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Formatting Cross-Media Circulation: On the Epistemology and Economy of Sports Highlights

Stauff, M.

Published in:Format Matters

DOI:10.14619/1556

Link to publication

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Citation for published version (APA):Stauff, M. (2020). Formatting Cross-Media Circulation: On the Epistemology and Economy of Sports Highlights.In M. Jancovic, A. Volmar, & A. Schneider (Eds.), Format Matters: Standards, Practices, and Politics in MediaCultures (pp. 107-128). Lüneburg: Meson Press. https://doi.org/10.14619/1556

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Download date: 12 Jun 2020

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FormattingCross-MediaCirculation:Onthe EpistemologyandEconomyofSportsHighlights

MarkusStauff

In­1999­Elihu­Katz­argued­for­a­more­systematic­development­of­a­theory­of­diffusion:­an­interdisciplinary­theory­that­could­help­to­compare­the­spread­of­viruses,­the­circulation­of­goods­and­materials,­the­innovation­of­technologies­and­the­adaptation­and­transformation­of­cultural­values­and­meanings.­The­difficulty­for­such­a­theory,­he­argued­then,­results­from­the­“ostensible­incommensurability­of­diffusing­items­[and]­their­refusal­to­hold­still­in­transit”­(Katz­1999,­144).­Media­studies’­recently­surging­interest­in­the­concept­of­“format”­(e.g.,­Moran­1998;­Sterne­2012)­can­be­considered­a­contribution­to­such­a­theory­of­diffusion;­at­least,­the­format’s­potential­to­enable­diffusion­by­ordering­content­(or­information)­according­to­a­material,­technical,­or­legal­framework­is­a­shared­concern­of­otherwise­pretty­heterogeneous­approaches.

In­the­following,­I­take­the­omnipresence­of­sports­highlights­in­media­culture­as­a­starting­point­to­analyze­the­interrelation­between­formatting­practices­and­cross-media­circulation:­Condensed­representations­of­sports­events­featuring­a­number­of­selected­moments­and­the­result­of­a­competition,­arguably,­belong­to­the­most­consistently­and­most­dynamically­circulating­items­in­media­culture­for­the­last­100­years.­Crossing­all­media­(from­film­to­television­to­online­video­and­games),­a­number­of­different­genres­(news­and­entertainment),­and­often­also­the­borders­created­by­languages­or­nation­states,­sports­highlights­guarantee­the­“spreadability”­( Jenkins,­Ford,­and­Green­2013)­of­the­results,­narratives­and­mythologies­of­modern­competitive­sports.

Jancovic, Marek, Axel Volmar, and Alexandra Schneider, eds. 2019. Format Matters. Standards, Practices, and Politics in Media Cultures. Lüneburg: meson press.

108 Format Matters

Sports­highlights­don’t­show­the­same­material­rigidity­or­institutional­consistency­as­more­paradigmatic­examples­of­formats—say­a­painting’s­physical­frame­or­a­sound­file’s­technical­and­legal­standards.­But­in­offering­selections­and­condensations­of­sports’­special­moments,­they­not­only­format—that­is,­standardize—observations­on­and­knowledge­about­sport­events,­whether­on­film,­television,­or­social­media­platforms,­but­also­structure­the­very­reality­of­sports.­Simultaneously,­these­highlights,­as­with­the­formats­of­the­TV­industry­(Magder­2004),­allow­for­the­constant­modulation­and­local­adaptation­of­content­and­form.­This­volatility­gets­harnessed­and­constrained­through­conflicting­strategies­of­fans,­rights­holders,­media­platforms,­and­national­governments,­which­all­have­a­share­in­highlights’­formatting­potential.­Thus,­I­want­to­argue­that­sports­highlights’­combination­of­standardization­and­flexibility­makes­it­an­espe-cially­rich­example­for­a­conceptual­and­empirical­discussion­of­formats—or­rather­of­formatting­practices.

Taking­my­lead­from­television­studies,­I­will­argue­that­the­sports­high-light is a cultural technology of diffusion.­Its­cross-media­circulation­clearly­results­from­a­highly­flexible­but­still­regulated­manner­of­transformation.­This­chapter,­thus,­aims­to­analyze­how­sports­highlights­travel­because­of­a­combination­of­epistemological,­legal,­and­aesthetic­strategies­that­result­less­in­one­particular­format­(with­standardized­characteristics)­but­rather­in­constantly­adapting­formatting­practices.­Sports­becomes­formatted­into­both­an­object­of­knowledge­and­a­toolset­for­media­industry;­at­the­same­time,­the­sports­highlight­provokes­new­industrial­and­legal­strategies.

The­first­two­sections­of­this­chapter­will­sketch­the­historical­and­concep-tual­framework.­First,­I­will­describe­how­in­the­19th­century­modern­sports­was­made­possible­through­representational­forms­that­gave­a­reliable­and­condensed­account­of­the­competitions.­Second,­I­will­use­the­established­notion­of­the­TV­format­to­specify­some­key­characteristics­of­sports­high-lights­as­a­format.­

Thereafter,­in­the­analytical­part­of­this­chapter,­I­will­take­a­closer­look­at­some­of­the­dynamics­that­contribute­to­the­recognizability­and­transform-ability­of­sports­highlights.­Each­of­the­four­sections­of­this­second­part­focuses­on­one­aspect­of­the­actual­work­that­highlights­do,­not­only­for­sports­but­also­for­the­media­industries­and­media­policy:­(a)­the­sports-highlights­compilation­is­a­derivative­format­that­achieves­its­identity­from­the­task­of­condensing­and­circulating­selected­aspects­of­a­competition;­(b)­its­formal­scalability­and­modularity­allows­the­sports­highlight­to­adapt­this­task­to­the­requirements­of­different­media­and­different­cultural­

Formatting Cross-Media Circulation 109

circumstances;­(c)­such­flexibility­extends­its­task,­so­that­beyond­the­role­of­summarizing­sports,­the­sports­highlight­becomes­a­tool­to­promote­sport­organizations­and­media­industries;­(d)­because­of­its­ambivalent­status­as­both­a­derivative­format­and­a­valuable­commodity,­the­sports­highlight­is­harnessed­for­economic­and­political­strategies.

HistoricalFraming:FormattingSportsIn­the­19th­century,­the­emergence­of­competitive­spectator­sports­was­made­possible­through­condensed­representations­of­its­various­events­in­the­mass­press.­The­reports­on­competitions­from­different­places­(and­from­different­sports)­created­a­public­that­got­interested­in­a­more­comprehensive­and­more­expansive­comparison­of­performances.­This­interest­contributed­to­the­serialization­and­standardization­of­sporting­events­(Werron­2014;­2010;­2009),­a­process­that­can­itself­be­described­as­formatting:­for­example,­instead­of­informal­and­spontaneous­contests­adapted­to­the­given­space­and­available­time,­horse­races­and­running­competitions­became­differentiated­according­to­standardized­lengths­and­ball­games­got­framed­by­lines­of­fixed­dimensions­separating­playing­fields­from­spectators­(Bale­1996).

This formatting of the sporting practices happens in close interrelation-ship­with­the­formatting­of­the­modes­of­observation­and­reporting.­Most­drastically,­the­result­of­a­competition­is­condensed­in­a­quantitative­manner,­as­in­the­score­of­a­football­game­(e.g.,­3–1)­and­the­places­and­finishing­times­of­a­horse­race.­Results­of­different­events­are­aggregated­in­tables­and­rankings.­Leagues,­with­their­weekly­changing­tables,­and­World­Records­are­two­different,­but­nevertheless­characteristic­phenomena­of­the­later­19th­century.­Both­imply­that­performances­that­take­place­at­different­times­and­at­different­places­can­be­compared,­thanks­to­the­standardization­of­the­actual­competition­and­of­the­way­it­is­recorded­and­communicated­(Heintz­and­Werron­2011,­276).

Next­to­results,­rankings,­and­statistics,­the­condensed­communication­of­sports­events­in­newspapers­and­special-interest­magazines­harnessed­narrative,­allegorical,­and­pictorial­modes­of­observation,­too,­which­embellished­and­contextualized­the­sober­quantitative­formatting­of­individual­events.­This­implies­the­selection­of­distinctive­moments­from­a­competition­that­are­considered­either­to­have­led­to­the­result­or­to­be­remarkable­independent­of­that­result.­In­both­cases,­the­mere­result­is­supplemented­with­representations­of­what­are­considered­the­highlights of­the­event­(Gamache­2010).­A­goal­scored­in­a­team­sport­and­crossing­the­

110 Format Matters

finish­line­in­a­race­are­both­clear­examples­of­the­results-oriented­aspect­of­highlights;­yet­especially­artful­or­skilled­movements­can­become­part­of­highlights­compilations­too,­as­can­controversial­referee­decisions­or­even-tually­any­athlete’s­(or­even­audience­member’s)­remarkable,­especially­fair­or­unfair,­spectacular­or­dumb­behavior.­While­there­are­clear­cornerstones­for­sports­highlights,­they­always­leave­room­for­more­subjective­impres-sion­and­therefore­open­a­discussion­about­the­most­appropriate­way­of­condensing­an­event.­

While­sports­highlights­mainly­are­conceived­of­as­representations­in­hindsight­of­the­event,­they were­quickly­also­contributing­to­the­expectations­for­upcoming­competitions.­Characteristically,­reporting­on­the­1908­Olympic­Games­in­London­announced­the­marathon­race­two­days­in­advance,­singling­out­stretches­of­the­course­expected­to­create­especially­exciting­moments­or­considered­to­be­advantageous­or­dis-advantageous­for­particular­types­of­athletes­(Stauff­2018a).

To­wrap­up­this­short­historical­introduction,­highlights­have­an­epis-temological­function.­They­serve­as­formats­to­observe,­select,­define,­and­organize,­but­also­to­question­or­debate,­the­moments­of­an­event­consid-ered­to­be­relevant,­memorable,­and­spreadable.­As­with­most­formats,­highlights­compilations­often­aggregate­sub-formats;­they­include­results,­statistics,­tables,­and­highly­formatted­narratives.­Sports­highlights­result­from­the­intersection­of­two­interrelated­formatting­processes.­They­are­defined­partly­by­the­format­of­each­sport,­its­dramaturgy­and­rules,­and­partly­by­the­formatted­modes­of­observation.­A­decisive­move­or­particular­turn­of­events­becomes­a­highlight­when­it­can­be­condensed­into­a­recognizable­and­repeatable­representation,­which­is­as­much­dependent­on­the­rules­of­the­sport­as­on­the­forms­and­technologies­har-nessed­to­give­an­account­of­a­competition.­Modern­competitive­sports­only­exist­because­of­formats­that­shape­their­observation­and­provoke­a­selection­of­key­moments­that­can­easily­be­circulated.­The­diffusion­is­stimulated­by­effective­condensations­that­harness­different­media­forms­(numbers,­narratives,­images)­and­therefore­allow­for­easy­adaptation­to­different­media­systems­(press,­film,­television).­The­ongoing­debate­about­whether­the­most­important­moments­are­selected­and­if­the­mode­of­rep-resentation­is­appropriate­further­spurs­the­diffusion­process.

Before­I­go­into­detail­about­the­dynamics­that­contribute­to­the­formatting­function­of­highlights,­I­will­first­offer­some­more­conceptual­remarks­con-cerning­the­notion­of­format.­Taking­my­lead­from­television­studies,­I­argue­

Formatting Cross-Media Circulation 111

that­the­concept­of­format­is­intriguing­because­it­allows­one­to­describe­a­highly­flexible­but­still­regulated­manner­of­transformation.

Conceptual Framing: Form/Format/TV FormatThe­sports­highlight,­I­argued­in­the­first­section,­fosters­the­diffusion­of­sports’­remarkable­events­and­results.­Thus,­it­has­close­affinities­to­the­concept­of­format,­given­that­formats­can­be­defined­as modes of presentation­that­are­made­to­enable­and­facilitate­certain­modes­of­circulation.1­As­Gerard­Genette­explains­in­Paratexts,­the­format­of­a­book­(originally­resulting­from­folding­the­paper­in­different­manners)­is­one­of­the­earliest­uses­of­the­term;­the­format­materially­shapes­mobility­and­moreover­connotes­a­certain­position­on­the­ladder­of­cultural­respecta-bility—as­we­know­especially­from­paperbacks­or­“pocket­editions”­(Genette­1997,­18).

Since­the­sports­highlight­misses­the­clear­material­delineation­character-izing­the­different­book­formats­(or­technical­formats­like­MP3),­it­might­seem­likely­to­describe­it­as­a­genre­or­even­more­general­as­a­form.­Car-oline­Levine­(2016),­at­least,­has­convincingly­argued­that­forms­order­signs,­materialities,­and­meanings­in­a­restraining­and­recognizable­manner.­The­most­basic­result­hereof­is­that­forms­differ:­it­is­often­easy­to­distinguish­one­form­from­another.­Additionally,­this­allows­forms­to­travel.­They­move­across­different­materials­and­media,­across­different­cultures­and­regions,­and­not­least­between­media­representations­(or­art,­if­you­like)­on­the­one­hand­and­social­reality­on­the­other­(Levine­2016,­4–7).­

The­concept­of­format,­however,­highlights­how­some­forms­are­more­closely­bound­to­a­set­of­practices­and­an­institutional­context­than­others.­Understanding­highlights­as­format­(and­not­merely­as­form­or­genre),­thus­allows­one­to­underline­their­specific­function­for­the­institutional­system­of­sports­media­and­the­implicit­and­explicit­regulations­of­high-light­compilations­that­come­with­that­(and­which­will­be­outlined­in­the­following­sections).­

A­format­is­connected­to­a­series­of­decisions­and­a­set­of­explicit­rules­that­have­to­be­followed­to­make­it­work­for­a­particular­medium­and­to­intentionally­foster­the­circulation­process.­Liam­Young­(2017,­38),­for­

1­ According­to­Lothar­Mikos,­formats­are­modes­of­presentation­(“Präsentations-formen”)­that­adapt­to­media’s­capabilities­to­show­and­tell;­thereby,­he­contrasts­formats­with­genres’­function­of­ordering­content­according­to­patterns­of­cultural­meaning­(Mikos­1995,­170).­For­a­similar­distinction­between­format­and­genre,­though­focusing­more­on­the­trade­aspect,­see­Keane­and­Moran­(2008,­158).

112 Format Matters

example,­argues­that­the­list­is­a­form­in­the­context­of­art­practices­(the­famous­lists­of­Homer)­but­a­format­in­the­context­of­administration­because­it­is­used­to­fulfil­explicit­tasks­and­gains­a­particular­epis-temological­function.­The­making­of­the­list­and­its­circulation­is­shaped­by­patterned­practices­and­institutional­concerns.­While­Young­bases­his­reflections­on­the­format­mainly­on­Jonathan­Sterne’s­(2012)­analysis­of­the­MP3,­I­will­refer­here­to­the­notion­of­format­in­the­television­industry­and­television­studies.­Sterne’s­work­on­the­MP3­approaches­the­format­as­a­“crystallized­set­of­social­and­material­relations”­(2006,­826)­that­inscribes­certain­assumptions­about­human­listening­into­a­technical­standard­(2012,­2).­The­TV­format,­with­its­focus­on­adaptability­to­different­contexts,­rather­multiplies­than­crystallizes­and­thus­seems­the­more­fitting­model­for­sports­highlights’­cross-media­mutations—not­least­because­sports-highlights­compilations,­even­if­emphatically­cross-media,­developed­most­explosively­in­the­context­of­television.­

For­a­long­time,­TV­formats­were­mostly­agents­of­standardization­and­crystallization,­too.­The­program­schedule­establishes­a­grid­of­predefined­segments­of­30­or­60­minutes­and­additionally­establishes­an­intricate­entanglement­of­specific­positions­in­the­grid­with­allegedly­appropriate­content­and­values.­The­differences­between­daytime­and­prime-time­programming­and­between­weekday­and­weekend­programming­are­the­most­conspicuous­formatting­dynamics­here.­Additionally,­the­enormous­technical­and­organizational­investment­necessitated­by­broadcasting­led­to­the­establishment­of­basic­routines­of­content­production­that­shaped­the­standardized­setup­of­cameras­and­lighting,­editing,­and­modes­of­address.­Live­studio­production­and­live-on-tape­production,­but­also­outdoor­live­events­with­huge­trucks­and­kilometers­of­cable,­can­all­be­considered­patterned­production­practices­that­become­applied­to­varying­content.­

A­somewhat­different­concept­of­format­developed­in­the­context­of­global­program­exchange­which­is­much­facilitated­by­the­licensing­of­content,­or­rather­ideas­and­concepts­that­can­be­multiplied­and­adapted­to­different­contexts.­Such­TV­formats­had­been­around­since­the­1950s,­but­only­emerged­as­a­dominant­tool­for­the­distribution­of­TV­content­with­the­globalization­and­nonlinearization­of­the­TV­industry­in­the­1990s­(Moran­2009).­Until­then,­international­program­exchange­was­dominated­by­so-called­“canned­programs”­(e.g.,­Waisbord­2004)­in­which­programs­were­sold­and­distributed­on­celluloid­or­video­tape­and­adapted­slightly­at­times­to­the­local­context­through­the­addition­of­subtitles,­dubbing,­or­some­re-editing.­As­an­answer­to­the­growing­demand­for­new,­cheap,­and­low-risk­

Formatting Cross-Media Circulation 113

content,­however,­companies­in­the­1990s­started­to­sell­programming­templates, which­enabled­the­production­of­local­and­seasonal­variants­of­already­successful­programs.­While­first­mainly­applied­to­quiz­and­game­shows­and­reality­programs,­it­by­now­has­become­a­tool­for­the­circulation­of­scripted­content­as­well­(Chalaby­2016).

The­format,­here,­is­first­of­all­a­manual­for­producing­not­only­multiple­episodes­of­a­program­but­also­different­national­variations­based­on­a­formula­that­has­proven­its­success­and­allows­for­flexible­scaling­to­avail-able­budgets­(Moran­1998;­2009).­Instead­of­a­“canned­program,”­customers­receive­a­so-called­“paper­format,”­which­outlines­key­aesthetic­elements­and­provides­guidelines­for­the­production­and­marketing­“that­can­be­tailored­to­each­locale”­(Magder­2004,­147).­According­to­Silvio­Waisbord­(2004),­the­format­thus­“bridges­transnational­economic­interests­and­national­sentiments­of­belonging”­(368).­Big Brother might be the most famous­example.­As­of­November­2018,­Wikipedia­announces,­“there­have­been­445­seasons­of­Big Brother­in­over­54­franchise­countries­and­regions”­(“Big­Brother­(Franchise)”­2018).­Additionally,­when­formats­travel,­it­sometimes­is­less­the­textual­form­that­is­exchanged­than­knowledge­about­the­organizational­and­technological­ways­of­running­a­show,­thus­fostering­particular­forms­of­craftsmanship­as­well­as­industrialized,­factory-like­productions­and­their­local­adaptations­(Keinonen­2017).­

Canned­programs­and­paper­formats­imply­a­different­way­of­organizing­production,­different­systems­of­distribution,­and­specific­concepts­of­the­audience­(Moran­2009).­In­the­case­of­canned­programs,­the­formatting­takes­places­in­the­production­process­and­circulates­as­stable­text­and­as­material­technology­(a­tape,­a­file,­etc.).­In­the­case­of­paper­formats,­it­is­rather­contractual­regulations,­format­information,­and­know-how­“in­the­shape­of­a­set­of­services­designed­to­help­in­the­production­of­the­program­elsewhere”­(Moran­2009,­17).­Characteristically,­TV­formats,­while­allowing­for­the­flexible­adaptation­of­content­to­local­contexts,­emerged­together­with­a­new­global­system­of­trade­comprising,­among­other­things,­interdependent­economic­agents,­global­institutions,­and­copyright­rules­(Chalaby­2015).­In­this­sense,­TV­formats­clearly­shaped­the­infra-structure­they­circulate­on.

The­TV­format­presents­an­interesting­example­for­diffusion­theory­because­what­travels­is­not­a­thing­or­a­recognizable­form­that­is­placed­in­different­contexts.­What­circulates­are­composites­of­forms,­practices,­materials,­and­regulations­that­enable­the­generation­and­reconstruction­of­a­number­of­versions.­Much­more­flexible­than­the­canned­program,­

114 Format Matters

the­TV­format­can­be­considered­a­“cultural­technology”­that­“governs­the­flow­of­program­ideas­across­time­and­space”­(Moran­1998,­23).­It­functions­as­a­generative­matrix,­regulating­formal­innovation­and­the­cross-cul-tural­travel­of­ideas,­narratives,­technologies,­and­economic­strategies.­In­the­following­sections,­I­will­build­on­that­to­analyze­how­sports­highlight­compilations­work­as­a­generative­matrix­that­organizes­diffusion­across­different­media­through­practices­of­formatting.

Selection/Condensation:Highlightsas OperationalForms

To­a­certain­extent,­sports-highlights­compilations­are­a­forerunner­of­the­TV­format.­Since­the­1950s,­mega­events­like­the­Olympics­or­World­Cup­have­sold­media­access­to­sports­competitions­and­provided­rules­(a­proto­paper­format)­outlining­how­broadcasters­are­allowed­to­adapt­the­content­to­their­national­interests.­Unlike­TV­formats,­though,­most­sports­highlights­are­not­defined­by­a­template­or­a­program­bible.­In­con-trast­to­a­paper­format­that­is­sold,­adapted,­and­modulated­for­different­seasons­and­countries,­sports­highlights­are­a­much­more­elusive­entity.­Yet­Albert­Moran­(1998)­helpfully­clarifies:­“The­term­[format]­has­meaning­not­so­much­because­of­what­it­is,­but­rather­because­of­what­it­permits­or­facilitates”­(18).­And­as­composites­of­forms,­practices,­materials,­and­regulations,­sports­highlights,­I­argue,­can­be­considered­formats­because­of­the­work­that­they­do.­Similarly­to­the­TV­format,­they­allow­for­flexible­but­patterned­adaptation­to­different­contexts­and­especially­to­different­media­and­related­social­practices.­I­want­to­use­the­remainder­of­this­paper­to­discuss­how­sports­highlights­govern­the­flow­of­images­and­ideas­across­time­and­space­due­to­a­particular­overlap­of­formal­conventions,­technological­innovations,­economic­strategies,­and­legal­dynamics.

As­I­outlined­in­the­historical­framing­at­the­start­of­this­paper,­a­first­aspect­of­the­formatting­work­that­sports-highlights­compilations­perform­is­the­“creation­of­a­visual­shorthand”­for­decisive,­telling,­and­thrilling­moments­of­a­competition­“through­the­use­of­condensation­and­remediation”­(Gamache­2010,­10).­A­certain­formal­stability­results­from­this­operational­aspect­of­the­highlights:­they­have­to­give­an­account­of­why­and­how­one­side­won­the­contest­while­the­other­lost.­The­formal­conventions­at­least­partly­depend­on­the­rules,­the­temporal­and­spatial­characteristics­of­specific­sports.­

Formatting Cross-Media Circulation 115

During­the­19th­century,­narrative­reports­in­the­press,­maybe­augmented­by­numbers,­drawings,­or­photographs,­contributed­to­the­development­of­what­one­might­call­a­highlight­sensibility.­Rudimentary­forms­of­sports-highlights­compilations­also­existed­from­the­start­of­cinema­in­the­1890s.­Dan­Streible’s­(2008)­history­of­the­early­boxing­film­shows­that­for­quite­a­while,­the­distinction­between­highlights­and­full-event­coverage­was­less­systematic­than­dependent­on­technical­capabilities,­spontaneous­practices,­and­legal­disputes.­Early­cinema­often­displayed­boxing­as­an­attraction­without­aiming­to­present­an­actual­competition;­if­actual­competitions­(or­re-enactments­of­them)­were­staged­to­be­filmed,­they­became­adapted­to­the­medium,­such­as­by­having­rounds­of­only­one­minute­to­fit­the­length­of­a­film­reel­(Streible­2008,­6).­When­kinetoscope­parlors­presented­the­individual­rounds­of­a­fight­in­separate­kinetoscopes,­often­the­audience­turned­out­to­watch­the­knockout­round­only­(Gamache­2010,­20).­

With­consolidation­of­the­institutional­and­technological­settings­of­cinema,­highlights­compilations­eventually­achieved­a­conventionalized­form,­as­Raymond­Gamache­(2010)­details­in­his­comprehensive­A History of Sports Highlights.­Not­least­because­of­sports’­regular­schedule­throughout­the­year,­highlights­quickly­became­a­staple­of­newsreels­in­the­early­1910s­and­thereby­emerged­as­the­dominant­framework­for­presenting­sports­as­a­separate­segment­of­news.­The­newsreel­highlights­contributed­to­the­familiarization­of­a­broad­audience­with­American­football­and­other­sports­(Gamache­2010,­4).­Just­like­magazine­formats­on­television­in­the­1950s­(like­BBC’s­Match of the Day­and­Grandstand),­they­made­sports­accessible­to­a­broader,­nonexpert­audience­(Whannel­1991)­and­thereby­also­diffused­sports’­racial­and­gender­hierarchies­into­common­culture­(Gamache­2010,­67).

The­conventionalized­form­typically­presented­a­“composite­story­of­a­sporting­event­comprised­of­multiple­parts”­(Gamache­2010,­39);­it­started­with­the­venue­and­the­presentation­of­teams,­included­a­selection­of­high-light­moments­and­shots­of­the­audience­reacting,­and­ended­with­images­of­the­winners’­celebration.­When­film­sound­was­available­in­the­late­1920s,­the­commentators­fostered­a­more­individualizing­perspective,­adding­per-sonal­stories­(Gamache­2010,­51).­

In­the­1940s,­when­television­started,­sports-highlights­compilations­soon­became­part­of­the­schedule­too.­“While­the­delivery­systems­of­sportscast­highlights­have­changed,­what­has­not­undergone­significant­change­is­the­highlight­form­itself”­(Gamache­2010,­10).­With­new­technology,­close­ups,­

116 Format Matters

slow-motion­replays,­and­data­visualizations­were­successively­integrated­into­an­overall­pretty­stable­form­as­specific­but­complimentary­means­to­do­the­work­of­selection­and­condensation,­evaluation­and­admiration.

It­speaks­to­the­stability­of­the­format­and­its­function­that­most­sports­computer­games­present­a­selection­of­highlights­after­each­game­played,­which­follow­pretty­much­the­formal­pattern­established­in­film­and­tele-vision­throughout­the­past­100­years.­Not­surprisingly,­experiments­in­computer-based­video­analytics­have­come­up­with­several­models­for­the­automated­detection­of­highlights­in­television­footage­(e.g.,­Radhakrishnan­et­al.­2005;­Hao­Tang­et­al.­2011;­Assfalg­et­al.­2003).­

Nevertheless,­as­I­will­argue­in­the­following­section,­the­formatting­work­of­highlights­results­first­of­all­from­the­scalability­and­adaptability­of­this­otherwise­recognizable­form.­On­the­one­hand,­sports­highlights­easily­integrate­heterogeneous­media;­the­formatting­work­thus­results­less­from­the­form­or­materiality­of­a­particular­medium­than­from­a­more­general­endeavor­to­diffuse­sports­through­efficient­(if­controversial)­selection­and­condensation­of­key­moments.­On­the­other­hand,­the­work­sports-high-lights­compilations­do­also­comprises­the­flexible­formatting­of­selection­and­condensation­according­to­different­media­infrastructures­and­cultural­contexts.

Scalability/Modularity: Adapting to Media and Cultural Contexts

Interestingly,­Gamache­(2010,­49–66)­describes­the­patterns­in­the­his-tory­of­sports­highlights­as­resulting­from­habits,­just­as­Magder­(2004)­in­his­discussion­of­format­states­that­the­day-to-day­business­of­television­“runs­on­habit”­(143).­Recent­discussion­of­the­concept­has­underlined­the­generative­potential­of­habits:­instead­of­blindly­and­automatedly­exe-cuting­the­same­actions,­habits,­this­research­argues,­function­as­modes­of­embodied­thinking­that­allow­behaviors­to­adapt­to­changing­environ-ments­(Bennett­2016;­Grosz­2013).­Taking­my­lead­from­such­a­perspective,­I­want­to­argue­that­the­ostensive­formal­simplicity­of­sports­highlights,­resulting­from­the­half-automated­operation­of­selecting­and­condensing­the­decisive­and­remarkable­moments,­allows­for­its­adaption­to­different­temporal­and­infrastructural­circumstances.

Formatting Cross-Media Circulation 117

First­of­all,­the­formatting­work­of­highlights-compilations­becomes­visible­in­their­intense­scalability.2­They­allow­for­a­very­flexible­transition­between­the­full­event­and­the­highly­condensed­representation­of­the­mere­result.­This­transition­is­possible­because­of­the­highlights’­flexible­combination­of­different­media­forms­like­numbers,­lists,­spectacular­images,­and­over-arching­narratives.­In­games­that­consist­of­a­series­of­distinct­moves,­such­as­baseball­and­billiards,­every­single­action­could­be­documented­even­before­the­invention­of­moving­image­technology.­In­1881,­Vienna’s Allgemeine Sport-Zeitung,­for­instance,­noted­down­every­single­strike­of­a­game­of­pool­in­a­table­full­of­numbers,­providing­a­very­condensed­rep-resentation­of­the­full­event­without­actually­determining­its­highlights­(Allgemeine Sport-Zeitung­1881).

The­more­common­practice­in­today’s­media­landscape­is­a­live­trans-mission­of­events­in­which­commentators­and­the­use­of­replays­already­clearly­signal­relevant­or­remarkable­highlights.­Directly­after­the­game,­these­highlights­become­part­of­a­post-game­show­in­which­athletes­and­experts­comment­on­isolated­moments­to­further­evaluate­their­significance.­A­more­strictly­and­coherently­narrativized­compilation­of­highlights­occurs­in­shows­that­summarize­entire­game­days­in­retrospect­(like­the­British­Grandstand,­or­the­German­Sportschau).­Shorter­versions­of­these­are­often­presented­at­the­end­of­news­programs­or­increasingly­on­the­apps­of­broadcasters­and­sports­organizations,­such­as­the­National­Football­League­(NFL)­and­National­Basketball­Association­(NBA)­in­the­United­States,­and­their­media­partners,­such­as­Facebook­and­YouTube.

In­Germany,­for­example,­the­evening­news­program­of­public­service­broadcaster­ARD,­Tagesschau,­presents­condensed­highlights­of­some­games­just­15­minutes­after­the­longer­versions­of­these­compilations­have­been­presented­in­the­Sportschau­on­the­same­channel.­About­two­hours­later,­the­competing­public­service­broadcaster­ZDF­also­summarizes­the­game­day,­but­unlike­the­rather­sober­and­linear­highlight­reels­of­the­Sportschau,­these­focus­on­more­idiosyncratic­aspects­of­the­matches­(the­development­of­a­young­talent,­the­fate­of­a­coach,­the­relationship­of­a­club­with­its­fans,­and­so­on).

The­number­of­remarkable­moments,­their­formal­treatment,­and­their­re-contextualization­can­easily­be­modified.­Sports­highlights­can­thus­be­molded­to­fit­timing­from­the­original­event,­audience­prior­knowledge,­

2­ On­the­epistemological­and­methodological­implications­of­scaling,­see­McCarthy­(2006).

118 Format Matters

cultural­and­national­context,­and­strategic­industrial­and­institutional­function.­

This­can­be­illustrated­by­means­of­a­very­well-known­example.­The­1966­men’s­World­Cup­final­between­England­and­Germany­was­represented­in­condensed­form­by­newspapers­and­magazines,­on­television,­and­in­movie­theaters.­Already­the­number­of­cameras­at­the­event­allowed­for­varying­presentations­of­the­same­highlight­moments­(next­to­the­TV­cameras­were­film­cameras­recording­in­black­and­white­and­in­color).­Additionally,­the­game­included­one­especially­controversial­moment:­a­shot­by­the­English­team­that­bounced­from­the­crossbar­down­to­the­goal­line­and­from­there­back­into­the­field,­which­was­called­a­goal­by­the­referee.­This­moment­became­a­point­of­focus­in­later­highlight­reels­of­the­game­and­provoked­a­proliferation­of­re-contextualization­and­forensic­scrutiny­(Stauff­2018b),­with,­of­course,­opposing­national­narratives.­The­contemporary­newsreel­in German cinemas—the Fox Tönende Wochenschau—announced­the­scene­as­“the­most­controversial­goal­of­the­tournament”­and­showed­it­from­two­different­camera­angles.­The­second­was­presented­in­slow­motion­with­the­commentary­stating,­“these­images­prove­that­it­was­not­a­goal.”3

Forty­years­later­this­moment­was­included­in­a­DVD­with­highlights­from­BBC’s­Match­of­the­Day­(BBC Match of the Day­2004)­and­in­a­DVD­celebrating­100­years­of­FIFA­(FIFA Fever­2002).­On­the­FIFA­DVD,­the­controversial­goal­is­actually­presented­twice,­first­in­the­chapter­on­controversial­World­Cup­decisions,­where­it­becomes­part­of­a­series­of­similar­situations­that­all­are­isolated­from­their­original­context,­and­then­a­second­time­in­a­special­chapter­on­Germany’s­World­Cup­successes.­There,­the­goal­is­supplemented­by­an­interview­with­one­of­the­German­players­from­1966,­claiming­that­it­was­a­bad­call­by­the­referee­but­that­the­sportsmanlike­manner­in­which­his­team­accepted­the­decision­advanced­Germany’s­global­reputation.­This­is­only­included­in­the­German­version­of­the­DVD,­of­course;­on­the­international­Special­Deluxe­Edition­of­FIFA Fever­(2002),­the­summary­of­the­game­is­wrapped­up­with­praise­for­Geoff­Hurst’s­hat­trick­in­the­game­and­with­images­of­the­English­players­celebrating,­the­voice-over­stating,­“Now­the­nation­could­rejoice.”

The­formatting­work­of­highlights,­scaling­and­adapting­sports’­special­moments­to­different­contexts­and­requirements,­takes­advantage­of­the­rich­mediatization­of­sports.­Often­many­different­media­capture­alternative­versions­of­special­moments,­which­can­also­be­accounted­for­through­more­indirect­means­of­representation:­depictions­of­scoreboards­

3­ My­translation.­

Formatting Cross-Media Circulation 119

in­the­stadium­or­of­the­audience­cheering;­testimonies­of­participants­and­eye-witnesses;­and­graphics,­reenactments,­and­computer­simulations.­All­of­these­exist­for­the­1966­goal.­As­a­consequence,­sports­highlights­are­highly­modular:­images,­sounds,­voice-over,­and­additional­footage­can­easily­be­replaced,­augmented,­and­reedited.­This­makes­“localization”—TV-formats’­characteristic­adaptability­to­cultural­contexts­and­national­broad-casters’­needs­(e.g.,­Chalaby­2005)—easily­possible.

As­I­will­show­in­the­final­two­sections,­the­sports­highlights’­combination­of­condensation­and­scalability­makes­it­both­a­productive­machinery­for­managing­reputation­and­attention­and­a­well-protected­yet­contested­commodity.­Its­formatting­work­allows­sports­to­circulate­across­media,­but­it­also­allows­for­industrial­and­political­strategies­that­harness­sports­through­the­formatting­potential­of­highlights.

Promoting Sports/Managing Attention: HighlightsasCross-MediaStrategy

The­re-mediation­and­formal­adaptation­of­sports­highlights­is­shaped­and­fostered­not­only­by­the­work­they­do­for­sports­but­just­as­much­by­the­work­they­do­for­the­media­industries.­Their­modularity­and­scalability­make­highlights­into­versatile,­strategically­harvested­instruments­in­the­attention­economy.­

Because­highlights­condense­and­collect­special­moments­that­can­easily­be­de-­and­recontextualized,­they­are­open­for­additional­layers­of­meaning,­beyond­the­communication­and­evaluation­of­athletic­perform-ances.­Gamache­argues­that­already­in­the­1920s­and­30s­the­newsreels­“helped­to­establish­athletes­as­the­heroes­and­heroines­of­a­burgeoning­consumer­culture,­comparable­in­stature­to­the­Hollywood­movie­actors­that­followed­the­athletes­onto­the­screen”­(Gamache­2010,­67).­The­fragmentation­of­a­game­into­outstanding­moments,­presented­in­slow-motion­replays,­fostered­the­connection­between­individual­athletes­and­commodities­or­brands,­which­(more­often­than­not)­were­based­on­a­hegemonic­concept­of­masculinity­(Morse­1983)­that­is­even­more­pro-nounced­in­highlight­reels­than­in­the­coverage­of­entire­games­with­all­their­contingencies.­Later,­highlights­were­key­for­the­emergence­of­global­megastars­like­Michael­Jordan,­Wayne­Gretsky,­and­David­Beckham,­who­had­impacts­far­beyond­their­respective­sports­(Gamache­2010,­7).­

The­taming­of­contingency,­as­well­as­the­modularity­that­allows­for­the­aggregation­of­topical­situations­and­their­embellishment­with­music­and­

120 Format Matters

voice-over,­makes­the­highlight­an­ideal­tool­to­establish­a­cultural­identity­for­a­particular­sport­or­a­sports­organization­(Gamache­2010,­10).­Most­famously,­the­American­professional­football­league,­the­NFL,­already­in­1964­established­a­subsidiary­film­production­company­NFL­Films.­Travis­Vogan­has­shown­in­detail­how­the­careful­selection,­curation,­editing,­and­embellishment­of­highlights,­realized­by­NFL­Films­on­a­comprehensive­scale­for­decades,­shaped­the­cultural­memory,­meaning,­and­affectivity­of­the­sport,­making­“pro­football­into­a­spectacle­that­exceeds­its­position­as­a­sports­organization­and­becomes­a­corporate­site­of­cultural­production”­(Vogan­2014).­Needless­to­say,­highlights,­far­from­being­limited­to­sum-marizing­competitions­in­hindsight,­have­thus­also­themselves­become­commercials­announcing­and­creating­expectations­for­upcoming­events.

Next­to­this­general­commercial­work­for­the­wider­sports­and­cultural­industry,­the­scalability­and­modularity­of­highlights­allows­them­to­do­invaluable­“convergence­work.”­Format­TV,­like­Big Brother,­Survivor,­or­Idols,­not­only­enable­global­flows­of­content­ideas­but­also­organize—through­online­quizzes,­additional­backstage­footage,­and­the­like—the­herding­of­audience­attention­across­different­media­platforms­(Bignell­2005;­Ouellette­and­Wilson­2011).­

Similarly,­sports­highlights­are­a­key­tool,­as­Victoria­Johnson­(2009)­has­shown,­for­the­implementation­of­new­media­technologies­and­for­their­entanglement­with­the­traditional­media­industries.­They­foster­a­smooth­transition­from­the­liveness­economy­of­broadcast­media­to­the­access­and­click­economy­of­social­media;­they­can­be­fragmented,­parceled,­de-­and­recontextualized.­This­enables­traditional­media­companies­to­expand­to­online­culture­where­they­can­offer­extra­highlight­reels.­Additionally,­it­allows­social­media­companies­to­harness­sports­to­create­buzz­and­clicks.­Nowadays,­Twitter,­Facebook,­YouTube,­and­other­social­media­giants­are­in­competition­to­win­contracts­with­the­major­sport­leagues­and­the­“sport­mega­events”­(like­the­Olympics­and­World­Cups)­for­posting­highlights.­On­Twitter,­sponsored­highlights­are­posted­while­a­game­is­still­ongoing­(Kan-trowitz­2018).­

Sports­highlights­allow­for­connecting­and­bridging­different­media­while­pointing­out­their­differences,­and­they­combine­watching­(mass­audience)­with­participation­(individual­users).­The­often­unanimous­agreement­on­what­are­the­decisive­(or­awe-inspiring)­moments­of­a­game­combined­with­the­structural­disagreement­concerning­the­evaluation­of­a­situation­guarantee­a­stable­core­for­the­frantic­multiplication­and­variation­of­sports­highlights.­The­work­of­giving­an­account­of­events­through­selection­and­

Formatting Cross-Media Circulation 121

condensation­and­the­work­of­scaling­and­adapting­to­different­historical,­cultural,­and­technological­circumstances­are­closely­interdependent.­This­makes­the­sports­highlights­also­one­of­the­prevalent­formats­of­user­generated­content­and­on­social­media­platforms­more­generally.­Spawned­by­(and­overlapping­with)­the­success­of­lists­and­rankings­online,­sports­highlights­get­de-­and­recontextualized­into­compilations,­such­as­“Top­33­Unexpected­Goals­in­Football”­(2018),­“Top­100­Goals­Scored­by­Legendary­Football­Players”­(2018),­and­“Best­Humiliating­Goals­2019”­(2018)—not­so­different­from­what­the­FIFA Fever­DVD­already­offered­in­2002.

Against­this­background­one­can­conceive­of­sports­highlights­not­only­as­TV­formats­but­also­as­memes­avant-la-lettre.­In­1976­Richard­Dawkins­used­the­concept­to­describe­cultural­units­that­are­easily­and­reliably­copied;­the­actual­online­memes—somewhat­contrary­to­Dawkins­original­definition—circulate­not­because­of­identical­reproduction­but­because­of­certain­patterns­of­transformation­that­appropriate­the­differences­of­media­and­the­tension­between­isolation­and­re-contexualization­(Shifman­2013).­Similar­to­sports­highlights,­memes­are­often­based­on­a­recognizable­form­(e.g.,­the­image­macros),­but­their­circulation­dynamic­results­from­modularity­and­adaptability.­Contrary­to­memes,­however,­which­are­shaped­by­a­click-economy,­sports­highlights­owe­their­quality­as­formats­mainly­to­a­copyright-based­economy.­Sports­highlights’­formatting­potential­allows­for­and­is­intensified­through­their­appropriation­as­indus-trial­strategies.­They­offer­a­machinery­to­adapt­the­form­to­different­media­and­different­commercial­strategies.­Their­formatting­of­diffusion­is­insep-arable­from­their­dual­character­as­property­and­public­good.

ProtectionandObligation:Highlightsas Contested Commodity

The­power­of­sports­highlights­to­herd­audiences­and­organize­attention­across­different­media­makes­them­a­valuable­commodity.­As­I­will­show­in­this­final­section,­they­are­a­highly­contested­and­therefore­conceptually­ambivalent­product.­The­surge­of­TV­formats­introduced­a­new­form­of­commodity,­whose­legal­status­remains­vague­because­in­most­countries­a­“program­idea”—the­“paper­format”—is­not­protected­by­copyright­law.­The­sports­highlight,­as­a­derivative­format­that­summarizes­an­original­event­to­foster­its­diffusion,­is­even­fuzzier­as­a­commodity.­Contracts­and­laws­struggle­in­formatting­the­highlights­into­an­economically­and­politically­efficient­entity.­As­is­often­the­case­with­sports,­though,­the­ongoing­technical­transformation­also­provokes­ongoing­renegotiations­of­what­

122 Format Matters

sports­highlights­are­and­who­is­allowed­to­use­them­in­which­way.­The­for-matting­potential­of­highlights,­the­way­they­condense­and­diffuse­sports,­is­closely­interrelated­with­ongoing­conflicts­about­access­to­events­and­the­reuse­of­event­coverage.

When­filmic­documentation­of­boxing­first­became­a­commercial­success­in­the­later­1890s,­the­organizers­started­to­sell­exclusive­rights­to­film­producers.­Already­then,­competitors­tried­to­smuggle­in­cameras­to­“pirate”­the­events­(Streible­2008,­106–108).­Over­the­following­decades,­with­varying­patterns­in­different­countries­and­for­different­sports, it­became­increasingly­common­for­film­companies­(and­later­TV­broad-casters)­to­be­charged­for­access­to­major­sports­events.4 In the case of the­Olympics,­for­example,­the­local­organizers­of­the­London­games­in­1908­were­the­first­to­grant­exclusive­filming­rights­to­one­company;­the­organizers­of­the­1928­games­in­Amsterdam­created­outrage­for­selling­the­rights­to­an­Italian­producer,­who­offered­a­better­deal­than­the­Dutch­companies­(McKernan­2011);­the­BBC­was­the­first­TV­broadcaster­to­pay­a­small­allowance­for­the­1948­London­games.­

For­Olympic­highlights,­though,­the­1956­Melbourne­games­became­a­watershed­moment.­For­the­first­time,­the­IOC­asked­for­$500,000­from­the­US­networks­for­broadcasting­the­event.­As­a­consequence,­media­from­all­over­the­world­threatened­to­boycott­the­games­(Gajek­2013,­322).­The­press,­after­all,­was­granted­free­access­because­sports­organizers­knew­very­well­that­without­press­coverage­few­people­would­be­interested­in­sporting­events.­The­filming­of­events,­however,­and­their­transmission­via­radio­and­TV­was­considered­to­be­a­replacement­for­the­real­event­that­might­trigger­a­decrease­in­actual­visitors.­In­this­context,­highlight­reporting­had­an­ambivalent­status:­film­and­TV­companies,­not­least­with­reference­to­sports’­widespread­coverage­in­newsreels,­argued­that­sports­highlights­would­be­news,­even­more­so­because­the­Olympic­Games­(more­than­the­commercial­exploits­of­US­baseball­or­boxing)­were­considered­events­of­general­public­interest.­

This­conflict­led­to­a­formal­recognition­of­the­specific­legal­and­economic­status­of­highlights,­when­the­IOC,­in­its­official­Olympic­Rules,­replaced­an­older­paragraph­on­“Photographs­and­Films”­with­a­newer,­much­longer­one­on­“Publicity.”­Alongside­granting­free­access­to­staff­from­the­press,­

4­ In­the­1920s,­for­example,­“[i]n­England,­companies­routinely­paid­for­the­rights­to­film­important­sporting­events;­however,­securing­the­rights­to­an­event­of­public­importance­was­not­common­practice­in­America.”­(Gamache­2010,­62)­Until­today,­some­minor­sports­pay­TV­stations­to­broadcast­their­events­to­create­attention.

Formatting Cross-Media Circulation 123

movies,­radio­and­television,­the­local­Organizing­Committee­was­now­explicitly­tasked­with­both­selling­the­“Live­Television­Rights”­and­providing­newsreels­for­general­circulation.­For­broadcasters­that­did­not­pay­for­live­transmission­rights,­however,­the­use­of­this­newsreel­footage­was­highly­specified:

Newsreel­showing,­whether­cinema­or­television,­shall­be­limited­to­regularly­scheduled­shows,­where­news­is­the­essence­of­the­program,­of­networks­or­individual­stations.­No­individual­program­may­use­more­than­3­minutes­of­Olympic­footage­a­day.­No­network,­television­station or cinema may use more than three sections of three minutes of­Olympic­footage­in­all­news­programs­combined­within­twenty-four­hours,­and­there­shall­be­at­least­four­hours­between­each­showing.­In­no­case­can­these­newsreel­films­be­used­for­the­compilation­of­any­kind­of­special.­(International­Olympic­Committee­1958,­§49)

The­granting­of­highlights­without­charge­was­less­a­concession­to­“public­interest”­than­an­acknowledgment­of­the­work­highlights­do­in­creating­a­public­that­is­interested­in­the­ongoing­evaluation­and­admiration­of­sports­performances.­From­1930­on,­the­IOC­obliged­the­local­organizers­to­“make­the­necessary­arrangements­for­making­a­record­of­the­Games­by­means­of­photography­and­moving­pictures”­(International­Olympic­Committee­1930,­30).­

Maybe­even­more­tellingly­for­the­indispensable­function­of­highlights,­until­today­broadcasters­that­pay­for­the­live­transmission­of­an­event­are­bound­by­contract­to­include­summaries­in­their­schedules­too.­For­the­2014­World­Cup,­for­example,­the­rights­holders­were­“obligated­to­provide­a­roundup­program­that­lasted­at­least­30­minutes­and­included­daily­highlights­of­the­World­Cup”­(Rampazzo­Gambarato­et­al.­2017,­285).­

With­the­success­of­social­media­platforms,­the­ambivalent­status­of­high-lights­as­prized­commodity­and­promotional­tool­only­became­more­pro-nounced.­Often,­user-generated­highlight­films­are­taken­down­because­of­the­infringement­of­intellectual­property­rights.5­There­are­other­occasions,­though,­when­fan­contributions­(infringement­notwithstanding)­are­tol-erated­or­even­encouraged­because­of­their­potential­to­attract­a­broader­audience­(Corrigan­2014,­48).­While­the­NFL­forced­Twitter­to­suspend­the­accounts­of­reputable­publications­because­they­posted­highlight­videos­

5­ This­quite­probably­happens­to­the­YouTube­videos­I­referenced­above.­They­are­quickly­replaced­though­by­similar­compilations­with­very­similar­titles.

124 Format Matters

there,­the­NBA­has­accepted­fan­highlight­channels­on­YouTube­considering­them­as­marketing­(Winkie­2016).

Because­of­their­potential­to­create­a­public­different­from­the­audience­of­the­live­event,­sports­highlights­additionally­became­objects­of­political­and­legal­concerns.­In­the­context­of­the­establishment­of­commercial­broadcasters­and­their­Pay­TV­channels­in­Europe,­for­example,­the­appeal­of­sports­highlights­was­supposed­to­ensure­that­issues­of­public­and­national­concern­would­be­accessible­to­wide­audiences­(and­for­public­service­broadcasters).­In­1991­Germany­augmented­its­broadcast­law­with­a­paragraph­regulating­the­right­of­news­and­highlights­coverage,­the­so-called­“Kurzberichterstattungsrecht,”­which­was­later­implemented­on­the­European­level­too.­In­the­current­installment,­this­law,­more­flexibly­than­the­IOC’s,­determines­the­acceptable­lengths­of­highlights­compilations­as­being­dependent­on­the­duration­necessary­to­cover­the­news-related­aspects­of­the­event,­which,­generally,­are­supposed­to­be­no­longer­than­1.5­minutes­(“Staatsvertrag­Für­Rundfunk­Und­Telemedien”­2016,­§5).­

The­rationale­behind­the­new­paragraph,­which­covered­all­kinds­of­events­and­news,­was­to­prevent­against­football­being­covered­only­by­commercial­stations.­Sports­highlights­have­thus­become­a­format­meant­to­guarantee­the­diffusion­of­content­across­the­public­service–commercial­divide.­Additionally,­sports­highlights­are­used­to­create­competition­on­the­otherwise­monopolistic­market­for­sports­rights.­In­the­2000s,­the­European­Commission­forced­the­German­football­league­to­split­the­rights­into­nine­packages.­

The­packages­include:­two­live­rights­packages,­available­to­free-to-air­and­pay­broadcasters;­three­highlights­packages,­two­of­which­must­be­on­free-to-air,­including­one­that­contains­the­rights­for­a­minimum­of­two­live­matches­a­season;­one­live­internet­rights­package;­and­one­live­or­near­live­package­of­mobile­phone­rights.­(Gratton­and­Solberg­2007,­161)­

These­are­only­more­or­less­random­examples.­Each­league,­country,­sports­event,­broadcaster,­and­platform­develops­its­own­highlights­strategy.­The­cases­discussed­here­might­suffice­to­show­how­the­diffusion­potential­of­sports­highlights­is­intensely­shaped­by—often­conflicting—legal­and­eco-nomic­practices­that,­at­the­same­time,­have­constantly­been­adapted­to­the­transformative­potential­of­highlights­over­the­past­100­years.­

Formatting Cross-Media Circulation 125

ConclusionThis­chapter­has­shown­that­sports­highlights­are­a­relevant­example­for­a­general­theory­of­cultural­diffusion.­They­transform­the­events­of­sports­into­a­highly­spreadable­form.­They­do­this,­first,­through­a­process­of­selection­and­condensation­that­aims­at­compiling­the­most­decisive­and­spectacular­moments­in­a­comprehensive­and­appropriate­manner—their­epistemological­function.­Second,­highlights­enable­circulation­by­offering­this­compilation­in­a­scalable­and­modular­way,­that­allows­for­adaptation­to­different­technological­and­cultural­circumstances;­that­they­“refuse­to­hold­still­in­transit”­(Katz­1999,­144)­accommodates­the­ongoing­debates­about­the­appropriate­evaluation­of­performances­that­have­characterized­sports­culture­for­more­than­a­century.­However,­highlights­do­not­circulate­because­of­what­they­do­for­sports­culture­alone;­rather,­their­diffusion­is­fostered­through­industrial­and­political­strategies­that­harness­the­scala-bility­of­highlights­also­to­scale­up­audiences­and­manage­their­attention.­The­volatility­of­highlights­becomes­an­economic­and­legal­concern­and­is­thus­connected­to­a­number­of­different­dynamics.

Understanding­the­sports­highlight­as­a­format­thus­forces­us­to­pay­attention­to­the­uneven­entanglement­of­textual­elements,­technologies,­regulations,­and­practices.­Formats­govern­the­circulation­of­culture­by­combining­a­number­of­heterogeneous­elements­that­undergo­dynamic,­yet­patterned,­transformation­in­their­adaptation­to­different­media­systems­and­cultural­contexts.­Importantly,­formats­negotiate­the­relation-ship­between­the­circulating­content­and­the­infrastructure­it­circulates­in.­Sterne­(2012)­conceives­of­infrastructure­as­the­water­“in­which­the­MP3­fish­swim”­(15);­in­this­context,­sports­highlights,­rather­amphibian,­move­between­water­and­land,­provoking­changes­in­the­coastal­line.­The­constitutive transformability of sports highlights allows for integration of­and­adaptation­to­different­media­technologies­and­media­industries;­simultaneously,­the­technologies­and­industries­are­entangled­with­the­vol-atile­formats­and­thus­undergo­change­themselves.

The­sports­highlight­is­not­just­a­standardized­form­to­account­for­the­results of sports but also contributes to the formatting of sporting practices.­Similarly,­as­sports­highlights­adapt­to­different­media­infra-structures,­such­as­film­newsreels,­television,­and­online­meme­culture,­they­shape­the­industrial,­technical,­and­legal­environment.­Sports­high-lights are­a­format­that­allows­for­certain­modulations­and­contributes­to­the­formatting­of­reality,­but­they­also­become­formatted­through­strategies­that­aim­to­constrain­and­harness­their­volatility.

126 Format Matters

As­an­admittedly­marginal­example­of­a­format,­finally,­the­sports­high-lights­could­direct­the­attention­of­format­studies­toward­patterned­flexibility­as­a­key­aspect­of­formats'­productivity.­While­formats­are­often­understood­as­forms­geared­toward­one­specific­infrastructure­or­the­creation­of­compatibility,­it­might­be­worth­analyzing­how­formats­structure­the­transformative­and­mutual­adaptation­of­content­and­infrastructures.

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