using music to promote l2 learning among adult learners

10 VOL. 11, NO. 1TESOL JOURNAL

Using Music to PromoteL2 Learning AmongAdult LearnersMarilyn Abbott

have been known to use music to help them rememberthings. For example, the jongleurs (singing minstrels) of theMiddle Ages used to set the important news of the day tomusic (Grout, 1980) in order to help them rememberimportant events that they then imparted to locals as theytraveled from village to village. More recently, the lateGlenn Gould, Canadian pianist, writer, broadcast andrecording artist, used to set his essays and program notes tomusic to help him remember them. Other evidence thatmusic increases retention is provided by the fact that mostpeople can still remember the lines to their favorite highschool songs even after 20 or 30 years. Newham (1995–1996) suggests that the patterns produced through rhymeare known to aid memory and enhance language learning.He states that “the primarily right hemisphere-orientedprocess of music making can enhance the process oflanguage acquisition and memory which place demandsupon the left hemisphere” (p. 72). Thus, songs presumablyenhance and stimulate memory because dual coding leadsto deeper processing and better retention.

There are several additional cognitive and affectivebenefits for using music in the ESOL classroom. Becausesong lyrics are often highly repetitive, their use may helpautomate L2 skills by exposing learners to forms, syntax,lexical items, segmentals, and suprasegmentals. Thus, therepetitive nature of the lyrics can promote the learning offormulaic chunks of language that can be used as ready-made expressions in future conversations (Gatbonton &Segalowitz, 1988). For example, the lyrics in the BarenakedLadies’ (Page & Robertson, 1992) song, “If I Had a$1,000,000,” or in Amanda Marshall’s (1999) song,“Believe in You,” can be easily transferred to everydayspeech. In addition, popular songs such as Supertramp’s(1979) “The Logical Song” contain stimulating lyrics withreal language that describes the human condition usingnatural speech patterns. Therefore, songs can providemeaningful contexts for teaching vocabulary because theydeal with relevant topics and include forms and functionsthat can reinforce common themes and structures that arebeing covered in the language program. (See Table 1, p. 11,for song suggestions and their uses.)

Anther important rationale for using music in theclassroom is that music activities can assist in developinglanguage abilities in listening, speaking, reading, and writing

Music washes away from the soul the dustof everyday life.

Berthold Auerback,German novelist, 1812–1882

(in Shapiro, 1978)

ESOL educators frequently use music to enrich theclassroom experience because music activities notonly have the capacity to engage and motivate

learners but also the power to make a language lesson amemorable, enjoyable event. The purpose of this article isto offer teachers some practical suggestions for incorporat-ing music activities into the adult ESOL classroom. It isdivided into five main sections:

1. reasons for using music2. guidelines for selecting songs3. categories of music activities4. guidelines for structuring classroom music

activities5. ways to use music in three different types of adult

ESOL classes

Although this article focuses on the adult learner, the samerationale and many of the suggestions described in thefollowing sections can also apply to children through theuse of age-appropriate music.

Reasons for Using Music inthe ClassroomMany ESOL teachers choose to use music in their class-rooms because music plays an important role in cultureand communication. No matter how far back we look inhistory, we find that people have felt driven to make music,as music adds meaning to people’s lives. Cultures havemusical traditions because of the enjoyment people receivefrom creating rhythms and expressing their feelings, ideas,thoughts, and cultural values through lyrics. Song lyricsgenerally use rhyme, and rhyming is fun. Therefore,singing, performing, and listening to music are oftenassociated with play, happiness, and relaxation. Evidently,then, music activities have the power to excite, move, andsoothe learners in the language classroom.

Another reason for using music is that many people

11VOL. 11, NO. 1 TESOL JOURNAL

while also providing a break from regular classroom routines(Lo & Li, 1998). Although some teachers only considerusing music activities as time fillers, in fact, music activitiescan be used in a variety of ways to appeal to a wide range oflearner styles and preferences. When song lyrics are presentedin both visual and auditory formats, carefully designed musicactivities have the ability to tap into the four modalities:visual, auditory, emotive, and kinesthetic.

In light of the benefits of music in language learning,the subsequent sections of this article provide someimportant guidelines that teachers can follow whenselecting songs and preparing classroom music activities.The following guidelines and activities summarize ideasfrom several sources, including teachers I interviewedabout using music to teach ESL, personal experience usingmusic in different levels and types of adult ESL classes,and published sources on ways to use music and songs toteach English. (See p. 12 for further information oncommercially prepared ESL music resources.)

Guidelines for SelectingSongs and RecordingsHow do teachers decide which songs and types of record-ings to use? There are several factors to consider whenselecting songs and recordings for use in the classroom.

The Level of Difficulty of theSong and the LyricsSome factors to consider when selecting a song are tempo,clarity of vocalization and enunciation, stress, amount of

repetition, language level, word order, vocabulary, and theextent of metaphorical usage. All these factors determinewhether the song will provide meaningful, understandableinput for learners.

Often teachers do not use certain songs (e.g., rap andheavy metal songs) because the words are obscured by thethick instrumentation or the lyrics are offensive. Songs withoffensive lyrics generally should be avoided. However, if thelyrics are meaningful but difficult to understand, teacherscan add extra support to aid comprehension. According toDougill (1994), different strategies can be employed,depending on the comprehensibility and audibility of thesong. He maintains that it is the task that needs to begraded rather than the text. Thus, songs with lyrics that aredifficult to understand can still be used if they have valu-able content. Dougill’s framework (Table 2) provides anoverview of the types of tasks that can be used with variouslevels of audibility of recordings.

The Age and Proficiency Levelof LearnersThe age and proficiency level of learners will also determinewhether a song will be appropriate and meaningful tolearners. For example, some adults may be offended iftraditional children’s songs, such as “If You’re Happy andYou Know It” (n.d.), are selected, whereas the content ofsongs such as Enya’s (1988) “Evening Falls…” may bebeyond the comprehension level of lower level classes.

The Kind of ESL Lesson the Lyrics Suggest

The activity or content of the songs should be related tothe theme, topic, or functions that are covered in class.Simple, repetitive songs often contain recurrentgrammatical patterns and can be used as grammar practiceactivities (e.g., “Longer,” by Dan Fogelberg [1980], couldbe used to practice the comparative). “Moonshadow” byCat Stevens (2000) could be used in beginner classes as areview of body parts. More difficult songs containinginteresting metaphors and idioms can be used for vocabu-lary practice (e.g., U2’s [1987] “I Still Haven’t Found WhatI’m Looking For”). Many songs include typical conversa-tional speech and pronunciation, making them useful forpracticing linking and reduction (e.g., “Wannabe” by theSpice Girls [1996]). Other songs with stimulating lyricscan be used in conversation activities and as topics forwritten projects (e.g., “Wheat Kings” by the Tragically Hip[1992]).

Table 1: Suggested Songs and Language PracticeSong Title(Recording Artist/Group) Form or Function

Are You Lonesome Tonight?(Elvis Presley) yes/no questions

Eleanor Rigby (The Beatles) prepositionsUnder the Boardwalk

(The Drifters) prepositionsGangsta’s Paradise (Coolio) street slangGet Up, Stand Up

(Bob Marley) phrasal verbs/imperativesIf Not For You (Bob Dylan) conditionalsLove Me Tender (Elvis Presley) imperativesLonger (Dan Fogelberg) comparativesRocky Raccoon (The Beatles) past tenseSailing (Rod Stewart) present progressive

Table 2: Language Tasks That Can Be Used With Various Levels of Audibility of Recordings (Dougill, 1994, p. 189)Recording Audibility Language Task

Difficult text, difficult to hear Reading comprehension with music used as an extra dimensionDifficult text, easy to hear Limited listening practice (e.g., gap filling [cloze exercises]), followed by reading comprehensionEasy text, difficult to hear Predictive gap filling with listening to confirmEasy text, easy to hear Listening comprehension questions; partial or whole dictation

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Annotated Bibliography ofCommercial Music Resources

This bibliography highlights several excellent texts that contain a wide variety of activities for using music in the ESLclassroom. By no means is this bibliography considered to be a comprehensive overview of all available musicresources. It is merely a brief synopsis of nine texts that have been identified by several sources as being effective oruseful in the ESL classroom.

Adamowski, E. (1997). The ESL songbook. Oxford: Oxford University Press.This songbook is a collection of original songs that deal with practical themes, such as daily routines, health, and

social interactions, and is suitable for low-intermediate adult and secondary students. Each song focuses on developingpronunciation and listening comprehension in a communicative context. Suggestions for cultural discussions, grammartips, and extension activities are also included with each song. Transcriptions of the music are located at the back of thetext.

Graham, C. (1978). Jazz chants. Oxford: Oxford University Press.This is Graham’s original collection of chants. Although most of the chants focus on specific structures, they are also

useful tools for practicing pronunciation, word stress, linking, reduction, intonation, and for developing listeningcomprehension skills. Detailed notes on how to present the chants are also included in the text. An audiocassette withrecordings of the chants is also available.

Graham, C. (1982). Turn of the century songbook. New York: Regents.This ESL songbook was designed for low-level students. Graham has set simple words to 20 traditional melodies. The

text includes activities organized around the 20 songs and comes with an audiocassette tape.

Graham, C. (1986). Small talk: More jazz chants. Oxford: Oxford University Press.This text was designed to explore the basic functions of U.S. English. It is accompanied by two audiocassettes: one

with recordings of the chants accompanied by jazz musicians, and one with includes related pronunciation and listeningexercises. Small Talk can be used as a class text or for individual study; the answers are provided at the back of the book,and all the chants are recorded on the accompanying cassette.

Graham, C. (1993). Grammar chants: More jazz chants. Oxford: Oxford University Press.According to Graham, “a grammar chant is a rhythmic exercise which presents some aspect of American English

grammar and offers students an enjoyable way to reinforce basic principles of the spoken language” (p. xi). GrammarChants is an appropriate text for low-intermediate adult learners. It is accompanied by an audiocassette with recordingsof the chants and related pronunciation and listening exercises. This text can be used as a class text or for individual study;the answers are provided at the back of the book, and all the chants are recorded on the accompanying cassette.

Griffee, D. (1992). Songs in action. London: Prentice Hall.Songs in Action is an excellent collection of music activities that could be used with all levels of learners. The activities

are grouped into five sections: Vocabulary Extension, Listening Development, Singing Development, Writing Development,and Discussion. For each activity, Griffee identifies the song type, level, purpose, preparation, what to do in class, hints,and extension activities. Songs in Action includes sample lesson plans along with an activity index, a skill index, a levelindex, and a song index. These indexes can greatly simplify the process of selecting songs and activities to suit thelearners’ interests and abilities. The text also includes an extensive reference section with numerous suggestions for furtherreadings and references.

Kind, U. (1980). Tune in to English. New York: Prentice-Hall Regents.Kind sets new words to traditional melodies. The songs are organized around specific language functions and

designed to teach or review idiomatic expressions, vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and word stress. The text isaimed at all levels and includes exercises and games for each song, along with the musical scores and chords. Twoaudiocassette tapes with recordings of the 20 songs are also available.

Murphy, T. (1992). Music and song. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Music and Song is a cookbook of music activities for the language classroom. Murphy draws on a wide variety of

musical styles and shows how any piece of music can be used in the ESL classroom. He divides the activities into things wedo with words (e.g., listen, analyze, correct, subtract, add, change) and things we do with music (e.g., describe, evaluate,discuss, associate).

Osman, A., & McConochie, J. (1979). If you feel like singing. New York: Longman.This is a collection of 28 American folksongs. It includes follow-up teaching activities, chords and music for each song,

and an index of major grammatical points and selected pronunciation features. An audiocassette recording by amateurmusicians is also available.


The Pace and Sequence of the Lesson

It is important to consider the type of music, as it willaffect the pace and sequencing of the lesson. For instance,songs such as Ricky Martin’s (Rosa & Child, 1999) “Livin’la Vida Loca” have the ability to stimulate and energizelearners, whereas songs such as Shania Twain’s (Twain &Lange, 1999) “From This Moment On” can have a calmingeffect on the class. Therefore, songs can be used to changethe pace on “blue Mondays” or “restless Friday afternoons”(Little, 1983, pp. 41–42).

The Musical Interests and Talentsof the Students and the TeacherThe musical interests and talents of the students and theteacher may determine whether the students will want tosing or perform in class. If they do not feel comfortablesinging, do not force them to sing. If they want to sing, itis important to choose songs that have reasonable ranges;only trained singers will feel comfortable with songs thathave high notes. If one or more vocalists are willing to singin the class, the students will often enjoy creating newverses to songs and having the vocalist(s) sing their lyrics.Guglielmino (1986) also suggests that if the teacher or anyof the students play an instrument, these talents should beused to accompany singing in the classroom.

The Availability of Resources

Obviously, to use songs that are on music videos, CDs, orthe Web in their classes, teachers will need the appropriateequipment to play the songs. Therefore, the availability ofresources needs to be considered when designing classroommusic activities. Furthermore, when using cassette record-ers, CD players, or VHS recorders, it is important to knowhow to use them and to ensure that they are in workingorder before the class begins.

Categories of ClassroomMusic ActivitiesThere are three main categories of music activities that areoften used in the ESOL classroom:

1. listening2. rhythmic speaking3. sing-alongs

Information-gap activities, such as dictation or clozeexercises, are the most commonly used listening activities.These are relatively simple to prepare, especially if a teacherhas access to the Internet. There are several Web sites thatcontain the lyrics for most English-language songs (seesidebar, p. 14, for descriptions of useful Web sites). Afterfinding a suitable recording, teachers need only search forthe lyrics on the Internet, download the lyrics, and usethem to prepare dictation or cloze exercises, or other

appropriate prelistening, listening, and postlistening musicactivities.

Speaking activities in which the language is set torhythm—for instance, jazz chants—are the most commontypes of speaking exercises associated with music. Althoughchanting is not the same as singing, chants are similar tosongs in that they apply the musical concepts of rhythm,tempo, stress, and intonation while expressing feelings andemotions through words. The main difference between songsand chants is that chants lack precise melodic lines. There-fore, jazz chants are excellent for practicing vocabulary andpronunciation. Song lyrics can also be used like jazz chants,where the words are spoken rather than sung. Speaking thelyrics is an excellent alternative activity suitable for use withstudents who feel uncomfortable singing in public. Graham’s(1978, 1986, & 1993) collections of chants are excellentmaterials designed for this purpose.

The final category of classroom music activities consistsof singing activities. There are three general forms ofclassroom singing activities:

1. using actual jazz, soul, blues, folk, rock, pop, rap,or country songs

2. using familiar melodies with simpler lyrics3. creating new songs with original melodies and

lyrics

Although I later provide suggestions for structuringmusic activities that use actual or original songs (e.g., inthe section Using Music With College-Age Beginners inIntensive English Programs), the following paragraphsoutline ideas for using familiar melodies with simpler lyrics.

Although chanting is not the same as singing,chants are similar to songs in that they apply

the musical concepts of rhythm, tempo,stress, and intonation while expressingfeelings and emotions through words.

It is surprisingly simple to invent new words and setthem to familiar tunes or chord progressions, such as the“Twelve Bar Blues” (Szustak, 1993). The “Twelve Bar Blues”is a musical structure that forms the basis of many differentblues songs. In its most basic form, the blues progression isa 12-measure combination of only three chords. It uses athree-line format (AAB), where one line is repeated, usuallyas a question or statement. A classic example is “GoodMornin’ Blues,” by Huddie Ledbetter (1995):

Good mornin’ blues, blues, how do you do?Good mornin’ blues, blues, how do you do?I’m doin’ allright, good mornin’ how ‘bout you?

A more recent example of the blues is “Give Me OneReason,” by Tracy Chapman (1986). The traditional bluesform has 4 beats to a measure, 4 measures to each phrase,


and 12 measures to each verse. As Szustak (1993) suggests,teachers could provide a brief history of the blues style,play some blues recordings, and distribute examples ofblues lyrics (see above for the Mudcat Café Web site, whichcontains a wide variety of blues songs). Once studentsunderstand the form, they could try writing their ownverses using some traditional blues topics, such as friends,family, neighborhoods, and social problems. Then thestudents could perform their verses or have other studentsread or sing their verses for them.

Several excellent texts that set simple English words tomemorable traditional melodies and contain activities

designed to teach or review idiomatic expressions, vocabu-lary, grammar, pronunciation, and word stress includeKind’s (1980) Tune in to English, Graham’s (1982) Turn ofthe Century Songbook, and Osman and McConochie’s(1979) If You Feel Like Singing.

Guidelines for StructuringClassroom Music ActivitiesSeveral educators recommend dividing language lessonsthat incorporate music activities into three sections:prelistening, listening, and postlistening activities.

Useful Music Web SitesThe following is an annotated list of useful music Web sites for ESL/EFL teachers. These sites are excellent sources ofinformation that can be used in several ways. The lyrics to current or old songs are readily available on several lyricservers (see the list below). Once accessed, the lyrics may be downloaded and used to make a variety of classroomexercises. There is no need for teachers to spend the time transcribing the lyrics to songs. It is much faster to access aserver such as the International Lyrics Server, find the lyrics, and save them to a word-processing file. Then the lyrics canbe printed or modified first and then printed.

Web sites are continually being updated, changed, moved, and deleted. Therefore, if you have trouble accessingany of these Web sites, try another address or search for other lyric sites using a search engine, such as Hot Bot orGoogle. Many of the sites listed below have hyperlinks to similar sites.

The Mudcat Café (http://www.mudcat.org)The Mudcat Café is an exceptional site because it contains information on most musical styles, composers, artists,

groups, albums, songs, and lyrics. It also has hyperlinks to other excellent music sites. This Web site is definitely worthy of abookmark because it contains a great deal of up-to-date information and is relatively simple to use.

A Traditional Music Library (http://www.traditionalmusic.co.uk/)This site is also user friendly; however, it mainly has the lyrics for traditional folksongs and bluegrass. Current pop or

rock lyrics will not be found here. To search for lyrics, click on the main menu, type in the name of a song or the artist inthe search box, and click on search. The lyrics or a list of hyperlinked titles of songs by the artist will then appear.

Disney Song Lyrics (http://www.fpx.de/fp/Disney/Lyrics)This site features Disney song lyrics from various Disney feature films. It is very user friendly. Once the site is accessed,

all the user has to do is click on a song from the list and the lyrics will appear.

Ernie’s EFL Song Activities (http://barteldes.freeyellow.com/)This is the address for Ernie’s EFL Page. On the main page, he includes links to (a) activities, (b) tips on how to use

song-related activities in the EFL classroom, and (c) other related educational Web sites. To access the song activities,click on “Ernie’s EFL Song Activities” on the main page. Then choose from the basic-, intermediate-, or higher levelactivities. Ernie has also included a lyrics search on the main page, but it only has a limited number of songs. Thus, thissite is not recommended for finding lyrics, but it is a good site for gathering ideas on ways to use music in the classroom.

International Lyrics Server (http://www.music-e.net/the_international_lyrics_server.htm)This site contains the lyrics for over 130,000 titles. The songs can be accessed by title or by artist. This server is also

worthy of a bookmark because it is easy to use and includes a wide variety of songs.

Music Links (http://ucs.orst.edu/~healeyd/music_links.html)Music Links includes hyperlinks to other sites, including the Top 10 Music Web Sites that contain information on a

variety of pop, rock, and jazz artists.

CTN (http://www.collegetelevision.com/)CTN contains reviews of the latest hits.

The Ultimate Band List (http://www.ubl.com)This Web site has search mechanisms that provide information on artists, songs, lyrics, CDs, and real audio

capabilities where recordings of new releases can even be heard.


Prelistening Activities

The purpose of prelistening exercises is to motivate andprovide the students with appropriate vocabulary andbackground knowledge. Providing preliminary material tothe listening exercise also gives the students a clear, con-crete reason for listening. Spencer (1994) suggests thatvocabulary or comprehension exercises using the lyrics of asong that will be studied in class could be assigned ashomework the week before. On the day the song is pre-sented in class, the teacher could play the introduction and(a) ask the students if they recognize the piece or the artist;(b) have them predict the title, the first words, the firstverse, or the theme; or (c) have them fill in a cloze exerciseand then compare their guesses to the actual lyrics afterlistening to the song.

Many educators recommend developing cloze exercisesthat will reinforce the grammar points that have beenstudied in class. For example, the Beatles’ (Lennon &McCartney, 1966) hit “Eleanor Rigby” could be used topractice prepositions by blanking out all of the prepositionsand then asking the students to guess them before listeningto the song. This approach often motivates the students topay closer attention to the lyrics because they want toknow whether they have guessed correctly. One variationon the prelistening cloze activity is to divide the class inhalf and give the two groups lyrics with different wordsdeleted. After listening, the groups could practice speakingby being paired to correct one another’s work orally,without looking at each other’s sheets.

For another, more advanced prelistening activity, theteacher could write the name of a song on the board andhave the students guess the artist, the theme of the song,or brainstorm key words that they think may be used inthe song. The students could then be asked to work ingroups to construct phrases or sentences using the keywords.

Listening Activities

Although this part of the lesson can be handled in a varietyof ways, the song should be played at least three times. Tomake the listening task an active exercise, the teacher could(a) ask the students how the music affects them or whatthey think of the words, the melody, the instrumentation,the texture, the style, and the rhythm; (b) give students alyric sheet with mistakes and ask them to correct the errors;(c) give students the words in a scrambled order and askstudents to unscramble them; (d) ask students to takedictation or complete sentences; or (e) ask students to focuson the meaning of the song in order to answer true/falsequestions or paraphrase each verse.

Postlistening Activities

Postlistening tasks generally involve communicative activi-ties such as games, problem solving, role plays, jigsaws,

discussions, and simulations to help ESL students developautomatization and fluency in the target language. Thesetasks may be done in small groups or with the class as awhole. The teacher could ask the students to write ques-tions they would like to ask the artists about their lives orbeliefs. Then the students could work in pairs, with one ofthe students pretending to be the artist and the other theinterviewer. A discussion of the cultural or historical aspectsof the song or the historical setting could follow the roleplay. Finally, for homework, the students could do acreative writing task that deals with the content of the song.

Ways to Use Music inThree Different Adult ESOL ContextsUsing Music With AdultImmigrant Learners in LiteracyDevelopment Classes

If ESL literacy learners first learn to speak or sing a songby rote memorization, it logically follows that it will beeasier for them to learn to read the words when presentedwith the song lyrics in written form. This implies thatliteracy can grow out of the oral language that learnersdevelop from listening to memorable songs. Listening tofamiliar music jingles and songs while the teacher (orstudent) points to the words can assist in developing theliteracy learner’s understanding that a given sound will berepresented by a particular letter or combination ofsounds. Catchy music jingles found in radio and televisioncommercials are excellent sources for literacy work, as thelearners will usually be familiar with the words containedin the frequently heard advertisements. The use of tradi-tional songs that are sung in several languages can also beuseful tools for developing literacy skills. For example,French or Spanish speakers who know the song “FrèreJacques?” (“Are You Sleeping?”) in their L1, will be able totransfer their understanding of the lyrics to the Englishversion. Other suggestions for using memorable tradi-tional English language melodies in the language class-room can be found in the text English: Sing It!, byGrenough (1976).

Once the learners are able to recognize the sound-symbol correspondence, two types of music activities thatare well suited to literacy classes are word bingo andreordering activities.

Word BingoIn word bingo, the teacher chooses an appropriate song,makes up a list of vocabulary terms from the lyrics, and hasthe learners place the words in a bingo grid. The learners areasked to mark off the words as they hear them in the song.The first person to check off all the words is the winner.

Reordering ActivitiesIn one example of a reordering activity, the teacher choosessome of the words from a song and lists them in an


incorrect order. As the students listen to the song, they areasked to number the words in the correct order.

For another reordering activity, the teacher selects a shortsong, chorus, or jingle and makes two copies of the lyrics.Then she cuts the lyrics into strips of paper, divides the classinto two groups, distributes the strip lyrics, and has a contestto see which group successfully reorders the lyrics first.

Using Music With College-Age Beginnersin Intensive English ProgramsNumerous educators have suggested that pop and rockmusic are highly effective teaching tools that can beextremely useful in the language classroom, especially at thecollege level. Pop music activities tend to be inherentlymotivating, as most college students get excited andenergized when listening to and/or singing popular songs.Spencer’s (1994) procedure for classroom implementationof sing-alongs and spoken chants is an excellent approachthat can be used with college-age beginners. The followingguidelines summarize and expand on Spencer’s method:

1. Begin with previously described prelisteningactivities to preteach vocabulary and provideappropriate background knowledge.

2. Sing or play the song while the students activelylisten and complete one of the previously de-scribed listening activities.

3. Have the students mark in the sentence the stress,the number of beats in each line, and the numberof syllables in each line.

4. Have the students recite portions of the lyricswithout trying to sing. Have them focus onproper sentence stress, linking, and reduction.

5. Add a steady beat and have the students recitethe lyrics practiced in Step 4. A metronomecould be used, or the teacher or one of thestudents could clap the beat. The tempo shouldstart off slowly and then gradually increase to thetempo of the song.

6. Write key phrases or words from each sentenceon the board. Without looking at the lyrics, havethe students use the key words as an aid toreciting all the lyrics.

7. Gradually reduce the number of phrases or keywords.

8. Have the students sing or speak the lyrics usingthe key words. If they do not feel comfortablesinging, do not force them to sing; encouragethem to speak the words in rhythm.

9. Break the class into groups and have a contest tosee which group can sing or speak the song thefastest.

10. As a review, have the entire class sing or speak thesong together with expression and feeling.

11. For homework, have the students write abouthow the music makes them feel, or have thembriefly describe the theme of the song.

Many of the music activities described in this articleare appropriate for use with college-age beginners. Inaddition, two excellent texts that present numerous sugges-tions for music activities for this level are Griffee’s (1992)Songs in Action and Murphy’s (1992) Music and Song.

Using Music With Intermediate-LevelBusiness English Students in EFL SettingsGiven the motivational characteristics of music and theavailability of English language songs, EFL educatorsteaching in intermediate-level business settings may find

Numerous educators have suggested thatpop and rock music are highly effective

teaching tools that can be extremely usefulin the language classroom, especially at the

college level.

that music activities are useful aids for language learning.To increase learner autonomy and legitimize the time spenton music activities in the business language classroom,teachers could design assignments in which the studentsselect songs and develop corresponding music activities thatfit the language themes, idioms, forms, and functionscovered in the business English curriculum. For example,the teacher could pair the students; have them find Englishsongs that highlight particular aspects of language that arebeing studied in class; have the students develop cloze,correction, dictation, pronunciation, or other suitableactivities that focus on the assigned aspect(s) of language;then have the students present their activities to the class.This type of assignment not only has the capacity todevelop students’ language skills but also to improve theirpresentation skills. Furthermore, if the students have accessto computers, such an assignment can expand their com-puter skills by allowing them to search for suitable songsand lyrics on the Internet.

Another valuable music assignment for businessEnglish classes involves the use of Graham’s (1993) Gram-mar Chants. Teachers can assign individual students orpairs different chants; have the learners identify thegrammar points that are focused on in the chants; andthen have them present and practice the chants with theclass. In addition to a focus on form, this activity canprovide students with practice in pronunciation, wordstress, linking, reduction, intonation, and listeningcomprehension.

ConclusionMusic activities can supplement more traditional grammar-based teaching methods by providing opportunities forlanguage learning in a pleasurable environment. Becausemusic activities are motivating, enjoyable, and relaxing, and


provide a meaningful context for practicing and automatiz-ing language skills, ESOL teachers may find that musicfacilitates language learning by increasing learning retentionand effectiveness in a wide variety of teaching contexts.Because there is a close relationship between rhythm, stress,and spoken English, songs can be excellent teaching toolsfor emphasizing and reinforcing the rhythms, structures,and sounds in English. In addition to the cognitive andaffective benefits of using music in the ESOL classroom,many educators who use music activities find them reward-ing because they bring new, exciting dimensions to theirlanguage lessons.

References

Auerback, B. (1978). In N. Shapiro (Ed.), An encyclopedia ofquotations about music (p. 247). Garden City, NJ:Doubleday.

Chapman, T. (1986). Give me one reason. On New beginning[CD]. New York: Elektra. (1995)

Dougill, J. (1994, November). Rock and role-play. In K. Kitao(Ed.), Culture and communication. (Selected papers fromJALT Kansai Conference, Kyoto, Japan). (ERIC DocumentReproduction Service No. ED 381 833)

Enya. (1988). Evening falls .... On Watermark [CD]. Hamburg,Germany: WEA.

Fogelberg, D. (1980). Longer. On The very best of Dan Fogelberg[CD]. Los Angeles: Epic Records.

Gatbonton, E., & Segalowitz, N. (1988). Creative automatiza-tion: Principles for promoting fluency within a communica-tive framework. TESOL Quarterly, 22, 473–492.

Graham, C. (1978). Jazz chants. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Graham, C. (1982). Turn of the century songbook. New York:

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Author

Marilyn Abbott received her BEd in secondary music education in1986. After teaching high school for 10 years, she earned an MEd inTESL from the University of Alberta in Canada. Presently, she isspecializing in learning, development, and assessment and completinga PhD in educational psychology.

using music to promote l2 learning among adult learners

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