unethically primarily because ofa. negative personal characteristics.b. weak relationships with coworkers and

customers.c. negative values taught by divorced or

separated parents.d. negative environmental influences.

(a) 24. An explanation offered for unethical behavior dealing with personalrelationships suggests that people are more likely to behave unethically toward each other when they

a. have weak ties to each other.b. have strong ties to each other.c. know that the other person can be easily

fooled.d. know that the other person is unethical.

(b) 25. Which one of the following questions is not contained in the six-question ethics test?a. Is it right?b. How much can I get away with?

c. How does it smell?d. Who gets hurt?

True/False

(F) 1. Assuming that a person’s vision is not damaged or diseased, he or she will make about the same interpretation of visual images as everybody else.

(T) 2. Employee perceptions of their job have an important influence on their

motivation and satisfaction.

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(T) 3. Perceptual distortions are the most likely to take place when the

subject being perceived has an emotional meaning for the people

involved.

(F) 4. A credit analyst engages in selective attention when she carefully evaluates both the strengths and weakness of

a loan application eventhough her manager wants to make as many

loans as possible.

(T) 5. Luke, a manufacturing supervisor in Newark, NJ, reads a company document saying that manufacturing will most

likely be phased out of the Newark plant within three years. The

next month he and his wife buy an expensive house in a Newark

suburb, illustrating thatLuke is engaging in denial.

(F) 6. According to attribution theory, people tend to attribute failure to

themselves and success to forces in the environment.

(T) 7. For information or a skill to be considered learned, it should result in a

relatively lasting change in behavior.

(F) 8. Classical conditioning can be described accurately as learning through the consequences of your behavior.

(T) 9. Positive reinforcement is a useful technique for helping people learn

relatively simply tasks.

(F) 10. A three-day suspension for making a mistake is called negative reinforcement.

(F) 11. Behavior shaping refers to modeling yourself after an influential person.

(T) 12. To use behavior shaping successfully, one must be prepared to give the learner rewards as he or she masters each new step in the learning process.

(T) 13. Modeling of behavior is considered to be an effective method for learning a complicated skill.

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(F) 14. E-learning is primarily learning by conducting experiments on the computer.

(F) 15. E-learning is a method of delivering instruction that gets around principles of learning such as the need for

reinforcement.

(F) 16. A person's values typically change daily, depending on his or her mood.

(T) 17. Value-clarification exercises are designed to help you understand the priorities you give to values.

(T) 18. According to the stereotype, a Baby Boomer is more likely to appreciate

hierarchy than would a member of Generation X or Generation Y.

(T) 19. Person-role conflict takes place when the demands made by theorganization clash with the values of the individual.

(F) 20 Ethics refer to whether a person will persist in obeying the law.

(T) 21. An important use of ethics is to convert values into action.

(T) 22. Common ethical problems include lying to customers, offering or accepting bribes and kickbacks, and the use of

corporate resources for personal gain.

(T) 23. According to a large survey about ethical problems on the job, only about ten percent of workers say they have recently witnessed unethical or illegal behavior by coworkers.

(F) 24. According to the bad apple explanation of unethical behavior, people

behave unethically primarily because of negative environmental

influences.

(T) 25. When people have close ties to each other, such as having workedtogether for a long time, they are more likely to

behave ethically towardeach other.

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