using an annotated corpus to study metaphors for communication in english elena semino (and john...

Using an annotated Using an annotated corpus to study corpus to study metaphors for metaphors for

communication in communication in EnglishEnglish

Elena Semino (and John Elena Semino (and John Heywood)Heywood)

Lancaster University (UK)Lancaster University (UK)

The corpusThe corpus The corpus contains 120 text samples of The corpus contains 120 text samples of

approximately 2,000 words each, approximately 2,000 words each, amounting to a total of 258,348 words of amounting to a total of 258,348 words of (late) 20th century written British (late) 20th century written British English. It is divided into three sections, English. It is divided into three sections, which comprise 40 text samples each and which comprise 40 text samples each and represent three main genres:represent three main genres: prose fiction (87,709 words), prose fiction (87,709 words), newspaper news reports (83,603 words), andnewspaper news reports (83,603 words), and biography and autobiography (87,036 words)biography and autobiography (87,036 words)

Annotation for speech, Annotation for speech, writing and thought writing and thought

presentationpresentation Coding system for phenomena such as Direct Coding system for phenomena such as Direct

Speech, Free Indirect Thought, etc. (see Semino Speech, Free Indirect Thought, etc. (see Semino and Short 2004).and Short 2004).

Samples of annotated text:Samples of annotated text:

<sptag cat=NRS next=DS s=0.21 w=3><sptag cat=NRS next=DS s=0.21 w=3>Mr Howard adds:Mr Howard adds:<sptag cat=DS next=NRS s=0.79 w=11><sptag cat=DS next=NRS s=0.79 w=11>"It would amount to the break-up of the Britain we love.“"It would amount to the break-up of the Britain we love.“

<sptag cat=NRSA next=NRS s=0.38 w=7><sptag cat=NRSA next=NRS s=0.38 w=7>Traditionalists have accused the authors of heresyTraditionalists have accused the authors of heresy<sptag cat=NRS next=IS s=0.11 w=2><sptag cat=NRS next=IS s=0.11 w=2>and claimand claim<sptag cat=IS next=DS s=0.50 w=9><sptag cat=IS next=DS s=0.50 w=9>they are making a mockery of the Bible message.they are making a mockery of the Bible message.

A sample concordanceA sample concordanceNN ConcordanceConcordance2 12> "You have to live and breathe the job 24 hours a day, <sptag cat=NRS next=DS s=0.14 w=2> she said. <sptag cat=DS next=2 12> "You have to live and breathe the job 24 hours a day, <sptag cat=NRS next=DS s=0.14 w=2> she said. <sptag cat=DS next=3 ame to a dramatic end. The 29-year-old Tasmanian, <sptag cat=NRS next=IS s=0.09 w=3> said by police <sptag cat=IS ne3 ame to a dramatic end. The 29-year-old Tasmanian, <sptag cat=NRS next=IS s=0.09 w=3> said by police <sptag cat=IS ne4 "> The Mackenzie King Record Vol 3, p. 236 </endnote> <sptag cat=NRS who=B next=IS whonext=B s=0.2 w=4> In public Churc4 "> The Mackenzie King Record Vol 3, p. 236 </endnote> <sptag cat=NRS who=B next=IS whonext=B s=0.2 w=4> In public Churc5 ight and returned to safely land the 747 at Heathrow. <sptag cat=NRS next=DS s=0.36 w=4> An airline spokeswoman said: 5 ight and returned to safely land the 747 at Heathrow. <sptag cat=NRS next=DS s=0.36 w=4> An airline spokeswoman said: 6 ld>NOVEMBER 10, 9.58pm:</hi> Houghton phones again <sptag cat=NRS next=DS s=0.2 w=4> and Lodge tells him: <sptag cat=6 ld>NOVEMBER 10, 9.58pm:</hi> Houghton phones again <sptag cat=NRS next=DS s=0.2 w=4> and Lodge tells him: <sptag cat=7 are colossal - well in excess of £2m between them." <sptag cat=NRS next=IS s=0.1 w=2> It's alleged <sptag cat=IS next=N 7 are colossal - well in excess of £2m between them." <sptag cat=NRS next=IS s=0.1 w=2> It's alleged <sptag cat=IS next=N 8 t the same time a girlfriend moved in with a little boy. <sptag cat=NRS next=DS s=0.1 w=2> He said: <sptag cat=DS next=N8 t the same time a girlfriend moved in with a little boy. <sptag cat=NRS next=DS s=0.1 w=2> He said: <sptag cat=DS next=N9 RINK. DOES IT COST ALL THAT - A GLASS OF STOUT?" <sptag cat=NRS who=H next=N s=0 w=2> SHE ASKED, <sptag cat=N 9 RINK. DOES IT COST ALL THAT - A GLASS OF STOUT?" <sptag cat=NRS who=H next=N s=0 w=2> SHE ASKED, <sptag cat=N 10 2> He made a particular hit by giving her a box of sweets, <sptag cat=NRS who=B next=IS whonext=B s=0.05 w=1> saying <spta10 2> He made a particular hit by giving her a box of sweets, <sptag cat=NRS who=B next=IS whonext=B s=0.05 w=1> saying <spta11 I giggled as she swam in a torrential downpour yesterday - <sptag cat=NRS next=IS s=0.13 w=4> after it was revealed <sptag cat=11 I giggled as she swam in a torrential downpour yesterday - <sptag cat=NRS next=IS s=0.13 w=4> after it was revealed <sptag cat=12 ide Bosnia between Serbs and a Moslem-Croat federation. <sptag cat=NRS next=IS s=0.40 w=4> He also called for <sptag cat=IS 12 ide Bosnia between Serbs and a Moslem-Croat federation. <sptag cat=NRS next=IS s=0.40 w=4> He also called for <sptag cat=IS 13 yellow trim, "bored into the swamp like a power drill". <sptag cat=NRS next=IS s=0.07 w=3> Mr Muelhaupt said <sptag cat=I13 yellow trim, "bored into the swamp like a power drill". <sptag cat=NRS next=IS s=0.07 w=3> Mr Muelhaupt said <sptag cat=I14 rtunately, on those days my coach brings me a cup of tea <sptag cat=NRS who=C next=IS whonext=C s=0.18 w=4> and urges me 14 rtunately, on those days my coach brings me a cup of tea <sptag cat=NRS who=C next=IS whonext=C s=0.18 w=4> and urges me 15 ia, back tracked a little and came up with a get-out Claus. <sptag cat=NRS next=IS s=0.1 w=2> He suggested <sptag cat=IS next15 ia, back tracked a little and came up with a get-out Claus. <sptag cat=NRS next=IS s=0.1 w=2> He suggested <sptag cat=IS next16 my holidays in Hawaii yesterday so I'm a bit jet-lagged," <sptag cat=NRS next=N s=0.12 w=2> he said. <sptag cat=N next16 my holidays in Hawaii yesterday so I'm a bit jet-lagged," <sptag cat=NRS next=N s=0.12 w=2> he said. <sptag cat=N next17 t=NRS whonext=B s=0.67 w=4> 'A watch or something,' <sptag cat=NRS who=B next=NI whonext=B s=0.33 w=2> I suggested. 17 t=NRS whonext=B s=0.67 w=4> 'A watch or something,' <sptag cat=NRS who=B next=NI whonext=B s=0.33 w=2> I suggested. 18 tionship" between Britain and America to a new low. <sptag cat=NRS next=IS s=0.41 w=12> British officials who tried to fix u18 tionship" between Britain and America to a new low. <sptag cat=NRS next=IS s=0.41 w=12> British officials who tried to fix u19 une that injured seven people and destroyed a DC-9. <sptag cat=NRS next=IS s=0.18 w=6> Yesterday, ValuJet's president, L19 une that injured seven people and destroyed a DC-9. <sptag cat=NRS next=IS s=0.18 w=6> Yesterday, ValuJet's president, L20 ad logged more than 2,000 hours as a ValuJet pilot. <sptag cat=NRS next=IS s=0.12 w=3> Mr Pena said <sptag cat=IS next20 ad logged more than 2,000 hours as a ValuJet pilot. <sptag cat=NRS next=IS s=0.12 w=3> Mr Pena said <sptag cat=IS next21 xt=NRS whonext=G s=0.46 w=6> 'That is a spoil of war,' <sptag cat=NRS who=G next=N s=0.15 w=2> said Edgington, <sptag c21 xt=NRS whonext=G s=0.46 w=6> 'That is a spoil of war,' <sptag cat=NRS who=G next=N s=0.15 w=2> said Edgington, <sptag c22 onext=J s=0.58 w=7> "A BIT OF A PLEB, WASN'T HE?" <sptag cat=NRS who=J next=N s=0.42 w=5> PUT IN THE MILITARY FRI22 onext=J s=0.58 w=7> "A BIT OF A PLEB, WASN'T HE?" <sptag cat=NRS who=J next=N s=0.42 w=5> PUT IN THE MILITARY FRI23 lice over an alleged sex attack on a teenage beauty. <sptag cat=NRS next=IS s=0.45 w=5> Blonde Melanie Hilzinger, 19, clai23 lice over an alleged sex attack on a teenage beauty. <sptag cat=NRS next=IS s=0.45 w=5> Blonde Melanie Hilzinger, 19, clai24 s presenter Jonathan Ross read out a tribute from Charles <sptag cat=NRS next=DS s=0.05 w=2> which said: <sptag cat=DS next24 s presenter Jonathan Ross read out a tribute from Charles <sptag cat=NRS next=DS s=0.05 w=2> which said: <sptag cat=DS next25 ng about the place until she moved out a few weeks later." <sptag cat=NRS next=DS s=0.5 w=8> Another neighbour, 62 year-old Mr25 ng about the place until she moved out a few weeks later." <sptag cat=NRS next=DS s=0.5 w=8> Another neighbour, 62 year-old Mr26 cat=IS next=NRS s=0.2 w=5> he is a royal servant. <sptag cat=NRS next=IS s=0.2 w=3> Lodge assures him <sptag cat=IS26 cat=IS next=NRS s=0.2 w=5> he is a royal servant. <sptag cat=NRS next=IS s=0.2 w=3> Lodge assures him <sptag cat=IS

Criteria for Criteria for metaphoricitymetaphoricity

A particular linguistic expression referring to A particular linguistic expression referring to verbal communication was classified as verbal communication was classified as metaphorical if:metaphorical if:

it has a more basic current sense that is not to it has a more basic current sense that is not to do with verbal communication, anddo with verbal communication, and

the verbal communication sense of the relevant the verbal communication sense of the relevant expression can be said to be motivated by the expression can be said to be motivated by the more basic sense via a cross-domain mapping more basic sense via a cross-domain mapping where the target is speaking/writing and the where the target is speaking/writing and the source is a different domain.source is a different domain.

Former Tory chairman Kenneth Baker Former Tory chairman Kenneth Baker blastedblasted the Prime Minister for an act of the Prime Minister for an act of “crass stupidity”. (“crass stupidity”. (The Daily StarThe Daily Star, 5/12/1994), 5/12/1994)

Analytical problems 1: Analytical problems 1: Metaphor identificationMetaphor identification

Some examples of borderline cases:Some examples of borderline cases:1.1. Sir Nicholas Bonsor, chairman of the Sir Nicholas Bonsor, chairman of the

Commons defence committee, Commons defence committee, calledcalled publicly yesterday for British troops to publicly yesterday for British troops to be pulled out. (be pulled out. (The GuardianThe Guardian, 5/12/1994), 5/12/1994)

2.2. ‘‘How much did you sell her,’ Dennis How much did you sell her,’ Dennis butted inbutted in, thrusting his face forwards till , thrusting his face forwards till it was only inches from the dealer’s. (Val it was only inches from the dealer’s. (Val McDermid, McDermid, Dead BeatDead Beat, 1992, p. 168), 1992, p. 168)

3.3. Aides hurriedly Aides hurriedly stressedstressed that the that the Chancellor had meant to say the reverse. Chancellor had meant to say the reverse. ((News of the WorldNews of the World, , 11/12/1994)11/12/1994)

Analytical problems 2: Analytical problems 2: Classification in terms of Classification in terms of

patterns/conceptual metaphorspatterns/conceptual metaphors4.4. Mr Brookes-Baker warned of the dangers in Mr Brookes-Baker warned of the dangers in

adopting a Scandinavian style monarchy - adopting a Scandinavian style monarchy - and and pointed topointed to the example of Sweden. ( the example of Sweden. (The The Daily MirrorDaily Mirror, 5/12/1994), 5/12/1994)

5.5. The Arsenal boss The Arsenal boss thunderedthundered: “I have not : “I have not profited from any transfers - and it's profited from any transfers - and it's important that is made clear.” (important that is made clear.” (The Daily The Daily StarStar, 12/12/1994), 12/12/1994)

6.6. ““How much did you sell her, then?” Dennis How much did you sell her, then?” Dennis butted inbutted in, thrusting his face forwards till it , thrusting his face forwards till it was only inches from the dealer’s. (Val was only inches from the dealer’s. (Val McDermid, McDermid, Dead BeatDead Beat, 1992, p. 168), 1992, p. 168)

Analytical problems 2: Analytical problems 2: Classification in terms of Classification in terms of

patterns/conceptual metaphorspatterns/conceptual metaphors4.4. Mr Brookes-Baker warned of the dangers in Mr Brookes-Baker warned of the dangers in

adopting a Scandinavian style monarchy - and adopting a Scandinavian style monarchy - and pointed topointed to the example of Sweden. the example of Sweden. GESTURE (e.g. GESTURE (e.g. signallingsignalling, , offeringoffering)) and and VISIBILITY (e.g. VISIBILITY (e.g. revealreveal, , emergeemerge, , shed light shed light onon).).

5.5. The Arsenal boss The Arsenal boss thunderedthundered: ‘…’ : ‘…’ NATURE NATURE (e.g. (e.g. stormingstorming, , eruptingerupting) and ) and SOUND/LOUDNESS (SOUND/LOUDNESS (chiming inchiming in, , callingcalling, , being stridentbeing strident).).

6.6. Dennis butted in: ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR Dennis butted in: ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR ((snarlingsnarling, , cooingcooing, , ratting onratting on) and PHYSICAL ) and PHYSICAL AGGRESSION (AGGRESSION (attackingattacking, , hitting outhitting out).).

Results 1 – Results 1 – Refinement of earlier Refinement of earlier

accountsaccountsARGUMENT IS WAR ARGUMENT IS WAR ANTAGONISTIC ANTAGONISTIC COMMUNICATION IS PHYSICAL AGGRESSIONCOMMUNICATION IS PHYSICAL AGGRESSION

7.7. The Chancellor, Kenneth Clarke, yesterday stepped The Chancellor, Kenneth Clarke, yesterday stepped up his up his guerrilla warfareguerrilla warfare against the Tory right by against the Tory right by insisting that […].(insisting that […].(The GuardianThe Guardian, 13/5/1996), 13/5/1996)

8.8. Mr Major […] has warned his party’s Mr Major […] has warned his party’s warringwarring factions […]. (factions […]. (The Daily TelegraphThe Daily Telegraph, 5/12/1994), 5/12/1994)

9.9. as she [Princess Diana] fled to Majorca following as she [Princess Diana] fled to Majorca following her her bust-upbust-up with The Queen over divorce with The Queen over divorce negotiations with Prince Charles. (negotiations with Prince Charles. (The SunThe Sun, , 13/5/1996)13/5/1996)

10.10. Crime victims Crime victims hit outhit out yesterday over plans to give yesterday over plans to give thugs a five-star Christmas in jail. (thugs a five-star Christmas in jail. (The SunThe Sun, , 5/12/1994)5/12/1994)

(see also Vanparys 1995)(see also Vanparys 1995)

Results 2 - Quantitative Results 2 - Quantitative information information (Newspaper (Newspaper

section of the corpus)section of the corpus)Source domainsSource domains Instances of metaphorical Instances of metaphorical

expressionsexpressions% Total% Total

OBJECT MANIPULATIONOBJECT MANIPULATION 136136 25.4%25.4%

‘‘DISCOURSE’DISCOURSE’ 103103 19.2%19.2%

VISIBILITYVISIBILITY 8989 16.6%16.6%

PHYSICAL AGGRESSIONPHYSICAL AGGRESSION 6262 11.6%11.6%

MOVEMENTMOVEMENT 5757 10.6%10.6%

NATURENATURE 2020 3.7%3.7%

PHYSICAL CONTACTPHYSICAL CONTACT 2020 3.7%3.7%

PROXIMITYPROXIMITY 1313 2.4%2.4%

LIQUIDLIQUID 1010 1.9%1.9%

OTHEROTHER 2626 4.9%4.9%

TOTALTOTAL 536536 100%100%

Results 3 - Theoretical Results 3 - Theoretical implicationsimplications

All the source domains that conventionally contribute to All the source domains that conventionally contribute to the construction of the target domain of communication the construction of the target domain of communication have a wide metaphorical ‘scope’, i.e. they contribute to have a wide metaphorical ‘scope’, i.e. they contribute to the construction of a wide range of target domains the construction of a wide range of target domains ((Kövecses 2002).Kövecses 2002).

Different (aspects of different) source domains Different (aspects of different) source domains contribute to the construction of different aspects of contribute to the construction of different aspects of communication (e.g. expression of meaning, communication (e.g. expression of meaning, performance of speech acts, achievement of goals via performance of speech acts, achievement of goals via speech, antagonistic communication, etc.).speech, antagonistic communication, etc.).

However, explanations at the level of broad source However, explanations at the level of broad source domains cannot properly account for the linguistic domains cannot properly account for the linguistic patterns found in the data and for the meanings and patterns found in the data and for the meanings and uses of individual expressions.uses of individual expressions.

Explanations at the level of ‘scenes’ (Grady 1997) or Explanations at the level of ‘scenes’ (Grady 1997) or ‘scenarios’ (Musolff 2004) can account more ‘scenarios’ (Musolff 2004) can account more successfully for individual meanings and uses, but a successfully for individual meanings and uses, but a number of problems have emerged in the analysis.number of problems have emerged in the analysis.

Theoretical implications Theoretical implications ctd.ctd.

Grady’s primary metaphors: DAMAGE IS Grady’s primary metaphors: DAMAGE IS PHYSICAL HARM, OBJECTING IS PHYSICAL HARM, OBJECTING IS ATTACKINGATTACKING

Last night Delors Last night Delors attackedattacked Balladur’s Balladur’s idea of a “Europe of circles” in which idea of a “Europe of circles” in which each member country could progress at each member country could progress at its own speed. (its own speed. (The Daily TelegraphThe Daily Telegraph, , 12/12/1994)12/12/1994)

amid renewed backbench amid renewed backbench snipingsniping at the at the Blair style of leadership (Blair style of leadership (The GuardianThe Guardian, , 13/5/1996)13/5/1996)

Theoretical implications Theoretical implications ctd.ctd.

Other types of scenes?Other types of scenes?■ ““How much did you sell her, then?” Dennis How much did you sell her, then?” Dennis

butted inbutted in, thrusting his face forwards till it , thrusting his face forwards till it was only inches from the dealer’s. (Val was only inches from the dealer’s. (Val McDermid, McDermid, Dead BeatDead Beat, 1992, p. 168), 1992, p. 168)

■ After Claudie had reluctantly and After Claudie had reluctantly and shamefacedly shamefacedly putput him him in the picturein the picture about about Cardinal’s Wharf, he became really Cardinal’s Wharf, he became really interested. (Peregrine Worsthorne, interested. (Peregrine Worsthorne, Tricks Tricks of Memoryof Memory, 1993, p. 125), 1993, p. 125)

■ Both presenters have been slammed for Both presenters have been slammed for fluffingfluffing their lines ( their lines (The News of the WorldThe News of the World, , 11/12/1994)11/12/1994)

ConclusionsConclusions

The use of a corpus methodology: The use of a corpus methodology: Provides a wider range of Provides a wider range of

examples; examples; Brings out a wider range of Brings out a wider range of

methodological issues;methodological issues; Allows the extraction of frequency Allows the extraction of frequency

information;information; Can lead to important theoretical Can lead to important theoretical

insights.insights.

Main referencesMain references Grady, J. (1997) Foundations of meaning: primary Grady, J. (1997) Foundations of meaning: primary

metaphors and primary scenes. Unpublished Ph.D. metaphors and primary scenes. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. University of California, Berkeley.dissertation. University of California, Berkeley.

Kövecses, Z. (2002) Kövecses, Z. (2002) Metaphor: A Practical IntroductionMetaphor: A Practical Introduction. . Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.

Musolff, A. (2004) Musolff, A. (2004) Metaphor and Political Discourse: Metaphor and Political Discourse: Analogical Reasoning in Debates about EuropeAnalogical Reasoning in Debates about Europe. . Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

Semino, E. (2005) ‘The metaphorical construction of Semino, E. (2005) ‘The metaphorical construction of complex domains: the case of speech activity in English’, complex domains: the case of speech activity in English’, Metaphor and SymbolMetaphor and Symbol, 20, 1, 35-70., 20, 1, 35-70.

Semino, E. and Short, M. (2004) Semino, E. and Short, M. (2004) Corpus Stylistics: Speech, Corpus Stylistics: Speech, Writing and Thought Presentation in a Corpus of English Writing and Thought Presentation in a Corpus of English WritingWriting. London: Routledge.. London: Routledge.

Vanparys, J. (1995). A survey of metalinguistic metaphors. In Vanparys, J. (1995). A survey of metalinguistic metaphors. In L. Goosens, P. Pauwels, B. Rudzka-Ostyn, A.-M. Simon-L. Goosens, P. Pauwels, B. Rudzka-Ostyn, A.-M. Simon-Vandenbergen and J. Vanparys, Vandenbergen and J. Vanparys, By Word of Mouth: Metaphor, By Word of Mouth: Metaphor, Metonymy and Linguistic Action in a Cognitive PerspectiveMetonymy and Linguistic Action in a Cognitive Perspective, , (pp. 1-34). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.(pp. 1-34). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

using an annotated corpus to study metaphors for communication in english elena semino (and john...

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