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Validity, Reliability,and Applicability ofPsychophysiologicalTechniques in MarketingResearch
Yong Jian WangCollege of Business, Ohio University
Michael S. MinorCollege of Business Administration, University of Texas-Pan American
ABSTRACT
A variety of psychophysiological techniques have been used in themeasurement of consumer reactions to marketing stimuli sincethe 60s. The objectives of this paper are: (1) to present a descriptivereview of the psychophysiological techniques and (2) to discuss critical concerns about validity, reliability, and applicability of thesepsychophysiological techniques raised by previous research. Thestrengths and weaknesses of ten major psychophysiological techniques are analyzed on the basis of the summaries of 67 market-ing studies that have employed psychophysiological techniques. Thisstudy shows a need for marketing research to establish validity andreliability and to emphasize applicability when psychophysiologicaltechniques are to be used. Meeting such a need requires an under-standing of the nuanced psychophysiological process that links particular psychological antecedents and the physiological conse-quences being measured. A framework for analyzing thispsychophysiological process in marketing research is provided.© 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Psychology & Marketing, Vol. 25(2): 197–232 (February 2008)Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com)© 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. DOI: 10.1002/mar.20206
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In marketing research, a variety of measurement techniques havebeen used to measure consumers’ reaction to stimuli. These measuresinclude: (1) behavioral measures, such as actual purchase, amount oftime and money spent, or store patronage; (2) verbal measures, such asself-reported assessments of intentions, attitudes, recalls, or emotions; and(3) psychophysiological measures, such as pupil dilation, eye movement,or heart rate (Green & Tull, 1978; Stewart & Furse, 1982; Wiles &Cornwell, 1990; Poels & Dewitte, 2006).
Marketing researchers have been skeptical about using behavioraland verbal measures because of their limitations in providing an effec-tive measure of internal reaction to external stimuli. Behavioral meas-ures of responses to stimuli are problematic because they cannot reflectthe process occurring between affect and behavioral consequence (Wiles &Cornwell, 1990). The affect that consumers receive also cannot be ade-quately measured by self-reported verbal indicators, due to the com-plexity of thought (Wiles & Cornwell, 1990). Respondents usingself-reported verbal measures are also more likely to give so-called lipservice responses, such as socially acceptable answers or uncontemplatedfeedback (Nighswonger & Martin, 1981). Furthermore, from a psychol-ogy perspective, the unconscious minds of consumers have not been fullyemphasized in psychological and behavioral measurement (Liu, 1986;Zaltman, 2000, 2003). Consumers may still have a “feeling of knowing”experience even though they cannot trace a clear memory by verbalmeasures, but researchers have not aimed to “realize that the results ofunconscious processing can be brought into consciousness” (Liu, 1986,p. 42). Zaltman (2003) employed neurology and psychology to understandhow consumers process information. He found that, in most cases, con-sumers cannot clearly explain the reason for buying a specific product bythe use of verbal measures.
On the other hand, psychophysiological measures can “provide a verybasic, unbiased, and sensitive measure of an individual’s reaction to astimulus” because “autonomic reactions are not under voluntary control”and “it is not possible for individuals to mask their ‘true’ reactions to aproduct or advertisement” (Stewart & Furse, 1982, p. 2). Marketingresearch needs to pursue more precise, comprehensive, and unbiasedmeasurements of the psychological processes to reflect a broader anddeeper intellectual understanding of the human mind’s mechanism. Inorder to meet such a need in marketing research, the use of psy-chophysiological techniques in measuring consumer reactions to exter-nal stimuli is an important area worthy of further examination.
Psychophysiology is an interdisciplinary subject that combines phys-iology, biology, and psychology research (Kroeber-Riel, 1979). It has beendefined as “the study of relations between psychological manipulationsand resulting physiological responses, measured in the living organism,to promote understanding of the relation between mental and bodilyprocesses” (Andreassi, 2000, p. 1). Consequently, marketing researchers
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are able to use physiological indicators to monitor covert psychologicalprocesses.
In this study, the objectives are to present a descriptive review ofpsychophysiological techniques that have been employed in market-ing research, and to discuss some critical concerns that can benefit futureresearch in this area. This study is organized using the following struc-ture: first, a review of ten psychophysiological techniques is offered, alongwith the summaries of sixty-seven previous studies using such techniquesin marketing research; second, the strengths and weaknesses of each psy-chophysiological technique are discussed on the basis of the review; andlast, conclusions and recommendations for future research are provided.
REVIEW OF MARKETING RESEARCH USINGPSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY
Ten psychophysiological techniques have appeared in published mar-keting research. These techniques include three central nervous system(CNS) measures (non hemispheric brain wave analysis, hemispheric lat-eralization, and brain imaging analysis); five autonomic nervous system(ANS) measures (pupillary response, electrodermal analysis, voice pitchanalysis, heart rate response, and vascular activity); and two somaticnervous system (SNS) measures (facial muscle activity and eye movementanalysis) (cf. Bagozzi, 1991).1 Sixty-seven marketing studies publishedbetween 1960 and 2006 that have empirically applied these psy-chophysiological techniques are summarized in the Appendix.
It can be found that, along with the progress of psychophysiologicalresearch and the growing interest of marketing researchers inpsychophysiology, the number of marketing publications using psy-chophysiological techniques increased from the 60s to the 80s. Later, thepopularity of certain techniques waxed and waned. In the 60s, pupillaryresponse and electrodermal analysis began in marketing-related exper-iments. Since the 70s, non hemispheric brain wave analysis, hemisphericlateralization, voice pitch analysis, and eye movement analysis have beenused in marketing research. In the late 80s, cardiovascular activity(including both heart rate and blood pressure) and facial muscle activ-ity were further explored by marketing researchers. However, in the 90s,the number of publications that employed psychophysiological measuresdecreased. An underlying reason may be that the validity, reliability, andapplicability issues of some techniques—such as voice pitch analysis andbrain wave analysis (both hemispheric and non hemispheric)—werebrought into question by a number of research findings and critiques.Lack of reliability and validity as well as restrictions in applicability dis-couraged further application of some psychophysiological techniques.
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1 Eye movement is considered both voluntary (somatic) and involuntary (autonomic) (Stewart &Furse, 1982).
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This decrease of the 90s has not continued. From 2000 to the present, thenumber of marketing publications using psychophysiological techniqueshas become larger than that for the entire 90s. Between 2000 and thepresent, non hemispheric brain wave analysis, hemispheric lateralization,electrodermal analysis, facial muscle activity, and eye movement analy-sis were still being used, while heart rate analysis and brain imaginganalysis were adopted and used by a growing number of marketing stud-ies. A chronological classification of published marketing studies usingpsychophysiological measures is provided in Table 1.
REVIEW OF PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL TECHNIQUES
Psychophysiological techniques use a number of physiological indicatorsto keep track of different psychological responses to stimuli. These psy-chological responses can be represented by cognitive and affectiveprocesses in the mind. The cognitive process is involved with “everythingthat goes in the consumers’ minds concerning the acquisition, process-ing, retention, and retrieval of information” (Eroglu, Machleit, & Davis,2001, p. 181). Quantitative measures of the cognitive process usuallyinclude measures of beliefs, knowledge, attitudes, attention, memory,and recall (Eroglu, Machleit, & Davis, 2001).2 On the other hand, theaffective process is a mental state that develops spontaneously withoutcognitive effort, and is involved with a set of emotional reactions thatare usually represented by Mehrabian and Russell’s (1974) pleasure(pleasant vs. unpleasant), arousal (excited vs. calm), and dominance(dominant vs. submissive) dimensions (Eroglu, Machleit, & Davis, 2001).Some researchers have adopted a two-dimensional model, which includes
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Table 1. Chronological Classification of Marketing Studies UsingPsychophysiological Techniques.
60s 70s 80s 90s 2000–present Measure (7) (10) (21) (16) (22)
Non hemispheric brain 1 3 1wave analysis (5)
Hemispheric lateralization (8) 1 5 1 1Pupillary response (8) 6 2Electrodermal analysis (16) 1 5 5 5Voice pitch analysis (4) 2 2Heart rate response (5) 1 4Vascular activity (2) 2Facial muscle activity (4) 1 1 2Eye movement analysis (19) 4 3 8 4Brain imaging analysis (5) 5
Note: Numbers in parentheses are numbers of publications.Studies using two or more psychophysiological techniques are counted by each of the techniques.
2 The structure of the attitude construct includes both cognitive and affective aspects (Ajzen, 2001).
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valence (i.e., pleasure; pleasant vs. unpleasant) and arousal (excited vs.calm), to describe the affective process (e.g., Russell, 1980). Researchersin social psychology posited that, based on the combinations of the basicaffective dimensions (pleasure, arousal, and dominance), a broader senseof human emotions can be divided into fifteen primary categories, includ-ing amusement, anger, contempt, contentment, disgust, distress, embar-rassment, excitement, fear, guilt, pride, relief, satisfaction, sensory pleasure,and shame; and a variety of secondary emotions can be derived from eachof the primary categories (Ekman, 1999).
Experts in psychophysiology suggested that appropriate application ofa psychophysiological technique depends on fully understanding its work-ing mechanism and how different cognitive and affective processes arebeing measured (Kroeber-Riel, 1979; Stewart & Furse, 1982). As Stewartand Furse (1982) contended, the application of any psychophysiologicalmeasure “should be based on three additional sources of information: (1)an understanding of the stimulus context in which the measurementswere taken; (2) a knowledge of the physiology of the system measured, and(3) an assessment of other response events that may be occurring simul-taneously” (p. 30). Based on the philosophy of science, Bagozzi (1991) sug-gested different patterns of inference relations between psychologicalantecedents and physiological consequences. So that these inference rela-tion patterns can be understood, the process of bodily response to cogni-tive and affective activities in the mind must be illustrated before thepsychophysiological measure is taken (Jennings, 1986a, b).
Plummer (1972) suggested seven criteria to determine the applicationof a measurement technique for consumer reaction to stimuli in market-ing research. They include reliability, validity, sensitivity, independence ofmeasures, comprehensiveness, relationship to other tests, and accept-ability. Among the seven criteria, validity, independence of measures, andrelationship to other tests are related to validity issues in terms of con-struct validity, discriminant validity, and convergent validity, whereassensitivity, comprehensiveness, and acceptability are related to the appli-cability of a measure in marketing research. Therefore, marketingresearchers need to examine the reliability, validity, and applicability ofpsychophysiological techniques before investigating consumers’ cognitiveand/or affective responses to marketing or advertising stimuli. In thisstudy, each of the ten psychophysiological techniques is to be evaluatedin terms of its validity, reliability, and applicability in marketing research.
1. Non hemispheric Brain Wave Analysis
Brain wave analysis examines different types of waves in the humanbrain (e.g., alpha waves vs. beta waves) to measure variations in the fre-quency of electrical brain activities (Young, 2002). The electroencephalo-graph (EEG) is the most frequently used measurement device for brain waveanalysis in marketing research (see Appendix). Non hemispheric brain
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wave analysis, which is a branch of brain wave analysis, may be appliedto connect brain activity to consumers’ cognitive (e.g., attention, memory)and affective (e.g., arousal, pleasure) changes in the brain (Klebba, 1985).In advertising research, nonhemispheric brain wave analysis was firstused by Krugman (1971) in the investigation of consumers’ responses todifferent advertisements. Since then, considerable effort has been madeto further the study of consumer responses to advertisements by usingEEG to measure brain activities (e.g., Alwitt, 1989; Young, 2002). Previ-ous marketing studies using non hemispheric brain wave analysis havemainly focused on the investigation of consumers’ immediate responsesto variations in advertising, packaging, and branding (see Appendix).
Previous marketing studies found that cognitive information pro-cessing can indicate brain wave peaks (Young, 2002), but the concurrentvalidity of using brain waves to measure a particular affective response,such as arousal, was hardly established in non hemispheric brainwave analysis (see Appendix). Stewart and Furse (1982) considered non-hemispheric brain wave analysis a “straightforward indication of responseto marketing stimuli” but a “less reliable measure of how the individualis responding to a specific stimulus than are measurements of moreperipheral responses” (p. 21). Therefore, despite its easy applicability,non hemispheric brain wave analysis still remains somewhat unclear interms of its validity and reliability. To address the validity and reliabilityissues in using this technique, the combination of brain wave measure-ment with peripheral response measurement (e.g., ANS and SNS meas-ures) in marketing research was recommended (Stewart & Furse, 1982;Rossiter et al., 2001b).
2. Hemispheric Lateralization
Another branch of brain wave analysis is hemispheric lateralization. It doesnot examine the process of brain activity; instead, it examines the differ-ences in the two brain hemispheres (left brain vs. right brain) when theyrespond to external stimuli (Young, 2002). Hansen (1981) and Weinstein(1982) applied the findings of hemispheric lateralization in psychophys-iology research to the understanding of consumers in marketing researchand suggested that the differences in hemispheric lateralization (e.g.,information processing depending on right or left brain) influence thepatterns of an individual’s information acquisition and decision making.
Previous marketing studies have used EEG to measure hemi-spheric differences that are related to arousal and interest (e.g., Weinstein,Weinstein, & Drozdenko, 1984), pleasure (e.g., Cacioppo & Petty, 1982),memory (e.g., Appel, Weinstein, & Weinstein, 1979; Rothschild & Hyun,1990), and information processing (e.g., Weinstein, Appel, & Weinstein,1980; Rothschild et al., 1988). Rossiter et al. (2001a) used an evolution-ary version of EEG, steady-state probe topography (SSPT), as the meas-urement device for brain activity. Using SSPT, which can offer fast and
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accurate measurement of cortical activity in response to a visual stim-uli sequence, Rossiter et al. (2001a) established that dynamic visualscenes are encoded into long-term memory in the left hemisphere.
It can be observed from the number of publications that researchefforts on brain activity analysis have been invested somewhat more onhemispheric lateralization than non hemispheric brain wave analysis. Inthe meanwhile, inquiries about the validity and reliability of hemisphericlateralization in marketing and advertising research have never ceased.Skeptics asserted that Sperry’s (1973) findings on hemispheric special-ization, which were the cornerstones for hemispheric lateralization inmarketing research, were not generalizable.3 For example, Sperry’s (1973)findings were not applicable to individuals with normal brain activity(Katz, 1983) or to left-handed individuals (Klebba, 1985). The explana-tory power of hemispheric lateralization was also low because only lessthan 15 percent of hemispheric dominance could be explained (Klebba,1985). In addition, it has not been found whether brain wave variationscorrespond to any particular psychological process (e.g., pleasure, arousal,or information processing), either cognitive or affective, in response toexternal stimuli (Stewart, 1985).
Another aspect of skepticism over validity and reliability lies in themeasurement device. First, EEG and the SSPT can only monitor gen-eral brain activity in response to external stimuli as a whole. Previousresearch using these measurement techniques has not investigated whichpart of complex stimuli, such as a television commercial, induces thebrain activity (Klebba, 1985; Crites & Aikman-Eckenrode, 2001). Sec-ond, experimental settings have significant influences on the results pro-duced by an EEG. The results of hemispheric lateralization differdepending on the placement of electrodes (Klebba, 1985). Therefore, thevalidity and reliability of hemispheric lateralization are subject to exper-imental conditions, significantly restricting its applicability. These crit-ics urge caution in future use of the hemispheric lateralization technique,and emphasize the need for the reinforcement of reliability and validityof the measure as well as more careful application of this technique inexperiments.
3. Pupillary Response
Pupillary response measures physiological changes in an individual’spupil size (Blackwell, Hensel, & Sternthal, 1970). Early psychophysio-logical research on pupillary response focused on the temporary dilationof pupils in response to visual stimuli as an indicator of affective responsessuch as pleasure and arousal (Hess & Polt, 1960; Hess, 1965). Previous
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3 Researchers in support of hemispheric lateralization claimed that the EEG has sufficient psy-chophysiological basis to be applied in marketing research. For example, Weinstein, Drozdenko,and Weinstein (1984b) argued that, regardless of the percentage of brain activity explained,hemispheric lateralization research could document the fundamental differences between thehemispheres, and such differences exist in the normal brain.
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marketing studies using the pupillary response technique were con-ducted, mostly in the 60s and early 70s, to evaluate the effectiveness ofadvertisements. Pupillary response has shown significant discrimina-tory power on the effectiveness of different advertising stimuli (e.g.,Krugman, 1965; Van Bortel, 1968; Hess, 1968; Stafford, Birdwell, & VanTassel, 1970).
Although pupillary response was considered useful and practical interms of its applicability in measuring affective responses to advertisingstimuli (Stewart & Furse, 1982), researchers have presented empiricalchallenges to the concurrent validity of the physiological measure inrelation to the psychological mechanism. For example, there werequestions about which psychological process was demonstrated by pupildilation (e.g., Blackwell, Hensel, & Sternthal, 1970; Janisse, 1974; seeStewart & Furse, 1982, for a detailed review).Although pupillary responsehas been used as a measure of valence (i.e., pleasure), changes in an indi-vidual’s pupil size can be a result of a number of psychological processes,including attention, arousal, pleasure, memory and information process-ing, and so on (Watson & Gatchel, 1979; Stewart & Furse, 1982). Thus,pupillary response does not merely indicate valence. Besides the validityproblem, the reliability of pupillary response has not been examined inprevious marketing research (see Appendix). This technique has notappeared in marketing publications after the 70s. However, the use ofpupillary response in marketing research has great potential, such as theability to measure mental activity associated with cognitive informationprocessing or with responses to successive stimuli (Arch, 1979). For futureresearch using pupillary response, it is necessary to specify the causalrelationship between psychological processes (e.g., attention, pleasure,or information processing) and physiological indicators (pupil size)(Blackwell, Hensel, & Sternthal, 1970; Watson & Gatchel, 1979).
4. Electrodermal Analysis
Electrodermal activities can be measured by the amount of resistance orconductance of human skin to passing current (Watson & Gatchel, 1979).Psychophysiologists established that physiological arousal occurring inthe sweat glands can reflect psychological activity, and thus changesin electrodermal activities in the sympathetic nervous system may be aresult of interest, arousal, or pleasure (Klebba, 1985). Electrodermalactivities can be monitored through either galvanic skin response (GSR)or skin conductance response (SCR). Galvanic skin response, which canbe recorded by a galvanometer to assess the ability of the skin to conductelectricity, is more frequently used in published marketing studies (seeAppendix). Skin conductance response can also be employed to monitorskin conductance (the reciprocal of skin resistance) by polygraphic record-ing (Klebba, 1985; Wiles & Cornwell, 1990). In marketing research,electrodermal activity has been intensively used to measure attention
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(e.g., Vanden Abeele & MacLachlan, 1994a; Bolls, Muehling, & Yoon,2003) and arousal (e.g., Groeppel-Klein & Baun, 2001; Bolls, Lang, &Potter, 2001), and also linked to anxiety and warmth as affective processes(e.g., Aaker, Stayman, & Hagerty, 1986; Stem & Bozman, 1988; VandenAbeele & MacLachlan, 1994b).
Electrodermal response has been considered a reliable and valid meas-ure of arousal (e.g., Kroeber-Riel, 1979; Klebba, 1985) and it can allowresearchers to identify the magnitude of a response with considerableaccuracy (Klebba, 1985). However, Vanden Abeele and MacLachlan(1994a) reported that electrodermal response was not valid in measur-ing attention. Electrodermal response is also not a valid indicatorof warmth as an affective response to stimuli (Vanden Abeele &MacLachlan, 1994b). In addition, previous research has provided anumber of caveats in applying the electrodermal technique. For example,electrode placement is critical to the accuracy of results because theresults tend to be biased when the placement sites and environment arenot carefully chosen, cleaned, and controlled (Stewart & Furse, 1982).Sensitivity to external influences needs to be better understood in orderto make this psychophysiological technique applicable in experimentalconditions. In addition, Cacioppo and Petty (1983) suggested thatelectrodermal activity should be measured at different times to addressreliability issues.
5. Voice Pitch Analysis
Voice pitch analysis examines the fluctuations generated by vocal cordsin human speech, which can indicate an individual’s affective responsesto external stimuli independent of the volume, content, and speed of thespeech (Klebba, 1985). Relying on the findings from attitudinal research,voice pitch analysis (VOPAN) was developed by Brickman (1976, 1980)in the field of advertising research. Brickman (1980) claimed that voicepitch analysis is more valid, reliable, and sensitive than verbal meas-ures in measuring consumers’ attitude change. Beyond that, it has alsodemonstrated superior discriminatory power in actual purchase andadvertising effectiveness studies (Brickman, 1976, 1980; Nelson &Schwartz, 1979). Another experimental study found that voice pitch leveland range indicate a specific affective dimension—arousal (i.e., activa-tion) (Backhaus, Meyer, & Stockert, 1985).
As noted by Klebba (1985), voice pitch analysis has at least two prac-tical advantages over other psychophysiological techniques in marketingresearch. First, instead of using cumbersome equipment, the experi-mental procedure only requires oral responses and audio recording appa-ratus. Second, participants are least likely to be influenced by controlledand unnatural experimental settings because the recording apparatus isnot apparent or interfering. However, Nighswonger and Martin (1981)questioned the validity of the technique in measuring affective changes,
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especially arousal. They pointed out that affective changes may bereflected by voice pitch change, but the process of these simultaneouschanges is unfounded from a psychophysiological perspective. Therefore,future studies using voice pitch analysis must establish evidence of con-current validity. Nighswonger and Martin (1981) also suggested thatvoice pitch analysis combined with the response latency technique (meas-urement of the amount of time for deliberation) can be a more accurateand reliable measure of affective responses. Although marketing studiesusing voice pitch analysis can hardly be found since the 80s, Nighswongerand Martin’s (1981) recommendations still provide useful guidelines forfuture research using this technique. Further, the ability to capture voicedigitally and apply computerized analysis should revive this technique.For example, a computer-based software program, the Multi-DimensionalVoice Program (MDVP), can be used to generate a database consistingof tens of acoustic parameters, after respondents’ voices are digitallyrecorded. Graphic comparisons on voice parameters can also be producedby computer.
6. Heart Rate Response
As a branch of cardiovascular analysis, heart rate response is usuallymeasured by electrocardiogram (EKG), which monitors the electricaldischarges associated with the muscle contraction of the heart (Wiles &Cornwell, 1990). Previous studies employed heart rate response to meas-ure pleasant or unpleasant responses to external stimuli (e.g., Israel,1969; Bolls, Lang, & Potter, 2001). However, Watson and Gatchel (1979)contended that, rather than being just a measurement of the directionsof affect, heart rate response is also a valid and sensitive measure ofone of the cognitive processes, attention, because heart rate is an impor-tant component of the psychophysiological attention mechanism. Watsonand Gatchel’s (1979) argument was supported by recent findings of Langet al. (2002) and Bolls, Muehling, and Yoon (2003). Previous researchalso found that heart rate response is capable of predicting recall andmemory (Lang et al., 2002; Bolls, Muehling, & Yoon, 2003). Besides itsvalidity, heart rate response demonstrated high reliability over time(Lang et al., 2002). In addition, heart rate response is not influenced byenvironmental disturbances, showing its applicability in non-laboratoryexperimental settings (Watson & Gatchel, 1979).
Although heart rate response is a valid, reliable, and sensitive meas-ure of several psychological processes, Watson and Gatchel (1979) notedthat “it is difficult to formulate with any certainty generalizations aboutthis physiological response during a number of psychological processes”(p. 22). This reveals a potential threat to concurrent validity. Researchersmust be meticulous when explaining a particular psychological processby interpreting heart rate changes, because the changes may be evoked bymultiple psychological processes.
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7. Vascular Activity
Vascular activity, another branch of cardiovascular analysis, recordschanges in blood pressure, blood volume, or pulse volume (Bagozzi, 1991).Previous studies in the 80s used vascular activity to measure arousal inresponse to external stimuli (Frost & Stauffer, 1987; Sanbonmatsu &Kardes, 1988). Frost and Stauffer (1987) found that blood pulse volumeand skin conductance response highly correlated with each other in meas-uring arousal. However, the validity and reliability of vascular activityin measuring arousal have not been assessed by previous studies. Likeheart rate response, vascular activity may be a result of a number ofpsychological processes, including pleasure, arousal, and memory(Bagozzi, 1991; Brownley, Hurwitz, & Schneiderman, 2000). Future mar-keting research needs to address validity and reliability issues whenusing vascular activity to measure arousal and/or other psychologicalprocesses.
Compared with other psychophysiological techniques, vascular activ-ity can be easily monitored and reported. For example, Sanbonmatsuand Kardes (1988) used a Pollenex blood pressure monitor to measure vas-cular activity. The measurement device is much less complex to handlethan those used in other psychophysiological techniques. However,the auscultatory method of determining blood pressure used inSanbonmatsu and Kardes’s (1988) study, which utilizes a blood pressurecuff placed around a subject’s arm, requires a careful plan on cuff size andplacement of the machine to obtain accurate and reliable blood pressuremeasurement (Brownley, Hurwitz, & Schneiderman, 2000). To obtainvalid and reliable data, future experimental research needs to pay greatattention to these handling skills.
8. Facial Muscle Activity
Different from other involuntary psychophysiological measures, facialmuscle activity is a voluntary physiological indicator generated by thesomatic nervous system. Facial muscle activity is measured by electricalsignals caused by the contraction of facial muscle fibers when the volt-age is active from two electrodes placed on the face (Wiles & Cornwell,1990). The electromyography (EMG) has been the most frequently usedmeasurement device for facial muscle activity in marketing research(see Appendix). Wiles and Cornwell (1990) suggested that facial muscleactivity be used to identify the directions of affective responses (i.e.,pleasure vs. displeasure) to external stimuli.
Bolls, Lang, and Potter (2001) demonstrated the validity, reliability,and applicability of using facial muscle activity to measure the direc-tions of affective responses (i.e., valence/ pleasure) to complex stimuli, suchas radio advertisements. Documented by facial EMG data, the physiolog-ical reaction accompanied by positive affective response was robust acrossdifferent stimuli (Bolls, Lang, & Potter, 2001). Facial muscle activity can
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also allow researchers to precisely examine the effects of those complexstimuli that can result in non exclusively positive or negative affectiveresponses (Bolls, Lang, & Potter, 2001). However, Bolls, Lang, and Potter(2001) warned that, in experiments using facial muscle activity, the elec-tric signal produced by an EMG device can be influenced by participants’physical movements or bodily sensitivity. Accordingly, they suggestedthat future research using facial muscle activity in measuring thedirections of affect should well disguise the experiment process anddistract the participant during electrode placement.
9. Eye Movement Analysis
Eye movement is measured by recording either the number of fixationsor dwell time of the eyes during an individual’s exposure to externalstimuli (Stewart & Furse, 1982). By examining the eye patterns on pickupand retention of information, researchers can identify the elements ofa complex stimulus that receive voluntary (somatic) or involuntary(autonomic) attention (Stewart & Furse, 1982).
Eye movement analysis has been widely used in marketing studiesfrom the early 70s to the present (see Appendix). In previous marketingresearch findings, eye movement has found to be related to attention(e.g., Bogard & Trolley, 1988; Lohse, 1997; Pieters, Rosbergen, & Wedel,1999; Pieters & Wedel, 2004), memory (e.g. Krugman, 1971; Morrison &Dainhoff, 1972; Krugman et al., 1994; Wedel & Pieters, 2000), andinformation processing (e.g., King, 1972; Kroeber-Riel & Barton, 1980;Kroeber-Riel, 1984). However, as Kroeber-Riel (1979) pointed out, mostprevious studies using eye movement as a physiological measure havenot established a psychological basis for the meaning of eye movements.Therefore, concurrent validity of the eye movement measure is questioned.Although some studies demonstrated high predictive power on recalland memory based on either dwell time (Krugman et al., 1994) or thenumber of fixations (Wedel & Pieters, 2000), Kroeber-Riel and Barton(1980) argued that the validity of eye movement as a predictor of recalland memory depends on the mediating role of cognitive learning. Pieters,Rosbergen, and Wedel (1999) also questioned the reliability of eyemovement measures. They held that, although external disturbances tothe experiment can be controlled, eye movement measures are not highlyreliable because eye movement patterns can be influenced by subjects’excessive blinking or tear fluid. This restricts the opportunity of recruit-ing certain individuals with various eye problems for eye movementexperiments in marketing research.
10. Brain Imaging Analysis
Brain imagining analysis has been intensively used in neuromarketingresearch, which relies on neuroscience technologies to investigate
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individuals’ brain activities in response to marketing and advertisingstimuli. Neuroscience technologies that can be employed by brain imag-ing analysis in marketing research include Functional Magnetic Reso-nance Imaging (fMRI), Positron Emission Tomography (PET), andMagnetoencephalography (MEG) (Zaltman, 1997; Ambler et al., 2004).These relatively new techniques in marketing research monitor mag-netic activity or radioactive patterns in the medial prefrontal cortex ofthe brain, and are able to provide high spatial resolution as well as tem-poral resolution that can document an individual’s brain activities inresponse to non static stimuli (Rossiter et al., 2001a; Berthoz et al., 2002).Thus, these brain imaging techniques complement less precise brainactivity measurement techniques, such as EEG (Rossiter et al., 2001a).Using the fMRI technique, marketing research has identified some ofthe cognitive activities in the brain, with implications for marketing. Theleft hemisphere of the brain is mainly involved with sequential orderingabilities and analytical abilities, whereas the right hemisphere is involvedwith the determination of meaning, nonverbal communications, andvisual-spatial perceptions (Morgan & Reichert, 1999). Previous researchsuggested that brain imaging analysis can be used to investigate thepresence or absence of pleasure and arousal (Novemsky & Kahneman,2005), information processing patterns (Zaltman, 1997), and memory(Percy, 2004).
Brain imaging analysis techniques, such as fMRI, have been inten-sively used by marketing researchers and practitioners since the 90s infield investigations on product preferences, advertising effectiveness,brand loyalty, and so on (Carmichael, 2004; Helliker, 2006). It was consid-ered more accurate in practice than the use of focus groups and surveysin explaining consumers’ experiences and feelings (Kelly, 2002). It was alsoconsidered more effective than other psychophysiological techniquesbecause the experimental process is not influenced by external distur-bances and participant bias (Kelly, 2002). Although suspicions have beenraised as to whether increased brain activity necessarily indicates affec-tive changes as well as product preferences (Carmichael, 2004), recentresearch has provided some illuminative findings. By using fMRI toinvestigate respondents’ brain reactions to brands, it was found that cer-tain brain areas indicating pleasure, self-identification, and rewardswere evoked by a well-known brand, whereas the parts in the brain indi-cating displeasure and memory were evoked by an unfamiliar brand(Helliker, 2006).
In neuroeconomics research that investigates the mechanism of thebrain in economics-related decision-making process, the validity and reli-ability of brain imaging analysis has been demonstrated in measuringboth cognitive and affective responses to stimuli (e.g., Montague & Berns,2002; McClure et al., 2004). Based on brain activity in the prefrontal cor-tex monitored by brain imaging analysis, cognitive and affective responsesto the economic environment can be depicted and then used to predict
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economic decision-making and behavioral consequences (McClure et al.,2004). Using fMRI, McClure et al. (2004) found that the hippocampusand dorsolateral prefrontal cortex are the main brain areas that indicateaffective brain activities, which, together with cognitive brain activitiesindicated in other brain areas, helped to explain subjects’ brand prefer-ences. Recent research conducted by Knutson and Peterson (2005) foundthat the anticipation of increasing monetary gains activates a subcorti-cal region of the ventral striaum, accompanied by increased arousal andpleasure. Therefore, the brain imaging analysis technique in marketingresearch has sufficient psychophysiological basis for the interpretationof both cognitive and affective responses to marketing stimuli.
Nonetheless, brain imaging analysis has been increasingly challengedfrom an ethical perspective, with reasons such as invasion of privacyand the potential for mind control (Thompson, 2003; Wahlberg, 2004).Current neuromarketing research focuses on the use of the ZaltmanMetaphor Elicitation Technique (ZMET) to investigate the unconsciousof consumers (e.g., Coulter, Zaltman, & Coulter, 2001; Christensen &Olson, 2002; Lee et al., 2003). ZMET is not a psyshophysiological tech-nique. This survey technique is more naturalistic than experimentalbrain imaging analysis, and thus ethical problems restricting the appli-cability of brain imaging analysis can be avoided. However, the use ofexperimental brain imaging analysis should not be discouraged. Whenbrain imaging analysis is used in future marketing research, necessarysteps must be taken to ensure that human subjects are well protected andpotential ethical issues are resolved.
CONCLUSION
On the basis of the discussion above, a summary of the ten psychophys-iological techniques used in marketing research is provided in Table 2.
Based on the summary, a psychophysiology framework in marketingresearch is given in Figure 1. This psychophysiology framework can beused for the purpose of analyzing different psychological antecedentsand corresponding physiological consequences. The framework ispresented in a Stimulus-Organism-Response (S-O-R) model fromenvironmental psychology to explain the impact of external stimuli on con-sumer response (Mehrabian & Russell, 1974; Eroglu, Machleit, & Davis,2001). According to the S-O-R paradigm, the environment contains stim-uli that can influence consumers’ internal organism, which in turn influ-ences consumers’ behavioral outcomes. In marketing research, thepsychophysiological process can be better understood by analyzingconsumers’ internal organism. The relationship between psychologicalantecedents and physiological consequences presented in the internalorganism extends Bagozzi’s (1991) psychophysiological relationship modeland depicts the detailed patterns of the psychological processes and
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Tab
le 2
.Su
mm
ary
of P
sych
oph
ysio
logi
cal
Tec
hn
iqu
es i
n M
ark
etin
g R
esea
rch
.
Su
gges
ted
Ph
ysio
logi
cal I
ndi
cato
r P
sych
olog
ical
M
easu
re[M
easu
rem
ent
Dev
ice]
An
tece
den
tsV
alid
ity
Rel
iabi
lity
App
lica
bili
ty
Non
- h
emis
pher
ic
Var
iati
ons
in t
he
freq
uen
cy
• P
leas
ure
•
Val
id m
easu
re f
or
• L
ess
reli
able
th
an
• N
ot a
ppli
cabl
e to
B
rain
Wav
e A
nal
ysis
of e
lect
rica
l act
ivit
y in
•
Aro
usa
l co
gnit
ive
info
rmat
ion
A
NS
an
d S
NS
co
mpl
ex s
tim
uli
th
e br
ain
[E
EG
or
SS
PT
]•
Att
enti
onpr
oces
sin
gm
easu
res
• R
esu
lts
infl
uen
ced
by
• M
emor
yex
peri
men
tal s
etti
ngs
• In
form
atio
n
Pro
cess
ing
Hem
isph
eric
D
iffe
ren
ces
of e
lect
rica
l •
Ple
asu
re
• L
ack
gen
eral
izab
ilit
y •
Rel
iabi
lity
infl
uen
ced
• N
ot a
ppli
cabl
e to
L
ater
aliz
atio
nac
tivi
ty in
tw
o br
ain
• A
rou
sal
• L
ow e
xpla
nat
ory
pow
erby
exp
erim
enta
l co
mpl
ex s
tim
uli
h
emis
pher
es [
EE
G o
r S
SP
T]
• M
emor
yco
ndi
tion
s•
Res
ult
s in
flu
ence
d by
•
Info
rmat
ion
ex
peri
men
tal s
etti
ngs
Pro
cess
ing
Pu
pill
ary
Res
pon
seT
empo
rary
ch
ange
s in
•
Ple
asu
re
• L
ack
of v
alid
ity
• N
ot a
sses
sed
• R
obu
st t
o en
viro
nm
enta
l pu
pil s
ize
[Pu
pill
omet
rics
]•
Aro
usa
lbe
cau
se o
f m
ult
iple
di
stu
rban
ces
• A
tten
tion
ps
ych
olog
ical
•
Mem
ory
ante
cede
nts
•
Info
rmat
ion
P
roce
ssin
g
Ele
ctro
derm
al
Am
oun
t of
res
ista
nce
or
• A
rou
sal
• V
alid
mea
sure
for
•
Rel
iabl
e m
easu
re f
or
• R
esu
lts
infl
uen
ced
by
An
alys
isco
ndu
ctan
ce t
o pa
ssin
g ar
ousa
l an
d pl
easu
re
arou
sal a
nd
plea
sure
ex
peri
men
tal s
etti
ngs
curr
ent
in h
um
an s
kin
•
Not
val
id in
mea
suri
ng
[Gal
van
omet
er o
r at
ten
tion
or
war
mth
P
olyg
raph
ic R
ecor
der]
Voi
ce P
itch
F
luct
uat
ion
s in
spe
ech
•
Aro
usa
l•
Lac
k of
con
curr
ent
• N
ot a
sses
sed
• E
asy
proc
edu
re a
nd
An
alys
ispa
tter
ns
[Au
dio-
Ada
pted
va
lidi
tysi
mpl
e de
vice
C
ompu
ter
Equ
ipm
ent]
• R
esu
lts
not
infl
uen
ced
by
expe
rim
enta
l set
tin
gs
(Con
tin
ued
)
mar252_40_20206.qxd 12/24/07 11:20 AM Page 211
Hea
rt R
ate
Res
pon
se
Ele
ctri
cal d
isch
arge
s •
Ple
asu
re
• V
alid
mea
sure
for
•
Rel
iabl
e m
easu
re
• R
esu
lts
not
infl
uen
ced
by
asso
ciat
ed w
ith
hea
rt m
usc
le
• A
tten
tion
at
ten
tion
fo
r at
ten
tion
ex
tern
al d
istu
rban
ces
con
trac
tion
[E
KG
]
• M
emor
y
Vas
cula
r A
ctiv
ity
Var
iati
ons
in b
lood
pre
ssu
re
• P
leas
ure
•
Lac
k of
val
idit
y be
cau
se
• N
ot a
sses
sed
• R
esu
lts
infl
uen
ced
by
or b
lood
vol
um
e [B
lood
•
Aro
usa
l of
mu
ltip
le p
sych
olog
ical
ex
peri
men
tal s
etti
ngs
Pre
ssu
re M
onit
or,
• M
emor
yan
tece
den
tsU
ltra
son
ogra
phy,
or
Ple
thym
o-gr
aph
y]
Faci
al M
usc
le
Ele
ctri
cal c
ontr
acti
on o
f •
Ple
asu
re
• V
alid
mea
sure
for
•
Rel
iabl
e m
easu
re f
or
• R
esu
lts
infl
uen
ced
by
Act
ivit
y fa
cial
mu
scle
fib
ers
[EM
G]
vale
nce
(pl
easu
re)
vale
nce
(pl
easu
re)
part
icip
ants
’ sen
siti
vity
Eye
Mov
emen
t N
um
ber
of e
ye f
ixat
ion
s •
Att
enti
on
• V
alid
ity
in m
easu
rin
g •
Not
rel
iabl
e•
Res
ult
s de
pen
din
g on
A
nal
ysis
and/
or d
wel
l tim
e •
Mem
ory
mem
ory
depe
nds
on
pa
rtic
ipan
ts’ e
ye
[Eye
-Tra
ckin
g E
quip
men
t]
• In
form
atio
n
cogn
itiv
e le
arn
ing
con
diti
ons
Pro
cess
ing
Bra
in I
mag
ing
Ch
ange
s in
ch
emic
al
• P
leas
ure
•
Val
id m
easu
re f
or
• R
elia
ble
mea
sure
for
•
Eth
ical
bar
rier
s su
ch a
s A
nal
ysis
com
posi
tion
or
chan
ges
in
• A
rou
sal
cogn
itiv
e an
d af
fect
ive
cogn
itiv
e an
d af
fect
ive
inva
sion
of
priv
acy
the
flow
of
flu
ids
in t
he
• M
emor
y re
spon
ses
resp
onse
s•
Hig
h c
ost
brai
n [
fMR
I,P
ET,
or M
EG
] •
Info
rmat
ion
P
roce
ssin
g
Tab
le 2
.(co
nti
nu
ed)
Su
gges
ted
Ph
ysio
logi
cal I
ndi
cato
r P
sych
olog
ical
M
easu
re[M
easu
rem
ent
Dev
ice]
An
tece
den
tsV
alid
ity
Rel
iabi
lity
App
lica
bili
ty
mar252_40_20206.qxd 12/24/07 11:20 AM Page 212
physiological indicators. The psychophysiology framework reflects theunity of body and mind (Zaltman, 2003) and the complex nature of the psy-chophysiological mechanism (Bagozzi, 1991; Cacioppo, Tassinary, &Berntson, 2000).
An experimental study in marketing using psychophysiological tech-niques usually starts with an intention to examine consumers’ cognitiveand/or affective processes in response to prefabricated marketing stim-uli. In experimental studies, these cognitive and/or affective processes,
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Cognitive Responses to Stimulus Xn• Attention• Information Processing• Memory• Other Cognitive Dimensions
Affective Responses to Stimulus Xn• Pleasure (or Valence)• Arousal• Dominance• Other Affective Dimensions
Central Nervous System Indicators• Brain Activity (non hemispheric brain wave analysis, hemispheric lateralization, or brain imaging analysis)
Autonomic Nervous System Indicators• Pupil Dilation (pupillary response) • Sweat Gland Activity (electrodermal analysis) • Cardiovascular Activity (heart rate response and/or vascular activity)• Laryngeal Muscle Activity (voice pitch analysis)
Somatic Nervous System Indicators• Skeletomotor Activity (facial• muscle activity) • Eye Movement (eye movement analysis)
Psychological Antecedents Physiological Consequences
Stimulus
Cognitive Responses to Stimulus X1
Cognitive Responses to Stimulus X2
Affective Responses to Stimulus X2
Affective Responses to Stimulus X1
Other Physiological/Bodily Indicators
Organism
The psychophysiology framework is based on Bagozzi’s (1991) psychophysiology relationship framework andMehrabian and Russell’s (1974) Stimuli-Organism-Response paradigm.
Behavioral Outcomes
A stimulus series (e.g., print ad, radio ad, or TVcommercial) containing n stimulus (X1, X2…Xn)
• Approach• Avoidance
. . .
. . .
Figure 1. Psychophysiology framework in marketing research.
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separately or jointly, serve as psychological antecedents to a varietyof physiological consequences produced by the human nervous system.The physiological consequences may include CNS indicators and peripheralnervous system (ANS and SNS) indicators. The ANS indicators, which reg-ulate organ functions, are under involuntary control, whereas the SNSindicators, which regulate muscle functions, are under voluntary con-trol. Ideally, by measuring one or a number of physiological change(s),researchers are able to identify the changes in an individual’s cognitiveand/or affective processes.
However, as described in the framework, the psychophysiologicalprocess is more complex than a one-to-one inference relationship betweena single psychological antecedent and a single physiological consequence(Bagozzi, 1991). Several noteworthy findings can be disclosed. First, aphysiological change can be accompanied by a number of simultaneousor sequential cognitive and/or affective processes. These psychologicalprocesses usually co-exist when an individual reacts to certain stimuli.As noted previously (e.g., Klebba, 1985; Wiles & Cornwell, 1990), it iscrucial for researchers to establish that a physiological measure indi-cates the particular psychological process that it is supposed to indicate.Second, a particular psychological antecedent can result in a number ofphysiological consequences. A combination of different physiologicalmeasures, such as CNS with peripheral ANS or SNS measures, can offercross-validation for the effects of external stimuli on consumers’ psy-chological responses (Stewart & Furse, 1982). Third, marketing andadvertising research usually investigate a stimulus series, such as mediaads or TV commercials, that consist of an unknown number of elementsin the stimuli (Crites & Aikman-Echenrode, 2001). The particular stim-ulus or portion of stimuli to which the psychological processes respondwas usually not identified in previous studies. The explanatory or dis-criminatory power of psychophysiological measures on the effectivenessof media or stimuli demonstrated is questionable if researchers cannotidentify the particular stimulus in a stimuli set to which a psychologi-cal process corresponds.
FUTURE RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS
This study provides a descriptive review of major psychophysiologicaltechniques used in marketing research and offers some insights in appro-priately applying these techniques in future marketing research. In addi-tion to the recommendation of careful examination of the validity andreliability issues of psychophysiological measures, future research rec-ommendations are made in the following areas.
Dimensionality of Particular Psychological Response. Futureresearch in investigating the relationships between psychological
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antecedents and physiological consequences may focus on exploring thedimensionality of a particular psychological process and using a numberof physiological measures to measure different dimensions of the psy-chological process. For example, arousal was suggested to be a multidi-mensional affective state (Thayer, 1978; Stewart & Furse, 1982; LaTour,1990). Thayer (1978) suggested that physiological measures, such asbrain activity, pupil dilation, and heart rate, reflect different aspects ofarousal. Thus, a single physiological measure may not be valid to meas-ure arousal because of other unmeasured dimensions. The theoreticalframework between the multiple dimensions of a psychological responseand the corresponding multiple physiological measures needs to be exploredin future research.
Sequential Issues in Cognitive and Affective Responses. Furtherinvestigation of the relationships between psychological antecedents andphysiological consequences may also focus on exploring the complexsequence of the effects of external stimuli. An individual’s cognitive andaffective responses to stimuli may occur in sequence. DeVoe’s (1956) hier-archy of effects model for advertising effectiveness described such asequence: attention → interest → desire → action. Lavidge and Steiner’s(1961) hierarchy of effects model in examining advertising effectivenesscontended that consumers follow four stages in response to stimuli:attention → cognition → affect → conation. Bagozzi (1991) suggested thatpsychophysiological measures can be used to investigate such a sequentialprocess in response to marketing stimuli: cogniton → arousal → attitudechange → behavior. However, the hierarchy of effects may vary becauseof high or low involvement (Petty, Cacioppo, & Schumann, 1983). There-fore, future research combining temporal variations of different physio-logical indicators during an individual’s exposure to marketing stimuli mayoffer great value in assessing the sequence of an individual’s psycholog-ical process in response to marketing stimuli in different situations.
Triangulation of Verbal and Psychophysiological Measures. Althoughpsychophysiological measures have several advantages over verbal meas-ures, researchers should be aware that experimental studies in marketingusing psychophysiological techniques may involve various validity, relia-bility, and applicability problems. For example, participant characteristicsor external disturbances can bias the physiological data. In certain situations,threats to validity and reliability cannot be well controlled. For validationpurposes, researchers may combine a verbal measure and psychophysio-logical measure(s) to examine a particular response to stimuli. Psy-chophysiological measures combined with verbal measures can also help tocontrol the bias caused by participant characteristics or environmental dis-turbances (Wiles & Cornwell, 1990). Future research may also examine thedifferences in consumers’ responses obtained from verbal and psy-chophysiological measures in the study of the unconscious of consumers.
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Application of New Equipment and Technologies. Rapid techno-logical evolution enables marketing researchers to use more advancedequipment to conduct psychophysiological measurements. For example,researchers usually have to visually examine brain wave patterns takenby EEG, but an extension of EEG, which is called Quantitative EEG(qEEG), is able to help researchers conduct brain wave mapping and sta-tistical analyses by computer. Using computer-aided qEEG, future mar-keting research in non hemispheric brain wave analysis or hemisphericlateralization may aim to identify the relationships between psycholog-ical processes and unseen patterns of brain waves.
New Psychophysiological Techniques in Marketing Research. Inthis study, ten psychophysiological techniques that have been used inmarketing research are discussed. Future research may incorporate otherpsychophysiological techniques into marketing research. For example,in the gastrointestinal system, the gastric tract, which is monitored by the electrogastrogram (EGG), can be linked to emotions such as stress anddisgust (Stern, Koch, & Muth, 2000). In the respiratory system, breathingpatterns documented by oxygen consumption (ml/min) or alveolar venti-lation (l/min) can indicate a number of affective processes, such as arousal,anger, or stress (Harver & Lorig, 2000). Previous research also suggestedthat the reactions in the sexual response system indicate sexual arousalin the mind, and these reactions can be measured by a number of psy-chophysiological techniques (Zuckerman, 1972; Geer & Janssen, 2000).
In closing, despite certain difficulties, psychophysiological techniquesoffer a number of advantages over behavioral and verbal measures. Withnew technologies being made available, the potential of psychophysio-logical techniques for further research is vast.
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th
e in
itia
l per
iod
of e
xpos
ure
an
d le
ft h
emis
pher
e do
min
ates
th
e fo
llow
ing
peri
ods.
Ros
site
r et
al.,
2001
aV
isu
al r
ecog
nit
ion
pat
tern
s N
ot d
iscu
ssed
Con
ten
t,co
ncu
rren
t,an
d E
nco
din
g of
dyn
amic
vis
ual
sce
nes
into
on
TV
com
mer
cial
s pr
edic
tive
val
idit
y es
tabl
ish
edlo
ng-
term
mem
ory
take
s pl
ace
in t
he
left
h
emis
pher
e.
Pu
pill
ary
Res
pon
se
Kru
gman
,196
4P
upi
llar
y re
spon
se,v
erba
l R
elia
bili
ty
Con
ten
t an
d pr
edic
tive
T
he
corr
elat
ion
bet
wee
n p
upi
llar
y re
spon
se,a
nd
volu
me
of s
ales
in
ques
tion
ed b
ecau
se
vali
dity
est
abli
shed
resp
onse
an
d sa
les
is la
rger
th
an t
hat
m
easu
rin
g ad
vert
isin
g of
sm
all m
agni
tude
of
betw
een
ver
bal r
espo
nse
an
d sa
les.
effe
ctiv
enes
s ch
ange
s
Ap
pen
dix
:(c
onti
nu
ed)
Art
icle
Nam
eR
esea
rch
Qu
esti
on(s
)R
elia
bili
ty o
f M
easu
reV
alid
ity
of M
easu
reF
indi
ngs
mar252_40_20206.qxd 12/24/07 11:20 AM Page 224
Kru
gman
,196
5P
upi
llar
y re
spon
se a
nd
verb
al
Not
dis
cuss
edP
redi
ctiv
e va
lidi
ty e
stab
lish
edP
upi
llar
y re
spon
se h
as s
ign
ific
ant
resp
onse
in m
easu
rin
g di
scri
min
ator
y po
wer
bet
wee
n d
iffe
ren
t ad
vert
isin
g ef
fect
iven
ess
com
mer
cial
s,bu
t ve
rbal
res
pon
se
does
not
.
Kru
gman
,196
6C
onsu
mer
res
pon
ses
to
Not
dis
cuss
edC
onte
nt
vali
dity
est
abli
shed
Wh
ites
an
d bl
acks
dif
fer
in t
hei
r pa
ckag
e de
sign
s pr
efer
ence
s of
pac
kage
des
ign
s.
Hal
pern
196
7P
upi
llar
y re
spon
se p
atte
rns
Not
dis
cuss
edC
onte
nt
and
pred
icti
ve
Pu
pill
ary
resp
onse
has
sig
nif
ican
t be
fore
an
d af
ter
expl
anat
ion
va
lidi
ty e
stab
lish
eddi
scri
min
ator
y po
wer
in b
efor
e-an
d-af
ter
of t
he
stim
uli
expe
rim
ents
.
Van
Bor
tel,
1968
Pu
pil d
ilat
ion
un
der
init
ial
Not
dis
cuss
edC
onte
nt
and
pred
icti
ve
Pu
pill
ary
resp
onse
has
sig
nif
ican
t im
pact
,per
suas
ion
,an
d va
lidi
ty e
stab
lish
eddi
scri
min
ator
y po
wer
in t
he
diff
eren
ces
sale
s le
ads
of s
ales
lead
s,bu
t n
ot in
th
e am
oun
t of
di
ffer
ence
s in
sal
es.
Hes
s,19
68P
upil
lary
res
pons
e to
des
igns
,N
ot d
iscu
ssed
Con
tent
and
pre
dict
ive
Pup
illa
ry r
espo
nse
is p
osit
ivel
y as
soci
ated
ty
pes
of a
ds,a
nd
prod
uct
sva
lidi
ty e
stab
lish
edw
ith
act
ual
sal
e.P
upi
llar
y re
spon
se h
as
sign
ific
ant
disc
rim
inat
ory
pow
er b
etw
een
prin
t an
d T
V a
ds.
Sta
ffor
d,B
irdw
ell,
&
Pu
pill
ary
resp
onse
in
Not
dis
cuss
edC
onte
nt
and
pred
icti
ve
Pu
pill
ary
resp
onse
has
sig
nif
ican
t V
an T
asse
l,19
70m
easu
rin
g af
fect
vali
dity
est
abli
shed
disc
rim
inat
ory
pow
er b
etw
een
st
imu
lus
ads.
Kin
g,19
72R
elat
ion
ship
bet
wee
n p
upi
l N
ot d
iscu
ssed
Con
ten
t an
d pr
edic
tive
E
nla
rged
pu
pil s
ize
indi
cate
s fa
vora
ble
dila
tion
an
d m
essa
ge a
ppea
lva
lidi
ty e
stab
lish
edat
titu
des
and
con
sum
ers’
inte
rest
s.
Ele
ctro
der
mal
An
alys
is
Koh
an,1
968
Gal
van
ic s
kin
res
pon
se a
nd
Not
dis
cuss
edC
onve
rgen
t an
d pr
edic
tive
D
iffe
ren
ces
betw
een
gal
van
ic s
kin
ve
rbal
res
pon
se in
mea
suri
ng
vali
dity
est
abli
shed
resp
onse
an
d ve
rbal
res
pon
se a
re n
ot
adve
rtis
ing
effe
ctiv
enes
s si
gnif
ican
t.
Bel
ch e
t al
.,19
82P
sych
olog
ical
an
d ph
ysio
logi
cal
Not
dis
cuss
edP
redi
ctiv
e va
lidi
ty e
stab
lish
edN
udi
ty a
nd
sugg
esti
ven
ess
elic
it s
kin
re
spon
ses
to s
ex in
ads
reac
tion
s,an
d th
e co
gnit
ive
and
affe
ctiv
e re
spon
ses
asso
ciat
ed w
ith
th
ese
reac
tion
s va
ry b
y ge
nde
r.
Kil
bour
ne,P
aint
on,&
E
ffec
tive
ness
of s
exua
l em
bedd
ing
Not
dis
cuss
edP
redi
ctiv
e va
lidi
ty e
stab
lish
edS
exua
l em
bedd
ing
is e
ffec
tive
in in
crea
sing
Rid
ley,
1985
in a
dver
tisi
ng
elec
trod
erm
al a
ctiv
itie
s in
res
pons
e to
ads
.
(Con
tin
ued
)
mar252_40_20206.qxd 12/24/07 11:20 AM Page 225
Aak
er,S
taym
an,&
G
alva
nic
ski
n r
espo
nse
an
d T
est-
rete
st
Con
ten
t,co
nve
rgen
t,an
d G
alva
nic
ski
n r
espo
nse
is p
osit
ivel
y H
ager
ty,1
986
war
mth
in a
dver
tisi
ng
reli
abil
ity
pred
icti
ve v
alid
ity
esta
blis
hed
asso
ciat
ed w
ith
war
mth
leve
l in
de
mon
stra
ted
adve
rtis
ing.
Fro
st &
Sta
uffe
r,19
87A
rous
al in
res
pons
e to
N
ot d
iscu
ssed
Con
tent
,con
verg
ent,
and
Ski
n co
nduc
tanc
e re
spon
se a
nd b
lood
pul
se
med
ia v
iole
nce
con
curr
ent
vali
dity
vo
lum
e ar
e bo
th p
osit
ivel
y as
soci
ated
wit
h es
tabl
ish
edar
ousa
l lev
els.
Ste
m a
nd
Boz
man
198
8M
eth
ods
in r
edu
cin
g re
spon
den
t N
ot d
iscu
ssed
Con
ten
t va
lidi
ty e
stab
lish
edS
ign
ific
ant
diff
eren
ces
in a
nxi
ety
exis
t an
xiet
ybe
twee
n q
ues
tion
met
hod
s.
Sta
yman
& A
aker
,199
3W
arm
th,l
ikin
g,h
um
or,i
rrit
atio
n,
Tes
t-re
test
C
onte
nt,
con
verg
ent,
and
Gal
van
ic s
kin
res
pon
se is
pos
itiv
ely
and
galv
anic
ski
n r
espo
nse
reli
abil
ity
pred
icti
ve v
alid
ity
esta
blis
hed
asso
ciat
ed w
ith
war
mth
leve
l an
d h
um
or.
dem
onst
rate
d
Van
den
Abe
ele
&
Rel
iabi
lity
an
d va
lidi
ty o
f L
ow r
elia
bili
ty
Con
ten
t va
lidi
ty e
stab
lish
ed;
Gal
van
ic s
kin
res
pon
se is
rel
iabl
e to
M
acL
ach
lan
,199
4aga
lvan
ic s
kin
res
pon
se t
o ba
sed
on s
plit
co
nve
rgen
t va
lidi
ty s
usp
ecte
d m
easu
re a
tten
tion
wh
en a
dequ
ate
sam
ple
dyna
mic
sti
mul
isa
mpl
e co
rrel
atio
nssi
ze w
as u
sed,
but
its
vali
dity
in m
easu
ring
at
tent
ion
is q
uest
ione
d.
Van
den
Abe
ele
&
Em
otio
nal
war
mth
in r
espo
nse
L
ow r
elia
bili
ty
Con
ten
t an
d di
scri
min
ant
Gal
van
ic s
kin
res
pon
se a
nd
the
war
mth
M
acL
ach
lan
,199
4bto
TV
com
mer
cial
sba
sed
on s
plit
va
lidi
ty e
stab
lish
ed
mea
sure
are
cor
rela
ted,
but
they
mea
sure
sa
mpl
e co
rrel
atio
ns
diff
eren
t af
fect
ive
resp
onse
s.
LaB
arbe
ra &
G
alva
nic
ski
n r
espo
nse
as
a T
est-
rete
st
Con
ten
t an
d pr
edic
tive
G
alva
nic
ski
n r
espo
nse
has
hig
her
T
ucc
iaro
ne,
1995
mea
sure
of
affe
ct
reli
abil
ity
vali
dity
est
abli
shed
pred
icti
ve v
alid
ity
for
sale
s th
an v
erba
l de
mon
stra
ted
mea
sure
s.
Bag
ozzi
,199
6In
flu
ence
of
arou
sal o
n t
he
hal
o N
ot d
iscu
ssed
Not
dis
cuss
edA
rou
sal i
ncr
ease
s th
e h
alo
effe
ct f
or
effe
ct f
or b
elie
fspo
siti
ve b
elie
fs,a
nd
decr
ease
s th
e h
alo
effe
ct f
or n
egat
ive
beli
efs.
Gro
eppe
l-K
lein
&
Vis
ual
mer
chan
disi
ng,
stor
e N
ot d
iscu
ssed
Con
ten
t an
d co
ncu
rren
t E
lect
rode
rmal
res
pon
se is
a v
alid
an
d B
aun
,200
1de
sign
,an
d co
nsu
mer
aro
usa
l va
lidi
ty e
stab
lish
edse
nsi
tive
indi
cato
r of
aro
usa
l.
Bol
ls,L
ang,
&
Val
idit
y of
fac
ial m
usc
le a
ctiv
ity
Not
dis
cuss
edC
onte
nt
and
con
curr
ent
Con
sum
ers
are
sign
ific
antl
y m
ore
arou
sed
Pot
ter,
2001
in m
easu
rin
g va
len
ce
vali
dity
est
abli
shed
duri
ng
posi
tive
ads
th
an d
uri
ng
neg
ativ
e ad
s.
Ap
pen
dix
:(c
onti
nu
ed)
Art
icle
Nam
eR
esea
rch
Qu
esti
on(s
)R
elia
bili
ty o
f M
easu
reV
alid
ity
of M
easu
reF
indi
ngs
mar252_40_20206.qxd 12/24/07 11:20 AM Page 226
Bol
ls,M
ueh
lin
g,&
E
ffec
ts o
f vi
sual
cu
ts in
a
Not
dis
cuss
edC
onte
nt
and
pred
icti
ve
Fast
-pac
ed a
ds h
ave
a po
siti
ve e
ffec
t on
Yo
on,2
003
com
mer
cial
on
att
enti
on
vali
dity
est
abli
shed
view
ers’
invo
lun
tary
att
enti
on.E
nh
ance
d an
d re
call
in
volu
nta
ry a
tten
tion
is d
irec
ted
tow
ards
th
e n
on-c
laim
ele
men
ts o
f an
ad.
Su
nda
r &
E
ffec
ts o
f an
imat
ion
spe
ed o
n
Not
dis
cuss
edN
ot d
iscu
ssed
Fast
an
imat
ion
spe
eds
attr
act
atte
nti
on
Kal
yan
aram
an,2
004
arou
sal,
reca
ll,a
nd
inte
nti
onan
d el
icit
gre
ater
aro
usa
l,w
her
eas
slow
an
imat
ion
spe
eds
enh
ance
th
e ov
eral
l app
eal o
f a
Web
sit
e.
Por
ter
et a
l.,20
06P
rogr
amm
ing
con
text
an
d N
ot d
iscu
ssed
Con
ten
t,di
scri
min
ant,
Pos
itiv
e pr
ogra
mm
ing
con
text
act
ivat
es a
proc
essi
ng
of f
ear-
appe
al m
essa
geco
nve
rgen
t,an
d pr
edic
tive
vi
ewer
’s a
ppet
itiv
e m
otiv
atio
nal
sys
tem
,va
lidi
ty e
stab
lish
edw
her
eas
neg
ativ
e pr
ogra
mm
ing
con
text
ac
tiva
tes
a vi
ewer
’s a
vers
ive
mot
ivat
ion
al
syst
em.
Voi
ce P
itch
An
alys
is
Bri
ckm
an,1
976
Con
sum
ers’
aff
ecti
ve r
espo
nse
s
Not
dis
cuss
edP
redi
ctiv
e va
lidi
ty e
stab
lish
edV
oice
pit
ch is
pos
itiv
ely
asso
ciat
ed w
ith
to
pro
duct
att
ribu
tes
con
sum
ers’
act
ual
pu
rch
ase
afte
r co
mm
erci
als
are
wat
ched
.
Nel
son
& S
chw
artz
,197
9C
onsu
mer
s’ a
ttit
ude
s to
war
d H
igh
rel
iabi
lity
P
redi
ctiv
e va
lidi
ty e
stab
lish
edV
oice
pit
ch a
nal
ysis
pre
dict
s br
and
usa
ge
TV
com
mer
cial
sco
effi
cien
tm
ore
accu
rate
ly t
han
ver
bal m
easu
res.
Bri
ckm
an,1
980
Con
sum
ers’
att
itu
des
tow
ard
Tes
t-re
test
C
onte
nt,
con
verg
ent,
and
Voi
ce p
itch
an
alys
is is
a m
ore
reli
able
,br
ands
an
d pu
rch
ase
reli
abil
ity
pred
icti
ve v
alid
ity
esta
blis
hed
vali
d,an
d se
nsi
tive
mea
sure
th
an v
erba
l de
mon
stra
ted
mea
sure
s in
pre
dict
ing
actu
al p
urc
has
e.
Bac
khau
s,M
eyer
,&
Voi
ce p
itch
pat
tern
s an
d ar
ousa
lN
ot d
iscu
ssed
Con
curr
ent
vali
dity
V
oice
pit
ch le
vel a
nd
voic
e pi
tch
ran
ge
Sto
cker
t,19
85es
tabl
ish
edin
dica
te a
rou
sal l
evel
.
Hea
rt R
ate
Res
pon
se
Lan
g,19
90E
ffec
ts o
f st
ruct
ura
l fea
ture
s an
d N
ot d
iscu
ssed
Con
ten
t va
lidi
ty e
stab
lish
edS
tru
ctu
ral f
eatu
res
in c
omm
erci
als
elic
it
emot
ion
al c
onte
nt
in c
omm
erci
als
invo
lun
tary
ph
ysio
logi
cal a
tten
tion
.on
att
enti
on a
nd
arou
sal
Em
otio
nal
con
ten
t in
com
mer
cial
s in
ten
sifi
es in
volu
nta
ry p
hys
iolo
gica
l at
tent
ion
thro
ugh
the
med
iati
on o
f aro
usal
.
Bol
ls,L
ang,
&
Val
idit
y of
fac
ial m
usc
le a
ctiv
ity
Not
dis
cuss
edC
onte
nt
and
pred
icti
ve
Neg
ativ
e m
essa
ges
rece
ive
mor
e at
ten
tion
P
otte
r,20
01in
mea
suri
ng
vale
nce
vali
dity
est
abli
shed
than
pos
itiv
e m
essa
ges.
(Con
tin
ued
)
mar252_40_20206.qxd 12/24/07 11:20 AM Page 227
Lan
g et
al.,
2002
Eff
ects
of W
eb s
tru
ctu
ral f
eatu
res
Tes
t-re
test
C
onte
nt
and
pred
icti
ve
Pla
in t
ext,
boxe
d te
xt,a
nd
non
an
imat
ed
on a
tten
tion
an
d m
emor
yre
liab
ilit
y va
lidi
ty e
stab
lish
edba
nn
er a
ds d
o n
ot e
lici
t ca
rdia
ori
enti
ng,
dem
onst
rate
d bu
t w
arn
ings
an
d an
imat
ed b
ann
er a
ds
elic
it o
rien
tin
g.
Bol
ls,M
ueh
lin
g,&
E
ffec
ts o
f vi
sual
cu
ts in
a
Not
dis
cuss
edC
onte
nt
and
pred
icti
ve
Fast
-pac
ed a
ds h
ave
a po
siti
ve e
ffec
t on
Yo
on,2
003
com
mer
cial
on
att
enti
on
vali
dity
est
abli
shed
view
ers’
invo
lun
tary
att
enti
on.E
nh
ance
d an
d re
call
in
volu
nta
ry a
tten
tion
is d
irec
ted
tow
ards
th
e n
on-c
laim
ele
men
ts o
f an
ad.
Sm
ith
& D
ickh
aut,
2005
Eff
ects
of
emot
ion
on
pri
ce
Not
dis
cuss
edN
ot d
iscu
ssed
E
mot
ion
al in
ten
sity
aff
ects
pri
ce s
etti
ng
sett
ing
beh
avio
rbe
hav
ior.
Th
e ca
rdia
c sy
stem
is in
volv
ed
wit
h p
roce
ssin
g ec
onom
ic e
ven
ts.
Vas
cula
r A
ctiv
ity
Fro
st &
Sta
uff
er,1
987
Aro
usa
l lev
el in
res
pon
se t
o N
ot d
iscu
ssed
Con
ten
t an
d co
nve
rgen
t S
kin
con
duct
ance
res
pon
se a
nd
bloo
d m
edia
vio
len
ceva
lidi
ty e
stab
lish
edpu
lse
volu
me
are
both
pos
itiv
ely
asso
ciat
ed w
ith
aro
usa
l lev
el.
San
bon
mat
su &
E
ffec
ts o
f ar
ousa
l on
info
rmat
ion
N
ot d
iscu
ssed
Con
ten
t an
d pr
edic
tive
P
erip
her
al c
ue
has
a s
tron
ger
infl
uen
ce o
n
Kar
des,
1988
proc
essi
ng
and
pers
uas
ion
vali
dity
est
abli
shed
bran
d at
titu
des
un
der
hig
h t
han
un
der
mod
erat
e ar
ousa
l,w
her
eas
cen
tral
cu
e h
as
a gr
eate
r im
pact
un
der
mod
erat
e th
an
un
der
hig
h a
rou
sal.
Fac
ial
Mu
scle
Act
ivit
y
Cac
iopp
o &
Pet
ty,1
989
Aff
ecti
ve r
espo
nse
s to
pro
duct
sN
ot d
iscu
ssed
Con
ten
t an
d co
ncu
rren
t Fa
cial
mu
scle
act
ivit
y in
dica
tes
posi
tive
va
lidi
ty e
stab
lish
edor
neg
ativ
e em
otio
ns
of a
n in
divi
dual
to
war
d a
prod
uct
.
Haz
lett
& H
azle
tt,1
999
Aff
ecti
ve r
espo
nse
s to
TV
N
ot d
iscu
ssed
Con
curr
ent
and
pred
icti
ve
Faci
al m
usc
le a
ctiv
ity
is a
mor
e se
nsi
tive
co
mm
erci
als
usi
ng
self
-rep
ort
vali
dity
est
abli
shed
disc
rim
inat
or b
etw
een
com
mer
cial
s th
an
and
faci
al m
usc
le a
ctiv
ity
self
-rep
ort,
and
is m
ore
stro
ngl
y re
late
d m
easu
res
to r
ecal
l.
Ap
pen
dix
:(c
onti
nu
ed)
Art
icle
Nam
eR
esea
rch
Qu
esti
on(s
)R
elia
bili
ty o
f M
easu
reV
alid
ity
of M
easu
reF
indi
ngs
(Con
tin
ued
)
mar252_40_20206.qxd 12/24/07 11:20 AM Page 228
Bol
ls,L
ang,
&
Val
idit
y of
fac
ial m
usc
le a
ctiv
ity
Not
dis
cuss
edC
onte
nt,
con
verg
ent,
and
Th
e va
lidi
ty o
f fa
cial
mu
scle
act
ivit
y in
P
otte
r,20
01in
mea
suri
ng
vale
nce
pr
edic
tive
val
idit
y es
tabl
ish
ed
mea
suri
ng
vale
nce
res
ult
ed f
rom
med
ia
mes
sage
s is
dem
onst
rate
d.
Por
ter
et a
l.,20
06P
rogr
amm
ing
con
text
an
d N
ot d
iscu
ssed
Con
ten
t,di
scri
min
ant,
Pos
itiv
e pr
ogra
mm
ing
con
text
act
ivat
es a
pr
oces
sin
g of
fea
r-ap
peal
mes
sage
con
verg
ent,
and
pred
icti
ve
view
er’s
app
etit
ive
mot
ivat
ion
al s
yste
m,
vali
dity
est
abli
shed
wh
erea
s n
egat
ive
prog
ram
min
g co
nte
xt
acti
vate
s a
view
er’s
ave
rsiv
e m
otiv
atio
nal
sy
stem
.
Eye
Mov
emen
t An
alys
is
Kru
gman
,197
1E
ffec
ts o
f ad
vert
isin
g st
imu
li
Not
dis
cuss
edC
onte
nt,
con
curr
ent,
and
Rec
all i
s po
siti
vely
ass
ocia
ted
wit
h e
ye
on r
ecal
l pr
edic
tive
val
idit
y es
tabl
ish
edm
ovem
ents
.Les
s-sc
ann
ed a
ds a
re
bett
er r
ecal
led.
Mor
riso
n &
Dai
nof
f,19
72R
ecal
l of
ads
and
indi
vidu
als’
N
ot d
iscu
ssed
Con
ten
t an
d pr
edic
tive
R
ecal
l of
ads
is p
osit
ivel
y as
soci
ated
wit
h
tim
e lo
okin
g at
mag
azin
esva
lidi
ty e
stab
lish
edin
divi
dual
s’ lo
okin
g ti
me
on m
agaz
ines
.
Kin
g,19
72E
ye m
ovem
ent
and
mes
sage
N
ot d
iscu
ssed
Con
ten
t an
d co
ncu
rren
t R
atio
nal
an
d ob
ject
ive
thou
ghts
are
ap
peal
vali
dity
est
abli
shed
rein
forc
ed w
hen
eye
dir
ecti
on is
rig
ht,
whe
reas
em
otio
nal a
nd s
ubje
ctiv
e th
ough
tsar
e re
info
rced
wh
en e
ye d
irec
tion
is le
ft.
Tre
istm
an &
Gre
gg,1
979
Eye
mov
emen
ts,v
erba
l mea
sure
s,N
ot d
iscu
ssed
Con
tent
,con
verg
ent,
and
Eye
mov
emen
t ha
s su
peri
or d
iscr
imin
ator
yan
d sa
les
in m
easu
rin
g pr
edic
tive
val
idit
y es
tabl
ish
edpo
wer
in c
onsu
mer
s’ r
eact
ion
s to
ad
vert
isin
g ef
fect
iven
ess
diff
eren
t ad
s.
Kro
eber
-Rie
l &
Eye
mov
emen
t an
d re
cogn
itio
n
Not
dis
cuss
edV
alid
ity
of e
ye m
ovem
ent
Info
rmat
ion
acq
uis
itio
n is
bet
ter
for
Bar
ton
,198
0da
ta in
mea
suri
ng
adve
rtis
ing
depe
ndi
ng
on c
ogn
itiv
e te
xtu
al e
lem
ents
pos
itio
ned
in t
he
upp
er
effe
ctiv
enes
s le
arn
ing
hal
f of
an
ad.
Mem
ory
perf
orm
ance
is
posi
tive
ly a
ssoc
iate
d w
ith
th
e n
um
ber
of
eye
fixa
tion
s.
Kro
eber
-Rie
l,19
84E
ffec
ts o
f e
mot
ion
al p
icto
rial
N
ot d
iscu
ssed
Con
ten
t an
d co
ncu
rren
t E
ye m
ovem
ent
indi
cate
s th
e ex
ten
t of
th
e el
emen
ts in
th
e ad
on
va
lidi
ty e
stab
lish
edco
gnit
ive
acti
viti
es a
s w
ell a
s th
e se
lect
ive
info
rmat
ion
pro
cess
ing
info
rmat
ion
acq
uis
itio
n a
nd
proc
essi
ng.
Bog
art
& T
olle
y,19
88P
atte
rns
of b
rain
act
ivit
y an
d N
ot d
iscu
ssed
Con
ten
t va
lidi
ty e
stab
lish
edA
ds la
rger
th
an h
alf
a pa
ge r
ecei
ve m
ore
con
ten
ts o
f ad
s fi
xati
ons
and
mu
ltip
le f
ixat
ion
s. (Con
tin
ued
)
mar252_40_20206.qxd 12/24/07 11:20 AM Page 229
Kru
gman
et
al.,
1994
Eff
ects
of
cau
tion
ary
not
ices
in
Not
dis
cuss
edC
onte
nt,
con
curr
ent,
and
Dw
ell t
ime
is p
osit
ivel
y as
soci
ated
wit
h
ads
on r
ecal
lpr
edic
tive
val
idit
y es
tabl
ish
edco
nte
nt
reca
ll.T
he
tim
e sp
ent
look
ing
at
the
war
nin
g is
pos
itiv
ely
rela
ted
to r
ecal
l of
th
e m
essa
ge.
Ru
sso
& L
ecle
rc,1
994
Con
sum
ers’
ch
oice
pro
cess
by
Not
dis
cuss
edC
onte
nt
vali
dity
est
abli
shed
Th
e ch
oice
pro
cess
has
sev
eral
dis
tin
ctiv
e u
sin
g ey
e fi
xati
ons
stag
es d
ue
to e
ye f
ixat
ion
s fo
r di
ffer
ent
purp
oses
.
Loh
se,1
997
Fact
ors
infl
uen
cin
g co
nsu
mer
N
ot d
iscu
ssed
Con
ten
t va
lidi
ty e
stab
lish
ed
Su
bjec
ts a
re m
ore
like
ly t
o n
otic
e la
rger
at
ten
tion
to
yell
ow p
ages
ads
ads
and
ads
nea
r th
e h
eadi
ng.
Col
or a
nd
grap
hic
s h
ave
sign
ific
ant
effe
cts
onvi
ewin
g ti
me.
Ros
berg
en,P
iete
rs,&
E
ffec
ts o
f ph
ysic
al a
d pr
oper
ties
T
est-
rete
st
Con
ten
t va
lidi
ty e
stab
lish
edC
onsu
mer
s ex
hib
it d
isti
nct
pat
tern
s of
W
edel
,199
7on
att
enti
on
reli
abil
ity
visu
al a
tten
tion
,pro
duct
invo
lvem
ent,
dem
onst
rate
d br
and
atti
tude
,an
d ad
vert
isin
g re
call
.
Jan
isze
wsk
i,19
98In
form
atio
n g
ath
erin
g an
d N
ot d
iscu
ssed
Not
dis
cuss
edC
onsu
mer
s en
gage
d in
exp
lora
tory
sea
rch
re
tent
ion
duri
ng e
xplo
rato
ry s
earc
hsp
end
less
att
enti
on o
n a
reas
su
rrou
nde
d by
mat
eria
l gen
erat
ing
a st
ron
g de
man
d fo
r at
ten
tion
.
Fox
et
al.,
1998
Eff
ects
of
prod
uct
war
nin
gs
Not
dis
cuss
edC
onte
nt
vali
dity
est
abli
shed
Sim
ilar
war
nin
gs c
an p
rodu
ce d
iffe
ren
t on
att
enti
on
len
gth
s of
dw
ell t
ime,
depe
ndi
ng
on t
he
prod
uct
an
d m
essa
ge.
Pie
ters
,Ros
berg
en,&
C
onsu
mer
s’ v
isua
l att
enti
on d
urin
gR
elia
bili
ty w
as
Con
ten
t va
lidi
ty e
stab
lish
edA
tten
tion
du
rati
on d
ecre
ases
sig
nif
ican
tly
Wed
el,1
999
repe
ated
exp
osu
res
to p
rin
t ad
squ
esti
oned
bec
ause
ac
ross
adv
erti
sin
g re
peti
tion
s.A
tten
tion
al
of e
xces
sive
blin
king
sc
anpa
ths
rem
ain
con
stan
t ac
ross
or
tea
rad
vert
isin
g re
peti
tion
s.
Pie
ters
& W
arlo
p,19
99E
ffec
ts o
f ti
me
pres
sure
an
d ta
sk
Not
dis
cuss
edC
onte
nt a
nd p
redi
ctiv
e In
crea
sed
tim
e pr
essu
re le
ads
to
mot
ivat
ion
on
con
sum
ers’
va
lidi
ty e
stab
lish
edac
cele
rati
on,m
ore
filt
rati
on,a
nd
mor
e vi
sual
att
enti
onin
form
atio
n a
cqu
isit
ion
,wh
erea
s in
crea
sed
task
mot
ivat
ion
lead
s to
de
cele
rati
on,l
ess
filt
rati
on,a
nd
less
in
form
atio
n a
cqu
isit
ion
.
Ap
pen
dix
:(c
onti
nu
ed)
Art
icle
Nam
eR
esea
rch
Qu
esti
on(s
)R
elia
bili
ty o
f M
easu
reV
alid
ity
of M
easu
reF
indi
ngs
mar252_40_20206.qxd 12/24/07 11:20 AM Page 230
Wed
el &
Pie
ters
,200
0E
ye f
ixat
ion
s on
pri
nt
ads
and
Not
dis
cuss
edC
onte
nt
and
pred
icti
ve
Eye
fix
atio
ns
to t
he
pict
oria
l an
d th
e m
emor
y of
adv
erti
sed
bran
dsva
lidi
ty e
stab
lish
edbr
and
are
posi
tive
ly a
ssoc
iate
d w
ith
br
and
mem
ory.
Gar
cia,
Pon
soda
,&
Eff
ects
of i
nvol
vem
ent
and
posi
tion
N
ot d
iscu
ssed
Con
ten
t va
lidi
ty e
stab
lish
edP
osit
ion
of
the
illu
stra
tion
has
no
effe
ct o
n
Est
ebar
anz,
2000
of il
lust
rati
on o
n a
tten
tion
at
ten
tion
wh
en in
volv
emen
t is
hig
h,b
ut
it
does
wh
en in
volv
emen
t is
low
.In
tera
ctio
n
effe
ct e
xist
s be
twee
n p
osit
ion
of
the
illu
stra
tion
an
d in
volv
emen
t.
Dre
ze &
Hu
ssh
err,
2003
Att
enti
on,r
ecal
l,an
d co
gnit
ion
N
ot d
iscu
ssed
Con
ten
t va
lidi
ty e
stab
lish
edV
iew
ers
inte
nd
to a
void
ban
ner
s,bu
t of
ban
ner
adv
erti
sin
glo
cati
on,s
ize,
and
zon
e co
nte
nt
pred
ict
wh
eth
er a
ban
ner
att
ract
s at
ten
tion
.
Pie
ters
& W
edel
,200
4E
ffec
ts o
f br
and,
pict
oria
l,an
d N
ot d
iscu
ssed
Con
ten
t an
d pr
edic
tive
P
icto
rial
ele
men
t is
su
peri
or in
cap
turi
ng
text
on
att
enti
on o
f ad
sva
lidi
ty e
stab
lish
edat
ten
tion
,in
depe
nde
nt
of it
s si
ze.T
ext
elem
ent
best
cap
ture
s at
ten
tion
in d
irec
t pr
opor
tion
to
its
surf
ace
size
.Bra
nd
elem
ent
mos
t ef
fect
ivel
y tr
ansf
ers
atte
nti
on t
o th
e ot
her
ele
men
ts.
Bra
in I
mag
ing
An
alys
is
Am
bler
et
al.,
2004
Bra
in a
ctiv
atio
n di
ffer
ence
s in
N
ot d
iscu
ssed
Not
dis
cuss
edB
rain
act
ivat
ion
in b
ran
d ch
oice
dif
fers
br
and
choi
ce a
nd
hei
ght
from
th
at f
or h
eigh
t di
scri
min
atio
n,a
nd
disc
rim
inat
ion
choi
ce t
imes
are
fas
ter
wh
en o
ne
bran
d is
mor
e fa
mil
iar.
Ru
stic
hin
i et
al.,
2005
Con
sum
er c
hoic
es b
etw
een
cert
ain,
Not
dis
cuss
edC
onte
nt
vali
dity
est
abli
shed
Bra
in a
ctiv
atio
n in
cer
tain
reg
ion
s di
ffer
s ri
sky,
and
ambi
guou
s lo
tter
ies
wh
en s
ubj
ects
hav
e di
ffer
ent
choi
ces.
Sub
ject
s es
tim
ate
the
valu
e of
the
lott
erie
s an
d th
e di
ffic
ulty
to
mak
e a
choi
ce d
urin
g lo
tter
ies.
Knu
tson
& P
eter
son,
2005
Bra
in a
ctiv
atio
n d
uri
ng
Not
dis
cuss
edC
onte
nt
and
con
curr
ent
An
tici
pati
on o
f in
crea
sin
g m
onet
ary
gain
s an
tici
pati
on o
f ga
in
vali
dity
est
abli
shed
acti
vate
s a
subc
orti
cal r
egio
n of
the
ven
tral
st
riat
um,w
here
as a
ntic
ipat
ion
of m
onet
ary
loss
es d
oes
not
.
(Con
tin
ued
)
mar252_40_20206.qxd 12/24/07 11:20 AM Page 231
Bh
att
& C
amer
er,2
005
Bra
in a
ctiv
ity
duri
ng
deci
sion
N
ot d
iscu
ssed
Con
ten
t va
lidi
ty e
stab
lish
edL
ittl
e di
ffer
ence
is f
oun
d in
bra
in a
ctiv
ity
mak
ing
and
beli
ef e
xpre
ssio
nac
ross
ch
oice
an
d be
lief
tas
ks.A
ctu
al
earn
ings
fro
m c
hoi
ces
and
beli
efs
are
neg
ativ
ely
corr
elat
ed w
ith
act
ivit
y in
th
e in
sula
,su
gges
tin
g po
or s
trat
egic
th
inke
rs
are
self
-foc
use
d.
Yoon
et
al.,
2006
Sem
anti
c ju
dgm
ents
abo
ut
Not
dis
cuss
edC
onte
nt
vali
dity
est
abli
shed
Judg
men
t ab
out
pers
ons
cau
ses
grea
ter
prod
ucts
and
pers
ons
acti
vati
on in
th
e m
edia
l pre
fron
tal c
orte
x pr
oces
sed
in t
he
brai
nre
gion
s,w
her
eas
judg
men
t ab
out
prod
uct
s ca
use
s gr
eate
r ac
tiva
tion
in t
he
left
infe
rior
pre
fron
tal c
orte
x,an
are
a fo
r ob
ject
pr
oces
sin
g.
Ap
pen
dix
:(c
onti
nu
ed)
Art
icle
Nam
eR
esea
rch
Qu
esti
on(s
)R
elia
bili
ty o
f M
easu
reV
alid
ity
of M
easu
reF
indi
ngs
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