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VanDyke,RuthM.,TimothyDeSmet,andR.KyleBocinsky.ViewscapesandSoundscapes.InVanDyke,RuthM.andCarrieC.Heitman,editors(inpress),Chapter8.NewPerspectivesontheGreaterChacoLandscape.UniversityPressofColorado,Boulder.

ViewscapesandSoundscapes

ByRuthM.VanDyke,TimothyDeSmet,andR.KyleBocinsky

InKeithBasso’s(1996)famousethnography,WisdomSitsinPlaces,heandhisApacheinterlocutorseloquentlydemonstratedtheimportanceofasensory,humanexperienceofthelandscapeforNativeinhabitantsoftheAmericanSouthwest.Yet,despitethepresenceofvibrantdescendantcommunitiesandawe-inspiringtopography,therehasbeenrelativelylittlearchaeologicalworkontheChacoanlandscapefocusedspecificallyonthesenses.Therearegoodreasonsforthis.Thestudyofsensoryexperienceisdifficultandproblematiconmanylevels(seeforexampleDay2013;Hamilakis2012).Phenomenologicalresearchisoften(andperhapsjustifiably)viewedwithahealthydoseofskepticismbySouthwestarchaeologiststrainedinprocessualtraditions.ButChacoanceremonialism,likePuebloandNavajoceremonialismtoday,musthavehadvibrantsensorydimensions.WewillneverunderstandChacowithoutexplorationsintothesensoryhumanexperienceontheChacolandscape.

Inthischapter,weforgeaproductivepathforwardcombiningsystematicdatacollection,ArcGISmodeling,andvideofootage.Wefocusonviewscapesandsoundscapes.Weusethetermviewscaperatherthanthemorefamiliarviewshedtounderscorethat–althoughourtechniquesincorporateGISmodeling–wemovebeyondthemodeltoencompasslived,experientialdimensionsofsightonthelandscape.Inthefirstpartofthechapter,weprovidebackgroundforourwork,describingpreviousresearchonviewscapesandsoundscapesintheChacoworld.WethenturntotwocasestudiesonthegreaterChacoanlandscape:theoutliersofBissa’ani,andPierre’s(Figure8.1).Weusethetwocasestudiestoillustrateourmethods,andtodemonstratetheimpactofoilandgasextractiononsensoryexperiencewithinoutliercommunities.Bissa’aniisinarelativelypristineenvironmentwithlittleenergyextractioninfrastructure.Pierre’s,bycontrast,isinthecenteroftheMancosShaleoilandgasdevelopmentarea.Thechapterconcludeswithourrecommendationsforarchaeologistsandlandmanagerstobetterrecord,study,understand,andprotectthevisualandauditorydimensionsofthegreaterChacolandscape.

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Figure8.1.ThecentralChacoCanyonarea,showinglocationsofBissa’aniandPierre’sgreathousecommunities.

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ChacoanViewscapes

ViewscapesareanimportantpartoftheChacoanexperience,pastandpresent.ThehumaneyecanseeforgreatdistancesontheColoradoPlateau,wheremanyhighplacesareintervisibleduetotheelevatedtopographyandtheclear,openskies.AlthoughthenameChacoCanyonsuggestsdepth,FajadaButteandthemesasthatformthecanyonwallsaresomeofthehighestpointsinthesurroundingSanJuanBasin,affordingspectacularvisibilityforover100kminnearlyalldirections.Fromthesehighplaces,HuerfanoMountain,theSanJuanMountains,theNascimientoMountains,MountTaylor,theDuttonPlateau,HostaButte,theChuskaMountains,andShiprockpunctuateChaco’shorizons.Archaeoastronomers,GIS-basedscholars,andphenomenologistsareamongthoseinterestedinthestudyofvisibility—whocanseewhom,andwhatcanbeseen—acrosstheChacolandscape.WeknowthatviewscapesarecriticalforunderstandingChaco,because(1)descendantcommunitiesincorporatedramatictopographyintotheircosmographiesandideologies;(2)descendantcommunitiesvaluethedualisticoppositionbetweenhighlyvisibleandhiddenelementsofthelandscapeandthematerialworld;(3)Chacoansfrequentlypositionedgreathousesandotherfeaturesonhighlyvisibleterrain;and(4)Chacoansmarkedsolarandlunarphenomena.

InPuebloandNavajoworldviews,dramatictopographicfeaturessuchashighlyvisiblemountainpeaksandhiddencanyonsmarkmythicevents,homelandsandsacreddirections.TheruggedColoradoPlateautopographycontainslandmarksbywhichtomeasurethemovementsofcelestialbodiesthroughouttheyear(e.g.,Parsons1939).WeknowthatChacoanscarefullymarkedsolstices,equinoxes,andlunarstandstillswithgreathousealignmentsandwithrockart,suchastheSunDaggerpetroglyphatopFajadaButte(Sofaer2007)andtheChimneyRockoutliergreathouseinsouthwestColorado(Malville2004).AtChimneyRock,duringamajorlunarstandstillyearonthefullmoonrisenearestthewintersolstice,thefullmoonascendsdirectlybetweenthetwonaturalrockpinnaclesthattoweroverthegreathouse,movingthroughanarrowpassagefromtheearthintothesky.

Chacoangreathousesoftenaresituatedinvisuallyprominentlocationsonelevatedterrain(VanDyke2007:169-199).Enigmaticfeaturessuchasshrines,stonecircles,andcairnsinhighplacesfurtherenhanceintervisibleconnectionsamongChacoansites(VanDykeetal.2016;VanDyke,thisvolume).Forexample,Chacoanspositionedastonecircleatopthecanyon’snorthrimtocreatealineofsightthroughSouthGaptoHostaButte(VanDyke2007:155,Figure6.6).TherecouldbemanyreasonsforthisChacoanemphasisonelevatedpositions,andthesemayhaveinvolveddesiresbothtoseeandtobeseen(VanDykeetal.2016:3).Atthelocallevel,Chacoansmayhavewantedtosurveilorkeepaneyeonothersinthecommunity,and/orpeopleonhighplacesmayhavewantedtobeseenbyothersinthecommunity.Attheregionallevel,Chacoansmayhavewantedtocreatevisualconnectionsbeyondlocalcommunities,linkingneighboringcommunitiesand/orlinkingthemselvestoChacoCanyon.Theseconnectionscouldhavebeenforcommunication,ortofosterasenseofcommonidentity,orboth(seeforexampleBernardinietal.2013;BernardiniandPeeples2015).Itislikelythatintervisibilityamonghighplaces,greathouses,andcommunitieshelpedweavetogetherthefabricoftheChacoanworld.

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GIShasproventobeanexcellenttoolforexaminingandmodelingvisibleconnectionsoverlargeareassuchasgreaterChaco.GIS-basedvisibilitystudiesusuallyfocusondetermininglines-of-sight,viewnets,andviewsheds(Wheatley1995;WheatleyandGillings2002).Lines-of-sightinvolvethereciprocalabilityofpeopleattwolocationstoseeoneanother.Forexample,GISanalysispredicts(andexperimentshaveconfirmed)thatapersonstandingatopPuebloAltoandapersonstandingatopPierre’sElFarocansignaltooneanotherusingmirrors(Chacoansprobablyusedselenite).ViewnetanalysisusesGISmodelingtoidentifynetworksoflocationsconnectedbylinesofsight.Bocinsky(VanDykeetal.2016:222,Figure7)generatedviewnetstodemonstratethat74%ofChacoangreathousescanseeatleastoneothergreathouse,forexample.Viewshedanalysisidentifiesthesurroundingterrainandfeaturesthatcanbeseenfromaparticularlocation.ManyChacoscholarsareworkingwithGISline-of-sightandviewshedanalysesinattemptstolookatvisibilitywithinChacoancommunities,withinareasof10–25sqkm.SeeforexampleKantnerandHobgood(2003)atKinYa’a,Dungan(2009)atKinBineola,andEllenberger(2012)atKinKlizhin.Bocinsky(VanDykeetal.2016:222)usedcumulativeviewshedanalysistolearnthat258Chacoangreathousescansee30%ofalltheterrainwithinan160,000sqmiareaoftheChacoanworld.Thesekindsofanalyses,involvinghundredsofpotentialviewpointsandthousandsofsqmiinarea,canonlypracticallybecarriedoutusingGIS.

AlthoughGISstudiesandremoteaerialdataareundeniablyuseful,GISanalysescannevertelluswhethervisibilitywasmeaningful(FriemanandGillings2007;Hacιgüzeller2012;Llobera2007).Top-downmodelingstudiesareusefulatreconstructingpastconnectionsandpinpointingpossiblerelationships,butbecauseweareultimatelyinterestedintheexperiencesofhumanbodies,weconsideritbesttocombineGISanalyseswithphenomenological,on-the-ground,embodiedfield-basedinvestigations.Again,wehereemploythetermviewscapetomovetheconversationbeyondviewshedorline-of-sightmodelingwithinGIS,toencompassthelived,experientialdimensionofvisibilityontheChacoanlandscape.

Inthisstudy,westudyviewscapesusingGISanalysesintandemwithphenomenologicalmethods.Earlycriticsofphenomenologyinarchaeologywereconcernedwithsubjectivityandlackofreplicability(Brück2005),butgoodphenomenologicalresearchcanbebothsystematicandreplicable(seeforexampleHamiltonandWhitehouse2006).VanDykehasdevelopedamethodfordocumentingviewscapesthatincorporatesstillandvideophotographyaswellaspaperforms,top-downmaps,andDEMs.Shefirstestablisheslocationsthatarelikelytohavebeenimportantviewscapes–theseareusuallypinnaclesorhighplacessuchasgreathousesorunusualtopographicfeaturestoppedwithERFs(seeChapter5,thisvolume).Forcomparison,shealsochooseslocationswithmorerestrictedviewscapes,suchasasmallcommunitysiteatthebaseofapinnacle.Fromeachpoint,sheusesdigitalandvideocamerastorecordthe360degreepanorama.Videocameraofferstheaddedbenefitthatshecannarratewhatherhumaneyecanseeasthecameraturns.Onpaper,shesketchesthevisibleattributesofthenear,intermediate,andfarhorizonsusingamodifiedversionofHamiltonandWhitehouse’s(2006)circlemaps.Wethenjuxtaposethisinformationwithtop-downmapsofarchaeologicalfeaturesanddigitalelevationmodelsoftheterrain.Theresultisacomprehensivedigitalrecordofaviewscapefromaparticularlocation,suchasagreathouse.Thedifferentkindsof

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informationcanbecombinedinprogramssuchasiMovietoshowhowdifferentrecordingtechniqueshighlightdifferentkindsofvisibleattributes,andtomaketheresultsaccessibletoareaderorviewer.

Inthesecondhalfofthischapter,weillustratethesetechniquesattheChacooutliersofBissa’aniandPierre’s.Butfirst,weturntoashortreviewofthestudyofChacoansoundscapes.

ChacoanSoundscapes

Archaeologistshaveonlyrecentlybeguntostudysoundscapes(e.g.,Miller2008;ScarreandLawson2006;Schofield2014;Till2014;Villanueva-Riveraetal.2011).Asoundscapeisdefinedas“anysonicenvironment,withparticularemphasisonthewayitisperceivedandunderstoodbyanindividualorbyasociety”(TruaxinElliotandHughes2014:306).IntheChacoanworld,soundscreatedbyhumanvoices,animals,water,wind,thunderstorms,dailyactivitiesandmusicalinstrumentswouldhavebeenpartofthefabricoflife.Previousresearchershavethoughtalotaboutsoundfromtheperspectiveofmusicalinstruments.Pueblopeoplesusedawidevarietyofpercussionandwindinstruments:drums,copperbells,kivabells,tinklers,rasps,bullroarers,conchshelltrumpets,flutes,andwhistles(seeBrown2005foracomprehensivediscussion).AcousticresearchersatChacohavebeenparticularlyinterestedinconchshelltrumpets–aninstrumentlikelyemployedinthecontextofritualeventsatChaco.Byremovingthepointedendandthenblowingthroughthewhorlsoftheseexoticshells,itispossibletocreateaveryloudblast.TrumpetsmadefromtheshellsofPacificoceanconch,particularlyStrombussp.andMurexsp.,arefoundinverysmallnumbersfromcontextsacrosstheSouthwest(Brown2005:291-305;MillsandFerguson2008;VokesandGregory2007).Outof46knownconchshellsorfragmentsintheSouthwest,17werefoundinChacoCanyon,andonewasfoundwithChaco’smostelaborateburialunderaplankfloorinRoom33ofPuebloBonito(Brown2005:299-300;MillsandFerguson2008:347,Table1).

RichardLooseandhiscolleagueshaveusedexperimentstoexploretheresonanceofconchshelltrumpetsinChacoansettings.Loose(2012)recreatedashelltrumpetusingaStrombusgaleatusshell,andheuseddigitalsoftwaretomeasurethepitchandloudnesswhenblown.His20cmlongexperimentalshelltrumpetproduceda96decibelsoundat329.84Hz,withharmonicovertonesat650and974.4Hz.(Thisisapproximatelythedecibellevelproducedbyamotorcycleorahandhelddrill).Loosenotesthatpitchandloudnesswouldvary,however,dependingoneachshell’sboreconfigurationaswellasthevolumeofairforcedthroughthebores.LoosedeployedhisexperimentaltrumpetinacousticresearchcarriedoutwithJohnStein,RichardFriedmanandothersinfrontofatoricsandstoneclifffaceindowntownChacoCanyon,betweenthegreathousesofPuebloBonitoandChetroKetl(Loose2008,2010;Steinetal.2007).InNavajooraltraditions,thisclifffaceiscalledTse'Biinaholts'aYałti,orCurvedRockThatSpeaks,anditiswheredeitiestaughtNavajoherotwinshowtoproducethevocaltonesusedinritualchants,accompaniedbyshelltrumpet,eaglebonewhistle,andreedflute.Theinvestigatorsmeasuredthesandstonecliffatapproximately150mlongx25mhighanddubbedtheregioninfrontofit“theamphitheatre,”duetotheinterestingacousticeffectstheyobserved.Overmultipleoccasions,theresearchersplayedamplified

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music,sinewaves,flutes,andconchshelltrumpetsintheamphitheatre,acquiring5hoursofexperimentalrecordings.Reverberationsintheamphitheatrelastfor2seconds(comparabletoaconcerthall),andthereisasecondaryechowitha3.5seconddelayfromacrossthecanyontothesouth.Thetoruscurveofthecliffcausesunusualeffects,includingvirtualsoundimage,inwhichsoundsseemedtobeemanatingfromwithinthecliff,andacousma,inwhichsoundsproducednearbywereheardasgarbledorspooky,unintelligiblenoises.Steinetal.(2007)concludethattheamphitheatrewasintentionallyusedbyChacoansduringritualperformanceevents.

GISisausefultoolforacousticstudies,justaswithvisibilitystudies.Itisverychallengingtostudyarchaeo-acousticsacrossopen-airareassuchasaChacoanoutliercommunity,butGISmodelingcanhelp.Workingtowardsthisend,PrimeauandWitt(2018)developedasoundshedanalysistoolforArcGISthattakesintoaccountdistances,physicalbarriers,airtemperature,relativehumidity,andambientsoundpressure.Afterevaluatingtheirtoolinacontrolledsetting,theyemployedittoreplicateandanalyzethesoundofaconchshelltrumpetblownatdawnfromoutsidePuebloBonitoindowntownChacoCanyon.PrimeauandWittdiscoveredthatcertainfeaturessuchasstonecirclesonthecanyonrimsmightbepositionedtobeabletohearthiskindofevent.PrimeauandWitt’sworkoffersapromisingwayforwardtoevaluatespeculationsregardingtheperformativeresonancesofmusicalinstrumentsandchantsduringceremoniesandprocessionsinChacoCanyon(VanDyke2013;Weiner2015).

Inourstudy,DeSmetfollowedPrimeauandWitt’s(2018)procedurestomodelsoundscapesintheBissa’aniandthePierre’scommunities.Hespecificallyfocusedonthereachofthreekindsofsounds:a(male?)humanshout,ablastfromaconchshelltrumpet,andthenoiseproducedbyanactivedrillrig.Tomodelthespreadandattenuationofsound,heinputninemodelparameters:a1mLiDARdigitalelevationmodel(DEM)raster,soundsourcelocationpoints,and7user-determinedvariables.Heusedthefrequency(Hz),sourcesoundlevel(dB),sourcesoundheight(m),sourcemeasurementdistance(m),temperature(°C),andrelativehumidity(%)variablestocalculatetheresultingA-weightedsoundpressurelevels(dBA)ataspecifiedreceivermeasurementheight(humanearheight)of1.524m,orabout5feet(Table8.1).Theseinputvariablesallowthemodeltocalculateforattenuationofthesoundsourcesignal,namely:sphericalspreadingloss(distance),atmosphericabsorptionloss(temperature,humidity,elevation),andterraineffects(groundandbarrierloss).Thesemodelsassumenowindspeedordirection.TheresultsofDeSmet’smodelingexercisesarestriking,andwepresentthemwithinthecontextofourtwocasestudiesbelow.

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Table8.1.Soundmodelvariablesforraisedvoice,conchtrumpet,andpumpjacksources.Modelinputs RaisedVoice ConchTrumpetPumpJackSoundsourceheight(m) 1.524 1.8288 1.828Frequency(Hz) 325 330 500Sourcesoundlevel(dB) 84 96 82Sourcemeasurementdistance(m)

0.9144 0.30483 15.24

Temperature(°C) 32 32 32Relativehumidity(%) 30 30 30Receivermeasurementheight(m)

1.524 1.524 1.524

CaseStudies:Bissa’aniandPierre’s

TheChacooutliersofBissa’aniandPierre’sareidealcasesuponwhichtodemonstrateourviewscapeandsoundscapestudymethods.Bothcommunitiesarewell-studied,withaccurateanddetailedcommunitysiteinformation.BotharerelativelyclosetoChaco,onterrainwithstrikingtopographicfeatures,andbothweremostintensivelyoccupiedduringtheearlyAD1100s.However,thereisoneimportantdifferencebetweenthetwocommunities.TheterrainsurroundingBissa’anihasnotbeensubjectedtointensiveoilandgasinfrastructuredevelopment,whiletheterrainsurroundingPierre’sisatthecenterofMancosShaleenergydevelopment.Thus,thetwocommunitiesformanidealpairwithinwhichtocontrasttheimpactsofenergydevelopmentonviewscapesandsoundscapes.

Bissa’ani

TheBissa’anioutlierissituatedapproximately12kmnortheastofChacoCanyon.EastGreatHouseandWestGreatHousestructuresperchatopaprominentshaleridgeonthesouthsideofEscavadaWash(Figure8.2).Sixteensmallhabitationsandfieldhousesformanassociatedcommunityintheaeoliandunestothesouth(Figure8.3).Powersetal.(1983:21-54)intensivelysurveyeda3.2diameterareaaroundthegreathousesandmappedthegreathousesandcommunity.Breternitzetal.(1982)conductedextensiveexcavationsatthegreathousesandsomeofthesmallsites.NoknownroadsegmentsconnectBissa’anitoChacoCanyon.

Thetwosouth-facinggreathousesare“ratherprecariouslysituated”atopanisolated750m-longshaleridge;thenarrowridgemeasuresatleast20mhighbutonly20-50mwide(Powersetal.1983:21).TheWestHousecontains12roomsandakiva.Alittleover100mtotheeast,theEastHousecontainsatleast25roomsand4kivaswithatotalfloorareaofatleast1040sqm.Breternitzetal.organizedtheEastHouseinto4substructures:CasaHormiga(totheeast),CasaQuemada(inthecenter),SouthHouse(tothesouth),andRabbitHouse(tothewest)(Figure8.4).BuilderserectedCasaHormiga,SouthHouse,andRabbitHouseusingsandstonecore-and-veneer,

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buttheyusedburnedadobe–ahighlyunusualChacoanconstructiontechnique–toconstructtheaptlynamedCasaQuemada.

Figure8.2.Bissa’anigreathouse,lookingnorth.PhotobyRuthVanDyke.

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Figure8.3.MapoftheBissa’anicommunity,fromBreternitzetal.1982.

Figure8.4.EasterncomponentofBissa’anigreathouse,withCasaQuemadadenotedbyredstar.ModifiedfromBreternitzetal.1982.

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VanDykevisitedBissa’anionaclearsummermorninginJune2017.ShechoseCasaQuemada–thehighestandmostcentralarea–astherepresentativeviewpointfortheEastHouseatBissa’ani.VanDykerecordedthe360°panoramicviewscapefromCasaQuemadaatoptheEastHouseatBissa’aniusingthreetechniques:circledrawings;stillphotography;anddigitalvideo.SheconfirmedthecoordinatesofherlocationusingahandheldGPS,andsheestablishedcardinaldirectionsusingaSilvaRangercompasscalibratedtotruenorth.First,sheusedagraphicmethodoffieldrecordingdevelopedbyHamiltonandWhitehouse(2006)tocreate360°circulardrawingsoftheprominentvisibleelementsfromeachlocation(Figure8.5).

Figure8.5.Exampleofacirclemap:viewscapefromCasaQuemada,Bissa’ani.GraphicbyRuthVanDyke.

Thesedrawingsinclude3sighthorizons(neardistance,middledistance,andfinalhorizon).Withineachhorizon,andusingthecompassforaccuracy,shenotedmajortopographicandarchitecturalfeatures.Second,fromthesamelocation,sheusedaPentaxK200D10.2mega-pixeldigitalSLRcameratocaptureaseriesofstillphotographsin360°circumference.Third,sheusedaniPhone6witha29-mmlensand8mega-pixelresolutiontoshoothighdefinition(1080pixel)videoin360°at60frames/second.ShemountedtheiPhoneonatripodforstabilityandrotateditbyhand,whilenarratingadescriptionoftheviews.Thebackgroundnarrationprovidesnotesusefulinpullingtogetherthefinalviewscape.Backfromthefield,VanDykeusediMovietocreateashortvideoillustratingtheCasaQuemadaviewscape.TheresultingshortvideocombinesVanDyke’sfielddatawithBreternitzetal.’s(1982)top-downmapsandBocinsky’sGIS-modeledviewshedsandline-of-sightanalysestopresentashort,

Viewscape Circle Map

Site: Bis sa’ani, Casa QuemadaDate: 12 June 2017UTM: Z 13 E 248771 N 3997265Weather conditiions: clear, sunny, light breeze

Recorder: R. Van Dyke Height: 5’2”Time: 9 AMPosition of sun: 50ºLight conditions: clear Temp: 80º F

N

W

S

E

mN tN

10º

Chacra Mesa

Fajad

a

Butte

rSo

uth

Mes

a

windmill

theknob

fenceline

fenceline

Chus

kas

Navajohouse

Escavada Wash

far horizon obscured

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seamlessillustrationofwhatahumanobserverstandingatopCasaQuemadacansee.Thevideoisavailableat:https://youtu.be/RyRTn5ThlNE

TheviewscapeatBissa’anilinkedthecommunitywiththegreaterChacoanworld.Uponinitialentry,Bissa’aniseemsitsownself-enclosedworldonthebanksoftheEscavada.FromthevalleyfloorwithinBissa’ani,theshaleridgewiththegreathousesisaprominentlocation,butaviewercanseeneitherChacoCanyonnoranyofitsfamiliarlandmarks(e.g.,FajadaButte,HuerfanoMesa).Furthermore,notallofthecommunitysitesareintervisiblewiththegreathouses.However,theviewscapeaffordedbythegreathousesontheridgetellsadifferentstory.Fromthisvantagepoint,someonewalkingtoBissa’anifromChacoalongtheEscavadaWashwouldseethegreathousesilhouettedagainsttheskylongbeforetheyarrivedinthecommunity.And,someonestandingatopanyofthegreathousescouldseeFajadaButte,centralChacoCanyon,andERFlocationsatopChacraMesaandSouthMesa.TheviewscapealsolinksBissa’nitocommunitiesfarbeyondChacoCanyon.NotonlycouldaviewerstandingatopCasaQuemadasee90kmwesttotheChuskaMountains,but(perhapsmoreimportantly)thisviewercouldseeWhiteRock,alandform40kmtothewest.VanDykeetal.(2016)identifiedWhiteRockasamajornodeintheChacoangreathouseviewnet–inotherwords,thegreathousesatBissa’aniwerelinkedtoscoresofChacoanoutliersinthewesternSanJuanBasinandbeyond,throughintervisibilitywithWhiteRock.So,althoughearly1100sBissa’aniresidentsmayhavemovedeastuptheEscavadaWashandoutofChacoCanyon’sdirectpurview,theywerenotbyanymeansvisuallyseparatedfromdoingsinChacoCanyonormoredistantoutliers.ThebuildersofBissa’aniappeartohaveintentionallysituatedtheirgreathousesatopthe“precarious”shaleridgenotforintervisibilitywiththeimmediatecommunityofsmallsites,buttomaintainconnectionswiththegreaterChacoanworld.

ThesoundscapeatBissa’anitellsadifferent,butequallycompellingstory.Aswiththeviewscape,wewereinterestedinexploringhowthepositionofthegreathousesatoptheshaleridgemight,ormightnot,affectacousticsacrossthecommunity.UsingtheproceduresoutlinedpreviouslyandthevariablespresentedinTable8.1,DeSmetcreatedaGISmodelforthereachofahumanshout(Figure8.6)andtheblastofaconchshelltrumpet(Figure8.7)emanatingfromatoptheWestGreatHouse.Wefoundthatbothsoundstraveledoutwardfordistancesupto3kilometers.Theshoutextendedacrossmostofthecommunity,butitfailedtoreachtwosmallpueblos,twofieldhouses,andanartifactscattersituatedontheoutskirts.Theconchshelltrumpetblast,however,reachedeveryoneofthe34sitesinthecommunity.Infact,theextentoftheconchshelltrumpetblastmappedsurprisinglywellontotheboundariesoftheBissa’anicommunityaspreviouslydefinedbyarchaeologicalsurvey.

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Figure8.6.ReachofahumanshoutemanatingfromtheWestGreatHouseatBissa’ani.ModelandgraphicbyTimDeSmet.

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Figure8.7.ReachofaconchshellblastemanatingfromtheWestGreatHouseatBissa’ani.ModelandgraphicbyTimDeSmet.

Todate,mostChacoresearchersinterestedinthesensorydimensionsofoutliercommunitieshavefocusedexclusivelyontheintervisibilityofgreathouseswithcommunitysites.Ourexperimentalsoundscaperesultssuggestthattheacousticreachofaconchshellblastmaybeevenmoreimportant.Ifleadersatopgreathousesneededtoquicklycommunicatewithallcommunityresidents,aconchshellblastwouldhavebeenamuchmoreeffectivemethodthanrelyinguponcommunityresidentstolookintherightdirectionattherighttime.Itispossiblethatcommunityboundariesmapontotheextentoftheconchshellblastbecausecommunitymembersdidnotwishtolivewheretheycouldnotbereached.

WewereabletoexamineviewscapesandsoundscapesatBissa’aniwithlittleinterferencefrommodernlandscapeintrusions.TheBissa’aniareaisremoteandsparselypopulated,andtherehasbeenlittletonoimpactfromenergydevelopmentinthearea.Althoughweareawarethattheancientvisualandacousticlandscapeswouldhavedifferedfromthecontemporarylandscape,therewasnoneedforustoattempttoremoveorcounterbalancemodernintrusionssuchasthosecreatedbygaswells.Forcounterpoint,we

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turnnowtothePierre’scommunity,situatedinthemidstofMancosShaleenergydevelopment.

Pierre’s

TheChacoanoutlierofPierre’sissituated19kmnorthofChacoCultureNationalHistoricalPark,onthesouthernedgeofthebreakbetweentheChacoSlopeandthemesasandbadlandsoftheDenazinandAh-shi-sle-pahWashes,ontheUSGS7.5’PuebloBonitoNWquadrangle.TheoutlierisclearlyarticulatedwiththeGreatNorthRoad,whichleavesthevicinityofPuebloAltoand,inaseriesofstages,headsnorthtoKutzCanyon,50.5kmdistant(Figure8.8).Powersetal.(1983:94-122)andHarperetal.(1988)bothconductedintensivesurveyandrecordinginthePierre’scommunityduringthe1980s.ThecommunitywasalsoinvestigatedbytheChacoRoadsProject(Stein1983)andtheSolsticeProject(MarshallandSofaer1988).ThePierre'scommunityisspatiallydistributedoveranareaofapproximately1.6sqkm.Powersetal.documented17AncientPueblositesinthesurroundingcommunity,andHarperetal.addedanadditionalnine.AllbutonesmallBasketmakerIII-PuebloIartifactscatterdatefromtheLatePuebloIIorEarlyPuebloIIIperiod.

Figure8.8.ThePierre’slandscape,withnumberedviewpointsanddrillrigscorrespondingtoVanDyke’sviewscapevideos.

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ThereareseveralBonitostylestructuresinthecommunity(Figure8.9).The"Acropolis"clusterconsistsoftwocore-and-veneerstructures(LA16509,HouseAandLA16508,HouseB)atopalargebuttenearthecenterofthecommunity.HouseAcontainsanestimated15groundfloorroomsand3enclosedkivasoveranareaof255sqm.HouseBislocated30mtothenorth/northeastofLA16509.HouseBcontainsanestimated13groundfloorroomsandasingleenclosedkivaandcovers315sqm.Anadditionalstructure,HouseC(LA35423),isanisolatedroomlocatedapproximately5mnorthwestofLA16509;althoughtheroomwasgivenaseparatesitenumberbytheChacoRoadsProject,Harperetal.(1988:119)contendthatHouseCshouldbeconsideredpartofLA16508.

Figure8.9.Pierre’sGreatHouseB(LA17508),asseenfromGreatHouseA(LA17509),lookingnorth,withthreedrillrigsprominentlyonthehorizon.PhotobyRuthVanDyke.

"ElFaro,”or“TheLighthouse,”consistsofapinnacleonthevalleyfloorthatistoppedbyasmall,3-roomstructureincludinganexposedhearth(LA16514,Powersetal.’sP-5).Atthebaseofthispinnacle,thereisanothermassivecore-and-veneerbuildingcovering505sqm,estimatedtocontain18roomsandoneenclosedkiva(LA16515,Powersetal.'sP-6).Aneighboringpinnacle80mESEofElFarohostsatleasttwosmallroomblocks,LA16518(P-9)andLA16519(P-10).LA16519issituateddirectlyontopofthissecondpinnacleandmightbeconsideredtorepresentan“atalaya”orwatchtower,followingMarshallandSofaer(1988).

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ThereislittledoubtthatChacoanslocatedPierre’sinthisplacebecauseoftheGreatNorthRoadandbecauseofspecificvisibleattributesofthelocaltopography.TheGreatNorthRoadoriginatesatPuebloAlto.Ancientengineerscouldhaveusedasimplegnomondevicetoderivetheroad’snorthernbearing(Lekson2015),butasroadsurveyorsmovednorth,theylikelyengineeredroadsegmentsusingbacksights.Roadconstructionwouldhaverequiredaclearlineofsight,andPierre’sislocatedonthefirstmajortopographicbreakinthelandscapemovingnorthfromChacoCanyon.ThepinnaclesandbutteofPierre’sarevisiblefromPuebloAlto,andviceversa.GwinnVivianandDougPalmerhaveconductedexperimentswithmirrorsflashedinthesunlighttoestablishline-of-sightconnectionsbetweenPierre’sandPuebloAlto;VanDykeparticipatedinoneoftheseexperimentsinSeptember2015.HearthsatophighplacesatPierre’s(ElFaro,LA16514,andLA16519)suggestthattheChacoanswere,indeed,interestedinsignalingbetweentheselocations.LookingnorthalongtheGreatNorthRoadpastPierre’s,thenexttopographicbreakisCarsonDivide(MarshallandSofaer1988),alsotoppedbyapotentialsignalingfeature.Thus,visibilitybetweenPierre’sandPuebloAltoinChacoCanyonwasakeypartoftheconstructionoftheGreatNorthRoad,andlikelycontinuedtobeimportantforsignalingbetweenthetwoareas.

ForextendeddiscussionsofthepossiblefunctionsofChacoanroadsandassociatedfeatures,seeChapters3,5,and10(thisvolume).ItseemslikelythatritualprocessionsorothermovementsofpeopletookplacealongChacoanroadsegments,particularlywhenthosesegmentsareinthevicinityofoutliergreathouses.Marshall(1997)suggeststhatChacoansprocessednorthalongtheGreatNorthRoadtodepositvessels(andperhaps,symbolically,thedead)inKutzCanyon.Suchpossibilitiesareunderstudiedandcouldbenefitfromexperimentalreconstruction.ThePierre’scommunity,withitsclearandstrongrelationshiptotheGreatNorthRoad,isprotectedaspartoftheChacoProtectionSitesgroup,andwasincludedaspartofChaco’sentryonUNESCO’sWorldHeritageList.However,despitetheobviousimportanceofviewscapesatPierre’s,thesensoryaspectsofthislandscapehavebeenlittle-studied.And,althoughthePierre’sChacoanoutlierisitselfprotectedfromdevelopmentaspartoftheChacoProtectionSitesfederallegislation,existinglawsdolittletocountertheindirectcumulativeadversesensoryimpactsofongoingoilandgasproductioninthesurroundingarea.

Onacold,sunnyautumndayinNovember2016,VanDykevisitedPierre’stoassessthesesensoryimpacts.FollowingthesameproceduresasatBissa’ani,VanDykeuseddigitalstillphotographyandvideo,aswellasavariationofHamiltonandWhitehouse’s(2006)circlemaps,torecord360degreepanoramasfromfiveChacoanstructuresinthecommunity.Sheobservedthattwelvepumpjacksandfivedrillingcontainersarevisiblefromthehighplacesinthecommunity.Thenearestpumpjack,DuganProductionCorpHossCom#95,islocatedjustoutsidethePierre’scommunityonly650msouthwestofthegreathousebutte(Figure8.10).BecausethePierre’ssites–particularlyLA16509(HouseA),LA16508(HouseB),LA16514(ElFaro),andLA16519(theatalaya)–aresignificantintermsofvisibilityalongtheChacoanroad,VanDykechosethese4locationsfor360degreeviewscapeinvestigation.ShealsoincludedLA16515,thelargeBonitostylestructureatthebaseofElFaroonthebasinfloor.AsatBissa’ani,VanDykedeterminedcardinaldirectionsusingaSilvaRangercompassorientedtomagneticnorth.Shethenrecordedthe360°viewscapesateachoftheselocationsusingcircledrawings,

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stillphotographyanddigitalvideo.Shenumberedthepumpjackswithintheviewscapesfrom#1to#12.Backfromthefield,VanDykeusedthecollecteddatatocreate5shortvideosiniMovie10.1.4.

Figure8.10.HossCom#95(pumpjack#6),650msouthwestofthePierre’scommunity,withLA16514(leftpinnacle),LA16519(labeled),LA16509andLA16508(topofbutteonright)inbackground.PhotobyRuthVanDyke.

Viewscape1recordsthe360degreeviewfromthehighestpointonLA16508,Pierre’sGreatHouseB,andViewscape2recordsthe360degreeviewfromthehighestpointonLA16509,Pierre’sGreatHouseA.Thetwoviewscapesaresimilar.Thereareatotalof12pumpjacksvisible.Tothenorth,therearetwopumpjacksonthehorizon(#1and#2);theclosestoftheseisapproximately900maway.Therearealsothreedrillingtanks.Tothenorthwest,pumpjack#9,whichispaintedcamouflagecolors,isvisibleonthehorizonnexttoadrilltank.Pumpjack#7,whichisdarkred,standsoutagainstyellowcaprockandisvisiblymoving–itisalsoaccompaniedbyatankonthehorizon.Tothesouthwest,aviewercanseetheknobontheothersideofthePierre’scommunitywiththeChuskaMountainsonthefarhorizon,andWhiteRockvisibleintheforeground.Therearetwopumpjackslabeled#10and#12visibleonthevalleyfloorjustsouthoftheknob.Onthevalleyfloor650mtothe

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southwestispumpjack#6,orHossCom#95.LookingacrossthelandscapetowardsChacoCanyon,thereisastringofpumpjacksinviewpositionedalongrigroads:#5,12,11,4,and3.Behindthem,themajortopographiclandmarksofChacoCanyonarevisibletothesouth:WestMesa,HostaButte,SouthGap,SouthMesa,FajadaButte,andChacraMesa.TotheeastonthefarhorizonthereareafewtanksaswellasaNavajosettlement.

Viewscape3recordsthe360degreepanoramafromLA16515,thelargemasonryhouseonthevalleyfloor,atthebaseoftheElFaropinnacle.BecauseLA16515isonthevalleyfloor,thereareonlythreepumpjacksvisiblefromthisspot(#3,4,&8),butallthreecanbeseenbobbingupanddownonthehorizon.Viewscapes4and5recordthe360degreeviewsfromthesitesatthetopsoftwopinnacles–ElFaro(LA16514)andtheatalaya(LA16519),respectively.Ninepumpjacksarevisiblefromtheselocations.Totheeast,thebadlandstopographyblocksthelong-distancehorizon,althoughinthefardistance,buildingsandvehicleonthehorizonrepresentaNavajosettlement.Totheeast-southeastisthelargebuttecrownedbythetwogreathouses.TothesouthisthelandscapeofChacoCanyon,withMountTaylor,SouthMesa,SouthGap,HostaButte,WestMesa,andLittleHostaButte.LookingsouthwestdownthevalleytowardstheChacoRivertherearethreepumpjacks(#3,4,&5)flashinginthesunastheirarmspumpupanddown.Pumpjack#6islocated750mtothesouthwest.Thisrig,labeledHossCom#95,wasreportedlyplacedperpendiculartoHousesA&BsothatitwouldbelessvisiblefromthePierre’scommunity;however,thepumpjackisnotperpendiculartoeitherofthetwopinnaclesites.Tothesouth-southwest,thereisanotherpinnacleinthemiddledistance,andtheChuskaMountainsandNarbonaPassonthehorizon.Pumpjack#7bobsupanddownonthevalleyrimthatblocksthefarwesternhorizon.Tothenorth-northwest,thedarkredpumpjack#8isbelowtheyellowsandstonecaprock.Pumpjack#9isonthehorizonbutlessvisiblesinceitispaintedincamouflagecolors;bothareaccompaniedbystoragetanks.

Viewscape5maybeviewedathttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SBRfbwhWI0U.Theseviewscapesillustrateseveralimportantobservations.First,thePierre’ssitesonhighplacesaresituatedtomaximizevisibilitywiththemajortopographicfeaturesofChacoCanyon.ElsewhereVanDyke(2007)hasarguedthatmajorlandformssuchasMountTaylorandHostaButtewerestoriedplacesforancientChacoans,justastheyarefortoday’sdescendantcommunities.AnindividualstandingatopPierre’sgreathouses,atalaya,orElFaro,lookssouthtowardsthestrikinglandscapeofSouthMesa,SouthGap,andWestMesa–downtownChacoCanyon.And,onthehorizonbehindChacoCanyon,anancientviewerwouldhaveseenMountTaylor,HostaButte,andLittleHostaButte.If,asMarshall(1997)andVanDyke(2007:pp)haveargued,theGreatNorthRoadandtheSouthRoadaremeantasadualisticpairthatcounterbalanceoneanother,thenthevisibilityofHostaButtefromPierre’scouldhavebeenparticularlyimportantforancientChacoans.Asnotedearlier,itispossibleforviewersatPuebloAltoandPierre’stopinpointoneanother’slocationsusingbrightlightcreatedbymirrorsorflames.VanDykeetal.(2016)andmanyothershavearguedthattheseconnectionsmayhavebeenimportantforsignaling,tyingtogetherthegreaterChacoanworld.

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Unfortunately,theflashesseenduringourNovember2016visittoPierre’srepresentedthesunlightglintingoffaseriesofpumpjacks,witharmsmovingupanddown.And,whilepumpjacksdonotactuallyimpedeamodernviewer’sabilitytoseedistantpeakssuchasHostaButte,theyarecertainlydistracting.Particularlythosepumpjackssilhouettedagainstthenearhorizon–numbers1,2,7and9inourstudy–makeamodernviewerfeelasifs/hehasstumbledintoanindustrialpark.TheNationalEnvironmentalPolicyActstatesthatenvironmentalassessmentsmustconsiderthe“cumulativeeffects”ofdevelopments.WhileoilandgasrigsdidnoteraseordisturbthegroundatarchaeologicalsitesinoraroundthePierre’scommunity,wearguethatthepositioningof12rigswithinthegreathouseviewscapefallsintothe“cumulativeeffects”category,asthesewellsclearlyconstitute“apatternofactionswhoseeffectsaresignificant.”ThegeneralviewscapeofthePierre’scommunityhasbeenirreparablydamagedbyfailuretoconsiderthesewells’obtrusivevisibility.

Inourstudy,wewerekeentoalsoinvestigatethePierre’ssoundscape,particularlybecausenoisefromnearbymineralextractionisaudiblewithinthePierre’scommunity.DuringVanDyke’ssitevisitinNovember2016,wecouldheartheclankingandperiodicbackfireoftheenginedrivingHossCom#95.VanDykeusedaRolandEdiroldigitalrecordertocaptureperiodicburstsofsoundfromHossCom#95thatmeasuredupto60decibelshigherthantheambientbackground.WhentheBLMwassubsequentlynotifiedofthisnoisedisturbance,theyrequiredthedrillingcompanytooutfittherigwithanewmuffler.

WeinvestigatedthePierre’ssoundscapeusingthesameacousticmodelingexperimentsthatwehademployedatBissa’ani.DeSmetagainfollowedthedetailedproceduressetoutinthefirstpartofthischapter.DeSmetmodeledahumanshoutandaconchshelltrumpetblastemanatingfromGreatHouseA(LA16509).Inbothexperiments,thesoundsreacheddistancesnearly2kilometers.AsatBissa’ani,inourmodel,theconchshelltrumpetwasmoreeffectivethanahumanshoutatreachingtheentirePierre’scommunity.AhumanshouttraveledtoallbutonelimitedusesiteinthePierre’scommunity(Figure8.11).Theconchshelltrumpetblast–asatBissa’ani--reachedall28habitationandlimitedusesitesinthePierre’scommunity(Figure8.12).Bothsoundswouldhavebeenheardbytravelersupto1kmawayalongtheNorthRoad.

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Figure8.11.ReachofahumanshoutemanatingfromPierre’sgreathouseA(LA17509).ModelandgraphicbyTimDeSmet.

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Figure8.12.ReachofaconchshellblastemanatingfromPierre’sGreatHouseA(LA17509).ModelandgraphicbyTimDeSmet.

AsatBissa’ani,thePierre’scommunityboundariesmapratherneatlyontothereachofthesoundofaconchshelltrumpet,suggestingthatitmayhavebeenimportantforresidentstoliveandworkwithinhearingdistanceofthePierre’sgreathouses.PeopleatPierre’scouldhaveseenChacoanlandmarksandcouldhavesignaledwithPuebloAlto,suggestingthatviewscapeismostimportantforlong-distanceinteractions;bycontrast,soundscapeseemsmostimportantforlocal,communityinteractions.Althoughweneedtoreplicatetheseexperimentsatadditionaloutlierswithgoodcommunitydata,ourworksuggeststhatsoundscapemodelingmayproveusefultolandmanagersandarchaeologistsasameanswithwhichtopredictChacoancommunityboundaries.

NoisefromthesurroundingdrillrigsdidnotimpactourabilitytomodelPierre’ssoundscape,butitisalwayspresentatalowlevel,anditisaffectingvisitors’sensoryexperiencesofthiscommunity.Tomeasurethisimpact,DeSmetobtainedpumpjacksounddecibeldatafromtheBLM(2000).FollowingPrimeauandWitt’s(2018)procedures,DeSmetmodeledtheextentofthenoiseemanatingfrom16pumpjackslocatedintheimmediateareaofthePierre’scommunity.Thismodeldemonstratesthatbetween40-60dBAreachmostof

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thearchaeologicalsitesinthecommunity(Figure8.13).Forreference,40dBAistheambientnoiseofasuburbanareaatnight,and60dBAisnormalconversationalspeech(YaleUniversity2018).Bycontrast,anaturalareawithnowindhasanambientdecibellevelof20dBA.Clearlythepumpjacksareproducinglow-levelbackgroundnoisepollutionthatconstitutes“cumulativeeffects”underNEPAandaddstovisitor’ssenseofwalkingthroughanindustrialarea.

Figure8.13.Cumulativesoundscapeshowingreachofnoisefrom16drillrigsinthePierre’svicinity.ModelandgraphicbyTimDeSmet.

ConclusionsandManagementImplications

Senseofplaceisadifficultconcepttoquantify.Itwillbedifferentfordifferentpeople.Asenseofplaceincorporatesaspectsthatarchaeologistscannotstudyeasily,suchasmeaningandmemory.Butinthisstudywehopetohaveshownthatsensoryexperiences–whatcanbe

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seenandwhatcanbeheardonanarchaeologicallandscape–canbeapproachedbyarchaeologists.OurcomparisonofviewscapesandsoundscapesintheBissa’aniandPierre’scommunitieshasgivenustantalizingideasaboutinteractionsacrosstheChacoanworld.IntervisibilitywasimportantforreachingbeyondcommunityboundariesandmakingconnectionstoChacoCanyonandotheroutliers,andtheacousticreachofaconchshelltrumpetwasonewaythatoutliercommunitieswereheldtogether.Colleagues(e.g.,Millsetal.2018)arestudyingthe“socialnetworks”representedbymovingobjects,butconnectionsalsoweremadethroughsightandsound.Wehavetheabilitytostudytheseconnections,butonlyifwedonotdestroythevisualandacousticlandscapesinwhichtheyareembedded.Whiletoday’slandscapeisnotsynonymouswiththeChacoanpast,neitheristoday’spotsherdsynonymouswithaChacoanvessel.Likeartifactanalysts,phenomenologicalarchaeologiststakethefragmentswecanget,andweaskquestionsthatwecananswer.Phenomenologicalmethodssuchaswehavedemonstratedhere,workingintandemwithpowerfulGISmappingandmodelingprograms,havetremendousuntappedpotentialforChacoanscholarship.

However,becausethesekindsofstudiesarerelativelynewinarchaeology,welackrobustlegislationtohelplandownersandagenciesfigureouthowtoevaluate,study,andmitigatepotentiallydamagingeffectsfromoilandgasdrillingorothertypesofdestructivedevelopment.ThePierre’scommunityisaposterchildforwhatcangowrongwhenlandmanagersdonotassessthepotentialforindirectandcumulativeadverseimpactstoviewscapesandsoundscapes.DespiteeffortsmadebytheBureauofLandManagementandtheNationalParkServicetominimizetheeffectsofmineralextractiononthePierre’scommunity,thePierre’scommunitytodayhasthefeelingofanindustrialpark.

WeofferthefollowingrecommendationsthatwouldhelppreventadverseeffectsacrossotherareasofthegreaterChacolandscape:

1. Wecannotprotectarchaeologicalsiteswherewedonotknowaboutthem.SitedataavailabilityandrecordingacrossthegreaterChacoworldispiecemealatbest.Thus,landmanagersshouldrequirecomprehensiveClassIIIsurveyacrossareasintendedforleasing,andthissurveyshouldtakeplaceataregional,notalocalorpiecemeal,scale.Inotherwords,large-scalelandscapearchaeologyisneededaspartofaMasterLeasingPlaninthegreaterSanJuanBasin.Discretesiteprotectionisnotenough.

2. Archaeologicalsurveysshouldincludeassessmentofviewscapesandsoundscapes.Wehavelaidoutheresomesimpleandeffectivetechniquesforrecordingviewscapesandsoundscapesinthefield.Thesemethodsorsimilarshouldbecomepartofeverysurveyarchaeologist’stoolkit.

3. Landmanagersshouldusetheavailabletechnologytocreatepredictivemodelsofpotentialadverseimpacts.TheycoulduseArcGISmodelingtodelineatetheextentsofgreathouseviewscapes.Similar,theycoulduseourmethodstopredictthepotentialimpactsofdrillrigsonsoundscapes.Landmanagerscouldthenrequireminingcompaniestolocatetheirmachineryoutsidethepotentiallyimpactedareas.Theareascoveredbyadrillingmoratoriumthuswouldvarybasedonthelocalsituationateach

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greathouse–ablanketprotectionof1-2km,forexample,isnotsufficient,becauseeverygreathouse’stopographyandcommunityconfigurationisdifferent.

4. Whereavoidanceisnotpossible,landmanagersshouldrequiremineralextractioncompaniestocamouflageequipmentandtoprovidesound-dampeningequipmenttomitigatethenoise.

InaneraofrapidlyadvancingeconomicdevelopmentontheColoradoPlateau,itisimperativeforarchaeologiststohelpgovernmentpersonnelandlegislatorsdevelopgoodmanagementstrategiesforthefragileandunderstudiedaspectsoftheancientsensoryworld.

ViewscapesandsoundscapesareimportantdimensionsoftheancientChacoanlandscape.IfweareevertounderstandaChacoansenseofplace,archaeologistsneedtocontinuetodevisecreative(yetrigorousandsystematic!)methodsforstudyingsensoryexperiences.And,weneedtoensurethatthevisualandacousticldimensionsofChacoancommunitiesareprotected,notonlyforourcurrentstudybuttoensurethatfuturegenerationsofscholarsandvisitorswillbeabletoexperiencethegreaterChacolandscape.

Acknowledgements.OurthankstoPaulReedandArchaeologySouthwestfortheinspirationandthefundingtocarryoutthedigitalviewscapestudiesintheBissa’aniandPierre’scommunities.WethankCoryBreternitzforasitetourandfortheaccurateBissa’anicommunitysitelocations.WeappreciateCarrieHeitman’sfeedbackonanearlydraftofthispaper.JoDay’sworkinsensoryarchaeologyhasbeenaninspiration.DeSmetcarriedoutthesoundmodelingworkintheBinghamtonUniversityGeospatialRemoteSensing/EnvironmentalVisualizationlaboratory.

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