user manuals for fleet owners

User manual for fleet owners concerning AFVs

Alternative Fuel Vehicles – the PROCURA project

Lisbon, 26 January 2007

(Updated December 2008)

Deliverable n.º D 2.4

Dissemination Level Public

Work Package WP 2 – Manual Development

Authors

Local Coordinator: Lara Moura - Technical University of Lisbon Technical Support: Ana Cardoso - Technical University of Lisbon; Gonçalo Gonçalves - Technical University of Lisbon; Marcos Teixeira - Technical University of Lisbon General Reviewing: Prof. Tiago Farias - Technical University of Lisbon

Status (F: Final, D: Draft) F - 2007.01.26

File Name PROCURA_Deliverable D2.4.doc

Project Start Date and Duration 1 January 2006, 36 months

This product is a result of the PROCURA project n. EIE/05/102 www.procura-fleets.eu 1

Supported by:

Disclaimer: The sole responsibility for the content of this publication lies with the authors. It does not necessarily reflect the opinion of the European Communities. The European Commission is not responsible for any use that may be made of the information contained therein.



Table of Contents 1. Introduction ............................................................................................................... 5 2. Biodiesel as an Alternative Vehicle Fuel................................................................... 6

2.1 Properties and characteristics............................................................................. 6 2.2 Biodiesel Fuelling stations .................................................................................. 7 2.3 Biodiesel Vehicles Maintenance ......................................................................... 8 2.4 Vehicles Availability .......................................................................................... 10 2.5 Regulations, Codes and Standards .................................................................. 12 2.6 Costs................................................................................................................. 13

2.6.1 Fuel Cost ................................................................................................... 13 2.6.2 Station Cost ............................................................................................... 14

2.7 Frequently Asked Questions............................................................................. 14 3. Ethanol as an Alternative Vehicle Fuel ................................................................... 17

3.1 Properties and characteristics........................................................................... 17 3.2 Ethanol fuelling stations .................................................................................... 18 3.3 Ethanol Vehicles Maintenance.......................................................................... 20 3.4 Vehicles Availability .......................................................................................... 21 3.5 Regulations, Codes and Standards .................................................................. 22 3.6 Costs................................................................................................................. 24


3.7 Frequently Asked Questions............................................................................. 25 4. Compressed Natural Gas as an Alternative Vehicle Fuel....................................... 27

4.1 Properties and characteristics........................................................................... 27 4.2 Compressed Natural Gas Fuelling stations ...................................................... 28 4.3 Compressed Natural Gas Vehicles Maintenance ............................................. 33 4.4 Vehicle Availability ............................................................................................ 34 4.5 Regulations, Codes and Standards .................................................................. 37 4.6 Costs................................................................................................................. 38


4.7 Frequently Asked Questions............................................................................. 40 5. Conclusions ............................................................................................................ 42


6. References ............................................................................................................. 44 A. Practical Examples ................................................................................................. 46 B. Questionnaire for the Erection of a CNG/H2 Refuelling Station .............................. 53 C. Safety Data Sheets................................................................................................. 55


1. Introduction In the framework set by the EU objective of 20% substitution of oil-based motor fuels by 2020, PROCURA Project was designed to facilitate the large-scale procurement of Alternative Fuel Vehicles (AFV) by identifying traditional market barriers and furthermore, promoting guidance for their mitigation. In addition, PROCURA also aims to contribute to intermediate EU goals to substitute 2% of conventional fuels by Biofuels in 2005, and 5,75% in 2010, by providing guidance to potential clients that are willing to adopt AVF to their fleets. PROCURA’s strategy consists of developing and testing models for centralized AFV-procurement via:

• buyer pools (permitting centralized infrastructure and servicing), • a focus on private fleet owners (e.g. Greenlease), and • the start-up development of second hand markets and certification systems for

AFVs. In addition the project also includes the development of manuals and guidelines for the introduction of these new technologies and fuels as well as pilot case studies in Netherlands, Italy, Portugal, Poland and Spain. The main objective of the present deliverable is to produce a manual for Alternative Fuel Vehicles fleet operators. The present report is organized in the following manner:

• In chapter 2 it is made the description of Biodiesel as an Alternative Vehicle Fuel including properties and characteristics, fuelling stations, vehicles maintenance, vehicles availability, safety and regulations, costs and frequently asked questions;

• In chapter 3 it is made the description of Ethanol as an Alternative Vehicle Fuel including properties and characteristics, fuelling stations, vehicles maintenance, vehicles availability, safety and regulations, costs and frequently asked questions;

• In chapter 4 it is made the description of Compressed Natural Gas as an Alternative Vehicle Fuel including properties and characteristics, fuelling stations, vehicles maintenance, vehicles availability, safety and regulations, costs and frequently asked questions;

• In chapter 5 the main conclusions are summarized; • And finally, Sections A, B and C present practical examples for the referred

fuels, a questionnaire for the erection of a Compressed Natural Gas/Hydrogen refuelling station and safety data sheets.

Data present throughout the report were obtained both from consulting available material from other EU funded project and specialized literature (e.g. BEST, SU:GRE, TRENDSETTER, NICHES, CIVITAS, MIRACLES,…) as well as through the use of questionnaires and interviews with relevant market players. It is understood that only with in depth analysis of the barriers present in the market that one can start to outline possible strategies on how to overcome them. This report is particularly directed to Maintenance Personnel, Drivers and Fleet Owners who can get an overview of the different technologies that can be adopted and the necessary supporting infrastructure according with the type of alternative fuel selected.

This product is a result of the PROCURA project n. EIE/05/102 www.procura-fleets.eu

2. Biodiesel as an Alternative Vehicle Fuel During the following section it is made a brief overview of the main characteristics of biodiesel as an alternative vehicle fuel. The focus will be on biodiesel properties and characteristics, fuelling stations, vehicles maintenance, vehicles availability, safety and regulations, costs and frequently asked questions.

2.1 Properties and characteristics

Biodiesel (mono alkyl esters) is a vegetable oil-based fuel that runs in almost unmodified diesel engines - cars, buses, trucks, construction equipment, boats, generators, and oil home heating units. It's usually made from soy or canola oil, but can also be made from recycled fryer oil. This renewable fuel can be produced through transesterification from a variety of vegetable oils and blended with regular diesel or run 100% biodiesel. It is practically immiscible with water, has a high boiling point, a low vapour pressure and it is non-toxic and biodegradable. It is generally accepted that B30 can be used in existing diesel engines without any modifications, but there are concerns about the interaction of higher percentage blends with the components of the fuel injection system which can limit their durability. In France B5 mixtures (up to 5%, by volume, of biodiesel) are currently in use for private vehicles. France also uses B30 to B50 mixtures in public transport captive fleets. In Germany and Austria, Biodiesel is sold in several hundred filling stations, being used in public transport and industrial fleets. This fuel must at the final stage meet the common international standard for biodiesel (EN 14214) where the biofuel has to fulfil specific requirements to be considered a quality product.

Table 1: Property data for Methyl Ester Biodiesel fuels [1]

The main advantage of using biodiesel as a transport fuel is that it can reduce net greenhouse gas emissions compared to use of fossil diesel. Use of B100 (100% biodiesel, which is rare) would typically reduce net CO2 emissions by 50-60%, so use of B5 typically reduces CO2 by 2 to 2.5%. These calculations are based on the complete “life-cycle” of the biodiesel – covering the crop cultivation, biofuel production and use of the biodiesel in a vehicle. Biodiesel can also reduce some tailpipe emissions from road vehicles, although the exact

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performance of biodiesel can vary depending on the type of diesel vehicle and specification of fuel [2].

2.2 Biodiesel Fuelling stations

Physically biodiesel is very similar to diesel fuel. There has been no proof that any of the metals currently used in the distribution, storage, dispensing, or onboard fuel systems for diesel fuel would not be compatible with biodiesel. The main difference between diesel and biodiesel is that the last one is more aggressive to the elastomers that may be used in pumps and meters. Acceptable storage tank materials include aluminium, steel, fluorinated polyethylene, fluorinated polypropylene and Teflon. Copper, brass, lead, tin, and zinc should be avoided. All the regulations for above-ground and underground diesel fuel tanks apply to biodiesel tanks. Conservation vents are not required since the vapour pressure is very low, as for diesel fuel. However, some aspects have to be assured and the fuel should be always stored in a clean, dry, dark environment.

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Figure 1: Storing containers aboveground [3]

Figure 2: Storing containers [3]


The pipelines in the storing tank area are generally made of steel (black or galvanized), fibreglass, or plastic suitable for fuel use. Any built-in or added parts of nonferrous heavy metal (copper, brass, bronze) or any zinc coated materials have to be substituted by equivalent parts of steel or, if applicable, to be removed. These measures avoid corrosion with a subsequent formation of metal soaps which can deteriorate the quality of the biodiesel. All the joints have to be tested for leaks, and a Teflon tape can be used as a thread sealant (with the compatibility with biodiesel assured). Concerning the fuel dispensers, it is relevant to take into account numerous items. The same dispensers used for diesel fuel can be used for biodiesel. However, dispensers with elastomers in its composition may not be compatible. The hose of the petrol pump has to be substituted for one made of resistant biodiesel material. The petrol pump pistol has to be checked accordingly to the specifications of the producer to assure the biodiesel compatibility. The plant operator is responsible for the keeping of the test duties. Beyond this, he has to execute independent checks, for example a permanent visual control of the functionality of the sealing surfaces. Despite the legal recommendations, the tank has to be cleaned every 2 years to avoid cases of product liability and in the interest of a permanently good quality of biodiesel.

2.3 Biodiesel Vehicles Maintenance

Biodiesel works as a replacement fuel for regular diesel, but some chemical characteristics of biodiesel must be considered:

- Biodiesel acts as a solvent, that is, it tend do dissolve any deposits present in the fuel system;

- Biodiesel reacts with organic materials (e.g. natural rubber) and will degrade them;

- Depending on the original feedstock, the gelling point can be high enough to prevent use in high concentrations on cold climates.

In this sense, several items must be observed in the practical use of biodiesel to guarantee permanently smooth operation:

o It may be necessary to change the fuel filter when changing to biodiesel after a long period in which mineral oil diesel only has been used. Because biodiesel acts as a solvent residues of the diesel fuel can be released. This biodiesel’ superior detergent characteristics can initially reduce particulate, gum and varnish buildup in engine parts, leading to clogged filters. Continuing to use biodiesel keeps fuel lines clear [4];

o Surfaces which come into contact with biodiesel should be wiped clean

immediately as also for conventional diesel;

o If biodiesel is used in non-approved vehicles, some rubber and synthetic materials can be damaged under certain circumstances after longer usage. For


example, it is possible that fuel hoses will swell. This can be remedied by using the approved materials. An authorised garage can provide information on the type of the employed materials. A regular inspection of the fuel system and replacement of the affected materials can be conducted quickly and economically [6];

o Biodiesel (B100) freezes at higher temperatures than most conventional diesel

fuel and this must be taken into account if handling or using B100. Most B100 starts to cloud at between 2ºC and 16°C, so heated fuel lines and tanks may be needed even in moderate climates. As biodiesel begins to gel, the viscosity also begins to rise, and it rises to levels much higher than most diesel fuel, which can cause increased stress on fuel pumps and fuel injection systems. Cold weather properties are the biggest reason many people use biodiesel blends [4];

o The oil change intervals should be upheld as specified by the manufacturer.

Regarding the employed engine oil, it is possible that the engine oil of utility vehicles will become diluted with fuel. However, this only usually occurs when the engine runs at low loads for longer periods [6].

In Table 2 an overview of the necessary re-equipment measures for biodiesel are specified, this does however differ according to vehicle.

Table 2: Re-equipping program for biodiesel vehicles [5]

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If you want to use B100 vehicles some recommendations can be made [4]:

• Contact other B100 users. In case you manage a fleet you can contact your Fleet Management Association to find out if anyone near you has experience with B100. Contact biodiesel associations and look through its news and other outreach material for references to B100 users;

• Ask your B100 vendor for some recommendations. Ask other users what they

did, how they did it, how long it took, how much it cost, what problems (if any) they encountered, how long have they been using B100, and what kind of engines and equipment have they been using it in;

• Contact your dealership and discuss your needs and ask for advice, including

any recommendations from their distributors or other fleet customers. Replace materials you know will be problematic and institute a monitoring program;

• Plan and budget for the time and expense of increased fuel filter changes or

cleaning your fuel system when first starting to use B100.

2.4 Vehicles Availability

At the moment, a large range of light and heavy duty vehicles that can use biodiesel are available in the market. The next table presents an overview of these models.


Table 3: Biodiesel vehicles available in the market

Light Vehicles Buses Utility Vans Light Trucks Heavy Trucks

Biodiesel

Skoda: • Octavia Type 1U • Fabia Type 6Y Superb Type 3U

EVOBUS: (http://www.evobus.com/)

• Standard 405/O, 407/O; 408/O; 405G/O; 550 with OM 447 hLA

• Low floor 405 N/O; 405 GN with OM 447 hLA/O; 530/O530 GN with OM 906 hLA and OM 457 hLA

Unimog:• BR 300 from

1988 • BR 900

Mercedes: • Atego BR

900

Mercedes: • Actros BR

500 • Axor Bm

457.9

http://www.evobus.com/


2.5 Regulations, Codes and Standards

The storage tanks containing biodiesel mixtures can be placed wherever diesel fuel tanks are. However, as in conventional fuels, underground storage tanks and piping should incorporate a leak detection system. While biodiesel is biodegradable, fuel additives or diesel fuel may be added to it so, in this sense, the same tank leak detection and prevention practices as for diesel fuel should be followed to avoid loss of product and contamination of the ground water. No changes in vehicle storage and maintenance facilities are required and there is no need for leak detection around the dispenser. Biodiesel should be stored in closed containers between 10°C and 49°C, away from heat, spark or flame, sun and oxidizing agents. The storage and use has to be made in well ventilated areas. Its container can not be punctured, dragged, or slide. As the drum is not a pressure vessel, it should never be used pressure to empty it. Fuelling practices for biodiesel blends of B20 or less are identical to normal diesel fuelling. Also identical are the essential components, including storage tanks and dispensers, found at conventional diesel fuelling stations. Like any petroleum fuelling station, a biodiesel station should be equipped with an emergency shutdown system. Drivers and attendants should receive formal training on how to use the system. A private station may have a facility layout plan on file. This document includes important information such as [7]:

• Biodiesel storage tank locations; • Emergency equipment switches; • Fire extinguishers; • Pre-planned evacuation routes; • Designated assembly areas and • Street address of the facility.

Biodiesel fuelling station safety practices are essentially the same as those for a conventional petroleum fuelling station. They include [7]:

• Posting safety signs, including emergency telephone numbers for the fire department, emergency medical help, police, maintenance and adjoining facilities;

• Regularly inspecting all equipment, including dispenser hoses, fuelling nozzles, and receptacles (report and stop using defective equipment immediately);

• Keeping ignition sources away from the fuel (this means no match lighting or cigarette smoking on the premises);

• Turning off cell phones and • Refraining from re-entering a vehicle during fuelling.

Supervisors should draft an emergency action plan, and regularly discuss it with personnel. The plan should include notification procedures, evacuation procedures, the operation of safety systems and emergency action items. If a biodiesel fire occurs, do not attempt to disconnect the nozzle from the vehicle. Evacuate the immediate area; trigger the emergency safety device and contact the fire


department. The extinguishing media are dry chemical, foam, halon (may not be permissible in some countries), CO2 and water spray (fog). Pay attention to the fact that a water stream may splash the burning liquid and spread fire. To cool the drums exposed to the fire water spray may be used. Biodiesel soaked rags or spill absorbents (i.e. oil dry, polypropylene socks, sand, etc.) can cause spontaneous combustion if stored near combustibles and not handled properly. These should be stored in approved safety containers and dispose of properly. Oil soaked rags may be washed with soap and water and allowed to dry in well ventilated area. Fire-fighters should use self-contained breathing apparatus to avoid exposure to smoke and vapour. In case of an accidental release the spill should be contained to the smallest area possible and the leak stopped. The sources of ignition should be removed and the small spills picked up with absorbent materials and disposed of properly to avoid spontaneous combustion. Large spills should be recovered for salvage or disposal. The hard surfaces have to be washed with safety solvent or detergent to remove remaining oil film as the greasy nature of biodiesel will result in a slippery surface. The waste may be disposed of by a licensed waste disposal company. Contaminated absorbent material may be disposed of in an approved landfill. Biodiesel hazard in case of inhalation is negligible unless if heated it produce vapours. Vapours or finely misted materials may irritate the mucous membranes and cause irritation, dizziness, and nausea. If this happens remove from the area of exposure to fresh air or wear an approved organic vapour/mist respirator. The contact with eyes may cause irritation. If this occurs irrigate the eyes with water for at least 15 to 20 minutes and seek medical attention if symptoms persist. Prolonged or repeated contact is not likely to cause significant skin irritation. However, as material is sometimes encountered at elevated temperatures thermal burns are possible. The exposed areas should be washed with soap and water. Protective clothing such as safety glasses, goggles, or face shield is recommended to protect eyes from mists or splashing. PVC coated gloves are recommended to prevent skin contact. Employees must practice good personal hygiene, washing exposed areas of skin several times daily and laundering contaminated clothing before re-use. No hazards are anticipated from ingestion incidental to industrial exposure. Drink one or two glasses of water and if gastro-intestinal symptoms develop, consult medical personnel (never give anything by mouth to an unconscious person) [10].

2.6 Costs

2.6.1 Fuel Cost The costs here presented include all production costs (including agricultural subsidies), the cost and margin for retail and distribution up to the refilling station, but exclude excise duty and VAT. If we are to consider the cost of production per feedstock we have the following prices.


Table 4: Average biodiesel production costs in the EU-25 [9]

Rapeseed based Sunflower based €/L €/GJ €/toe €/L €/GJ €/toe Net feedstock cost - Feedstock 0.570 16.8 698 0.568 16.7 696 - Co-product credit 0.011 0.3 13 0.011 0.3 13 Subtotal feedstock cost 0.559 16.4 685 0.557 16.4 683 Conversion costs 0.070 2.1 86 0.070 2.1 86 Blending costs (incl. adaptation of gasoline) 0.010 0.3 12 0.010 0.3 12

Distribution costs 0.100 2.9 123 0.100 2.9 123 Total costs at petrol station 0.739 21.7 906 0.737 21.7 903

The biodiesel cost is estimated at 0.73 Euro/litre. On an energy basis, biodiesel is more than two times as expensive as conventional diesel [8]. If an excise duty exemption would be granted up to the level that prices of biofuels and fossil fuels are the same on a volumetric basis, biodiesel will require about 0.39 Euro/litre of excise duty exemption. If one strives at equal fuel prices on an energy basis, biodiesel will require about 0.45 Euro/litre of excise exemption [8]. As an example, in September 2008 biodiesel cost (including VAT) was 1.56 Euro/litre in The Netherlands and 1.4 Euro/litre in Italy.

2.6.2 Station Cost The existent filling stations and tanks can be used for biodiesel with only small modifications. The cleaning of a conventional diesel tank may be sufficient. Regarding the prices, a set of 1 000 litres costs about 1 500 Euro, a set of 5 000 litres about 5 000 Euro and a set of 10 000 litres about 7 500 Euro (Ecofys).

2.7 Frequently Asked Questions

This and more detailed information are available on http://www.biodiesel.org and http://www.ebb-eu.org. 1. What is Biodiesel? Biodiesel is a renewable fuel produced from vegetable oils such as rape seed oil, sunflower seed oil, and soybean oil and also used frying oils (UFO) or animal fats. In the transport sector, it may be effectively used both when blended with fossil diesel fuel and in pure form. Tests undertaken by motor manufacturers in the European Union on blends with diesel oil up to 5-10%, or at 25-30% and 100% pure have resulted in guarantees for each type of use. Minor modifications (seals, piping) are required for use at 100% pure, unless specifically guaranteed by car manufacturers. The use of biodiesel as a transport fuel does not require any changes in the distribution system, therefore avoiding expensive infrastructure changes. Biodiesel is also used as efficient heating oil.

http://www.biodiesel.org/

http://www.ebb-eu.org/


2. Is Biodiesel the same thing as raw vegetable oil? No, biodiesel is produced from any fat or oil such as soybean oil, through a refinery process called transesterification. This process is a reaction of the oil with an alcohol to remove the glycerine, which is a by-product of biodiesel production. Fuel-grade biodiesel must be produced to strict industry specifications in order to insure proper performance. Biodiesel refers to the pure fuel before blending with diesel fuel. Biodiesel blends are denoted as, "BXX" with "XX" representing the percentage of biodiesel contained in the blend (i.e: B20 is 20% biodiesel, 80% petroleum diesel). 3. Why use Biodiesel? Biodiesel has been demonstrated to have significant environmental benefits in terms of decreased global warming impacts, reduced emissions, greater energy independence and a positive impact on agriculture. Various studies have estimated that the use of 1 kg of biodiesel leads to the reduction of some 3 kg of CO2. Hence, the use of biodiesel results in a significant reduction in CO2 emission (65%-90% less than conventional diesel), particulate emissions and other harmful emissions. Biodiesel is extremely low in sulphur, and has a high lubricity and fast biodegradability. These are all advantages which have been confirmed by various EC Commission programmes and tests of independent research institutes. As such, an increased use of biodiesel in Europe represents an important step for the European Union to meet its emission reduction target as agreed under the Kyoto agreement. Additionally reducing pollutant emissions alleviates various human health problems. In specific cases, used vegetable oils can be recycled as feedstock for biodiesel production. This can reduce the loss of used oils in the environment and provides a competitive and CO2 advantageous way of transforming a waste into transport energy. Biodiesel production also plays a useful role in agriculture. Under the current Common Agricultural Policy, the arable raw materials needed for biodiesel production may be grown on set-aside land, land which would otherwise be taken out of production. Biodiesel production uses today around 3 million hectares of arable land in the EU. Under appropriate economic conditions, biodiesel production could represent a significant absorbing potential for additional acreage resulting from the agricultural surfaces of the 10 new EU Member States and the forthcoming accession of Romania, Bulgaria and Croatia in the European Union. 4. Does Biodiesel cost more than other alternative fuels? When reviewing the high costs associated with other alternative fuel systems, many fleet managers have determined biodiesel is their least-cost-strategy to comply with state and federal regulations. Use of biodiesel does not require major engine modifications. That means operators keep their fleets, their spare parts inventories, their refuelling stations and their skilled mechanics. The only thing that changes is air quality. 5. Do I need special storage facilities? In general, the standard storage and handling procedures used for petroleum diesel can be used for biodiesel. The fuel should be stored in a clean, dry, dark environment. Acceptable storage tank materials include aluminium, steel, fluorinated polyethylene, fluorinated polypropylene and Teflon. Copper, brass, lead, tin, and zinc should be avoided.


6. Can I use biodiesel in my existing diesel engine? Biodiesel can be operated in any diesel engine with little or no modification to the engine or the fuel system. Biodiesel has a solvent effect that may release deposits accumulated on tank walls and pipes from previous diesel fuel storage. The release of deposits may clog filters initially and precautions should be taken. Ensure that only fuel meeting the biodiesel specification is used. 7. Production of Biodiesel in the EU. Biodiesel has been produced on an industrial scale in the European Union since 1992, largely in response to positive signals from the EU institutions. Today, there are approximately 120 plants in the EU producing up to 6,100,000 tonnes of biodiesel annually. These plants are mainly located in Germany, Italy, Austria, France and Sweden. Specific legislation to promote and regulate the use of Biodiesel is in force in various countries including Austria, France, Germany, Italy and Sweden. The EU has also published strict guidelines in compliance with CEN Standardisation (EN14214) in order to insure quality and performance.


3. Ethanol as an Alternative Vehicle Fuel During the following section it is made a brief overview of the main characteristics of ethanol as an alternative vehicle fuel. The focus will be on ethanol properties and characteristics, fuelling stations, vehicles maintenance, vehicles availability, safety and regulations, costs and frequently asked questions.


Agricultural ethyl alcohol or ethanol (CH3-CH2-OH) is produced from the fermentation and distillation of agricultural raw materials (mainly sugar and starch). In the EU, ethanol is mainly produced from sugar beet, cereals, potatoes and fruits. Ethanol can also be obtained as a by-product of sugar and starch process.

With the aim of using ethanol, one can consider two main options, pure and mixed with other fuels. Both forms have its barriers and European Standards have to be observed, as follows:

- Ethanol with a water content of approximately 5% - E95 for use in diesel engines (compression ignition engines):

• Technically can be added up to 15% in volume (so called E-Diesel), but it is limited up to 5% in volume (or must not be called diesel).

- Water-free (anhydrous) ethanol, with 15% added gasoline - E85 for use in gasoline (Otto/spark-ignition engines):

• Technically can be added up to 20% in volume, but due to European Committee for Standardisation based on the “Fuel directive” EN 228, it is limited up to 5% in volume (or must not be called gasoline).

Ethanol can also be converted into ETBE. This involves a chemical reaction with isobutene, a product of oil refineries, resulting in ETBE (ethyl-tertiary-butyl-ether), which can be added to gasoline fuels up to 15%v/v according to EN 228. The main advantage of ethanol is that it offers net greenhouse gas emission reductions. For E100 the reductions are typically 50-60% on a “life-cycle” basis compared with conventional fossil fuels. The benefits deriving from the use of blends are of course less. For example E5 blends would bring approximately 2.5-3% net reductions. In common with biodiesel, the climate change benefits will depend on the feedstock used for ethanol production. The 50-60% greenhouse gas emissions savings on a life cycle basis are from ethanol made from both sugar beet and wheat. If cellulosic materials are used, then the net greenhouse gas savings can be greater – perhaps as much as 75-80%. It is the low energy inputs to cellulosic crop production and more efficient / renewable based processes that are the key to reducing emissions. Ethanol can also reduce emissions of some tailpipe emissions from road vehicles, although the exact performance of ethanol can vary depending on the type of petrol vehicle and specification of fuel [2].


3.2 Ethanol fuelling stations

Ethanol requires proper fuel handling techniques to prevent fuel contamination. Materials commonly used with petrol are totally incompatible with alcohols. When these materials (such as aluminium) come in contact with ethanol, they may dissolve in the fuel, which can damage engine-parts and result in poor vehicle driveability. Even if parts do not fail, running an ethanol fuelled vehicle with contaminated fuel may cause deposits that could eventually harm the engine.

It is of most importance to take into consideration the fact that E85/95 is corrosive (and the presence of water can make ethanol much more corrosive than it would be in its pure state). The suppliers’ have to show a certificate or other kind of documentation proving that the material is compatible with ethanol. Metallic materials compatible with ethanol are unplated steel, stainless steel, black iron and bronze. Compatible non-metallic materials are reinforced fibreglass, thermo plastic piping, neoprene rubber, polypropylene, Viton and Teflon materials. Metallic materials such as zinc, brass, lead, aluminium ternary (lead-tin-alloy)-plated and steel lead-based solder are not compatible with ethanol. Non-metallic materials such as natural rubber, polyurethane, cork gasket material, leather, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyamides, methyl-methacrylate plastics and certain thermo plastics are not compatible either [12]. Ethanol fuelling does not require high-pressure equipment. E85 tanks and storage are essentially the same as for gasoline, and fuelling practices are identical. An existing underground storage tank can be used to store E85/95 if the tank is either metal or fibreglass (certified for E85/95). Welded tanks are preferable and should be corrosion protected. Double-walled, low-carbon, cold-finished steel tanks can also be used. If another type of fuel was stored in the tank that will be used for the E85/95, it must be cleaned due to the fact that storing petrol underground may cause some particulates to settle out and form sludge. Introducing alcohol into these tanks will place this sludge into suspension and can lead to serious problems [13]. Aboveground tanks may be made of stainless steel, cold-finished steel, or fibreglass. The use of plated metal tanks is generally not recommended. Several companies manufacture aboveground storage tanks that may be used for E85/95. Generally, aboveground storage tanks are smaller than underground storage tanks and are typically installed in capacities of 1000 to 5000 litre.

Figure 3: BASIS Ethanol tank – Ethanol tank system and tank container

(http://www.tanksystem.de/)

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http://www.tanksystem.de/


Figure 4: Typical E85 underground storage system [13]

Concerning underground piping, non-metallic corrosion free materials are the best choice. Conventional zinc-plated steel piping should not be used for fuel ethanol. Pipes thread sealant must be made of Teflon tape or Teflon based pipe-thread compound. If secondary piping is needed, thermo set reinforced fibreglass or thermoplastic double-wall piping should be used [23]. Fuel dispensers also need to be modified to handle E85. Aluminium parts should be replaced with stainless steel, unplated steel or iron to prevent corrosion. Companies that produce E85/95 compatible pump dispensers include Tokheim Corporation, Dresser Wayne, Autotank and Bennett Pump Company. An E85 dispenser has to be equipped with a Teflon hose and a 1 micron in-line filter. This size filter will trap most of the debris and impurities that might be present in the storage tank and prevent them from being transferred to the vehicle during refuelling. All fittings, connectors, and adapters that will be in contact with the fuel blend should be made of materials like stainless steel (the best choice), black iron, or bronze to avoid degradation. If aluminium or brass fittings are used, they must be nickel plated to avoid any contact between the bare metal and the ethanol blend [13].

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Figure 5: E85 dispensing equipment [13]

Once the E85 refuelling station has been installed, simple operational precautions can assure fuel quality. Periodically checking the fuel properties will avoid costly damage to vehicles operating on E85. Some of these checks may be performed in the field, but others may require the services of a specialized laboratory. After the refuelling station has reached normal operation, the fuel should be tested periodically. At a minimum of every 1 to 2 months (depending on how frequently the station is used) the electrical conductivity, particulate content, hydrocarbon content and Reid vapours pressure should be checked.

3.3 Ethanol Vehicles Maintenance

Because of the modified components in the fuel system and on the engine, vehicles which can be operated on ethanol may require more frequent servicing.

– 10 000 Km / 1 year: (which ever occurs first)

Renew engine oil and filter.

– 60 000 Km – valve clearance check (intake & exhaust). If valve clearance is below 0.2 mm, then proceed to relash the valve clearance as follows:

Exhaust valve clearance between 0.3 mm and 0.36 mm (high limit preferred);

Intake valve clearance to between 0.25 mm and 0.31 mm (high limit preferred).

– 60 000 Km – valve clearance check (intake & exhaust). If valve clearance is above 0.2 mm, proceed to the next 60 000 Km service check.

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Table 5: Service Schedule Ford Focus 2004 (1.8 DURATEC – HE/FFV) (Ford)

Taking the vehicle to the garage Instrument display, warning and control lights and horn

Check functioning

Clutch Check functioning/adjust, if applicable Window wiper, window cleaner Check functioning/adjust, if applicable Under the vehicle Engine Drain the oil and substitute the oil filter

Break system With the tires on, check if the breaks are worn out

Outside the vehicle Engine Change engine’s oil Maintenance warnings Put the sticker on the driver’s side Extension of the maintenance Break system Every two years: change break’s oil

Air conditioner Every three years: check the evaporator’s exit tube temperature. Check if there are damages or leaks on the air conditioner’s tubes

Cooling system Every ten years: drain, wash and fill with purple Super Plus

Accessories strings Change every 200000 Km or ten years, which happens first

Supplementary services and additional offers (optional)

Maintenance service package Check/rectify the window washer’s liquid, check if the tire repairing kit and emergency equipment are complete and valid

Light service package Check all the inner and outer lights. Check the headlights level and rectify if necessary

Inner filter substitution Check the pollen/odour filters

Air conditioner maintenance package Check the air conditioner system. Apply cleaning product on the air distribution system

3.4 Vehicles Availability

At the moment, a large range of light and heavy duty vehicles that use ethanol are available in the market. The next table presents an overview of these models.


Table 6: Ethanol vehicles available in the market

Light Vehicles BusesUtility Vans

Light Trucks

Heavy Trucks

Ethanol

Ford: • Focus 1.8 FFV • Cmax

Saab (GM): • 9-5 BZ Sedan FFV

Volvo: • V50 BZ 1.8

FlexiFuel • S40 BZ 1.8

FlexiFuel Citroen*:

• C3 and C4 Peugeot*:

• 207 and 307 *shortly on the market

Scania


The location of ethanol storage tanks depends on whether they are above ground or underground; the nearest building, property line, or public way; the type of organization that uses the tank and how it is used; and for above ground tanks, whether they are fire resistant or not. Ethanol can not be stored in aluminium containers and containers should always be kept properly closed. Storing large amounts of flammable liquid may require permission, so it may be necessary to contact local authorities. In case of storing with flammable gas or easily ignited material local regulations concerning safety distances have to be observed. During storage and handling is essential to ensure proper ventilation. If the general ventilation is not sufficient, mechanical ventilation or local exhaust ventilation should be used. Ethanol should be kept away from sources of ignition (smoking, welding, flames or sparks), and sparks’ formation due to static electricity have to be prevented. During the loading and unloading appropriate grounding and electrical connection should exist, and explosion proof electrical equipment have to be used. Like any fuelling station, an E85 station should be equipped with an emergency shutdown system and should have a facility layout plan on file that includes [7]:

• Locations of fuel storage tanks, pumps, and dispensers; • Locations of the emergency shutdown device (also known as ESD) and fire

extinguishers; • Pre-planned evacuation routes;


• Descriptions of adjoining facilities; • Designated assembly areas and • Street address of the facility.

Every fuelling station should have an emergency action plan. The plan should first identify what constitutes an emergency. The list of emergency action items should include [7]:

• Specific evacuation procedures; • The phone numbers of local police, fire, and maintenance departments and

medical providers and • Descriptions of safety systems and practices.

Drivers should periodically inspect E85 fuelling equipment, including dispenser hoses, fuelling nozzles, and receptacles. Report and immediately stop using defective equipment. Like all fuels, keep ignition sources away from ethanol. Do not light matches or smoke cigarettes on a fuel station premises. Turn off cell phones and do not re-enter a vehicle during fuelling. In the event of an E85 fire, do not attempt to disconnect the nozzle from the vehicle. Evacuate the immediate area, trigger the emergency safety device, and contact the fire department. Powder or carbon dioxide extinguisher or water spray should be used. The container can be cooled using a diffuse spray of water. Ethanol vapours can form explosive mixtures with air at temperatures below room temperature. The clothes contaminated with ethanol are considered a fire hazard. During an accidental release the risk of ignition and explosion has to be observed. The sources of ignition, such as flames, sparks or heat have to be removed. These accidental spills should be contained using an inert material such as sand, dirt or similar. Small amounts of ethanol can be flushed away with plenty of water but large amounts have to be collected using an absorbent material such as sand or similar. Appropriate authorities have to be contacted in case of a large accidental release and it should be treated as a hazardous waste according to Commission Decision 200/352/EC, with amendments, pursuant to article 1(4) of Council Directive 91/689/EEC on hazardous waste. The substances of the product have little toxic effect on aquatic organisms and will not bioaccumulate in the aquatic environment. Ethanol is easily degradable and when accidentally released, most will evaporate to the atmosphere. The evaporation is considerably prevented if the substance penetrates deeper into the soil. Ethanol hazards in case of inhalation of high vapour concentrations are not negligible and may cause burning and stinging discomfort in nose and throat, cough, dizziness, tiredness, headache and impaired judgment and ability to react. In this case remove from the area of exposure to fresh air. Respiratory protection might be needed during prolonged handling, for example full or half mask with gas filter type A or self contained breathing apparatus. The skin contact can cause degrease of the skin, which may cause dry and chapped skin or skin cracks. Prolonged or repeated contact might cause eczema. If this happens remove the contaminated clothing and wash the skin with water. Gloves might


be needed during prolonged handling and when there is a risk for splashing or direct contact. The eye contact can cause burning and stinging discomfort, and even vapour can irritate the eyes. In case of eye contact flush rapidly with water and consult a doctor if any negative effect remains. Safety glasses might be needed during prolonged handling or when there is a risk of splashing. Ethanol ingestion may cause strong burning and stinging discomfort in mouth and throat. Ingestion of large amounts may cause vomiting and unconsciousness as well. If this occurs drink a couple of glasses of milk or water and consult a doctor if a larger amount has been ingested. As this product contains ethanol, which is a well-known intoxicant, in large amounts it may cause disturbances of the central nervous system, lead to paralysis of the breathing apparatus and also harm the liver [14].

3.6 Costs

3.6.1 Fuel Cost The ethanol costs range from 0.55 up to 0.63 Euro/litre, depending on the feedstock used (see Table 7). On an energy basis, this is about a factor 2.5 to 2.8 higher than the gasoline price. If an excise duty exemption would be granted up to the level that prices of Biofuels and fossil fuels are the same on a volumetric basis, ethanol requires about 0.26 Euro/litre of excise duty exemption. If one strives at equal fuel prices on an energy basis, ethanol requires about 0.57 Euro/litre of excise exemption [8]. Once again it is possible to compare production costs per feedstock used.

Table 7: Bioethanol production costs in the EU-25 + Bulgaria, Romania [9]Wheat based Beet based €/L €/GJ €/toe €/L €/GJ €/toe

Net feedstock cost - Feedstock 0.40 18.9 790 0.26 12.3 513 - Co-product credit 0.15 7.1 296 0.03 1.4 59 Subtotal feedstock cost 0.25 11.8 493 0.23 10.9 454 Conversion costs 0.28 13.3 553 0.22 10.4 434 Blending costs (incl. adaptation of gasoline) 0.05 2.4 99 0.05 2.4 99

Distribution costs 0.01 0.5 20 0.1 4.7 197 Total costs at petrol station 0.59 27,9 1165 0.6 28.4 1184

These are only reference values as wheat and sugar beet based ethanol is not considered to be the more economic way of producing ethanol. The values of total ethanol costs, at a petrol station, including all excise duties and VAT can be from 0.75 Euro to 0.99 Euro per litre (no mineral oil tax on ethanol content) (Ford). As an example, in September 2008 ethanol cost (including VAT) was ranging from 1.5 to 1.91 Euro/litre in The Netherlands, 1.77 Euro/litre in Italy and 0.85 Euro/litre in Valencia (Spain).


3.6.2 Station Cost The economic minimum capacity of an ethanol plant is at 300,000 litres per day (=100000 tons per year) in Europe; provided that energy cost are favourable it may be 100000 litres per day in other regions. Decisive factors for the plant location are short transport routes for raw material and product and availability of energy (preferable biomass = CO2 reduction). The investment for a 300 000 litre per day facility is around 40 to 50 million euros, this is however depending on infrastructure. With permits on hand planning and construction takes 18 - 24 months [24]. Ethanol facilities cost will, of course, vary depending on the circumstances that apply to each particular establishment and on national, regional and local legislation. To establish a new complete station for ethanol refuelling, including a 50 m3 tank, cost around 42 000 Euro (Swedish values) [12]. In the case of a 20 m3 tank the cost would be about 32 000 Euro. Treating the inside of an existing tank so that it can be used for ethanol costs about 7400 Euro for a 50 m3 tank and about 4 800 Euro for a 20 m3 tank. Exchanging the connection between tank and pump costs about 26 Euro per meter, excluding the necessary digging. A new dispenser costs about 5 000 Euro [12]. The cost of upgrading an existing dispenser for E85 is approximately $2 500 (1 996 Euro). The installation of a new ethanol facility can range from $10 000 (7 985 Euro) to $60 000 (47 914 Euro), U.S values [7].


This and more detailed information are available on http://www.sqbiofuels.com. 1. What is BioEthanol? BioEthanol is also known as grain alcohol or ethyl alcohol. It can be derived from any plant material that contains starch or sugar. It is created in a similar manner to beverage alcohol, but it is denatured to prevent human consumption. Like gasoline, BioEthanol contains hydrogen and carbon molecules. It also contains oxygen molecules, which makes it cleaner burning. Any material that contains starch or sugar can be used to create BioEthanol. 2. How is BioEthanol produced? BioEthanol is produced from a feedstock like corn, barley or wheat, and fermented and distilled into useable grain alcohol. It is then denatured and blended with gasoline into either E85 or E10 and shipped to retail pumps. 3. Can my vehicle use BioEthanol? E10 Gasoline All vehicles with gasoline engines manufactured after 1980 can use E10 Gasoline (Since 1980, modern fuel lines have been fully compatible with BioEthanol). Vehicles with gasoline engines can switch between E10 GASOLINE and regular gasoline.

http://www.sqbiofuels.com/


E85 BioEthanol Only FFV can use E85 BioEthanol. FFV can run regular gasoline or any blend of BioEthanol (up to 85%). BioEthanol will absorb any water that has accumulated in the fuel tank of a vehicle over time. As a result, the first tank of E10 Gasoline or E85 BioEthanol may cause an engine to run slightly rough. Once the water has been consumed in the first tank of fuel, the vehicle will return to normal operation. BioEthanol blends are usable at any temperature. E85 BioEthanol may contain up to 30% gasoline during winter months to ensure proper cold starting. 4. Can I convert my gasoline vehicle to run E85 BioEthanol? According to the National Ethanol Vehicle Coalition, the answer is yes. "Yes. However, there are no conversions or after-market parts that have been certified by the EPA as meeting the standards to maintain clean exhaust emissions. Technically speaking, converting a vehicle that was designed to operate on unleaded gasoline only to operate on another form of fuel is a violation of the federal law and the offender may be subject to significant penalties. No after-market conversion company has successfully certified an E85 kit that would allow a gasoline vehicle to operate on 85 percent ethanol. The differences in fuel injector size, air-fuel ratio, PCM calibrations, material composition of the fuel lines, pumps and tanks are just a few of the components that contribute to making an E85 conversion extremely complex. It is our understanding that at least one company is working to obtain EPA certification. We will monitor the situation closely, understanding the certification process can be time consuming, difficult and expensive." 5. Does BioEthanol provide similar miles per gallon as gasoline? E85 contains 27% less energy than a gallon of gasoline, but because of the increased octane rating gas mileage only goes down by 5% to 12%. FFV have larger fuel tanks to compensate for this. For E10, there is an almost unnoticeable decrease in fuel efficiency. 6. How do BioEthanol’s emissions compare to petroleum gasoline’s emissions? E85 and E10 blends reduce carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and have similar or lower hydrocarbon and non-methane emissions. 7. Will using ethanol void my engine warranty? Every major car company in the world approves the use of E-10 Unleaded under warranty. Ethanol is a common oxygenating additive in gasoline – you have probably already used it without knowing it. 8. Can I switch back and forth between BioEthanol blends and gasoline? You can switch back and forth between BioEthanol and regular gasoline; FFV are made to run on gasoline or BioEthanol in blends up to 85%. For regular gasoline vehicles, you can switch back and forth with blends up to 10% BioEthanol.


4. Compressed Natural Gas as an Alternative Vehicle Fuel During the following section it is made a brief overview of the main characteristics of compressed natural gas as an alternative vehicle fuel. The focus will be on compressed natural gas properties and characteristics, fuelling stations, vehicles maintenance, vehicles availability, safety and regulations, costs and the most frequently questions that can occur when using this fuel.


Natural gas is composed by a large percentage of methane (CH4), usually between 75 and 90%, with the remainder comprised of propane, butane and other components (composition may vary according to the source of the natural gas). Natural gas at SPT has a low density and therefore requires more volume than a traditional liquid fuel, thus it must be compressed or liquefied to make it practical for transport applications. Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is the most common application for natural gas vehicles though Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) use is also a possibility. The differences between CNG and LNG are the methods of production and storage, LNG is 'frozen' to less than -162º Celsius (-212o Fahrenheit) to liquefy it and CNG is compressed into a high-pressure cylinder, usually to around 200 to 250 bar (or lower in some areas). The advantage of liquefaction over compression is that the fuel is at a higher density, meaning more energy is contained in the same space - LNG is roughly 600 times the density of natural gas at standard pressure. In general, LNG is more commonly used for heavier vehicles whereas CNG is used both for light and heavy duty vehicles. This is not a hard and fast rule though and both fuels may be used in either class of vehicle. Once the gas is liquefied, it must be kept cold, in specially designed cryogenic tanks, or it would revert to its gaseous state. Thus LNG tanks are designed in a similar fashion to a thermos flask, (i.e. with substantial insulation). Due to weathering effect, evaporation can take place and NG released to the atmosphere. Natural gas vehicles (NGVs) are generally very clean in terms of their air quality emissions. Their near-zero particulate matter emissions is a particular advantage when an NGV displaces a diesel, which is usually the case with heavy-duty NGVs. Dedicated NGVs usually have methane catalysts designed specifically to capture and remove the relatively high levels of methane that their engines often emit. Methane catalysts cannot be fitted to bi-fuel and dual-fuel NGVs, so methane emissions may contribute significantly to these vehicles’ overall global warming potential. With regards to the relative CO2 emissions of diesels and NGVs there are in fact two countering effects: diesel engines are more efficient, but burning natural gas produces less CO2 per unit of energy released due to the lower ratio of carbon to hydrogen within its molecular structure [2]. Natural gas can be used to fuel almost any kind of vehicle - motorcycles and three wheelers, cars, vans, pickups, lift trucks, buses, trucks, trains, boats, even aircraft. The availability of vehicles or conversion equipment varies greatly from country to country depending on local conditions. This fuel is most commonly stored on board vehicles in high pressure cylinders. These cylinders are available in a number of different types, weights and sizes to suit different applications. As a general rule, as cylinder weight


decreases, cylinder costs increases. In some cases, cylinders are available for lease from vehicle converters or gas suppliers. There are four different types of cylinders:

- Type 1: All metal made of steel with no covering, other than paint. This is the most common type of cylinder;

- Type 2: Metal cylinder (steel or aluminium) with a partial wrapping made of glass or carbon, contained in an epoxy or polyester resin;

- Type 3: Cylinder fully wrapped most often with carbon fibre. This type has a metal liner (usually aluminium);

- Type 4: Cylinder is fully wrapped with 100% carbon fibre and a plastic or carbon fibre liner.

CNG cylinders have to be strong structurally in order to contain the high pressure gas. Prior to gaining standards and regulatory approval, the cylinders are subjected to a large range of tests specified by the relevant standard, which may include bullet impact tests and a bonfire test. In spite of these standards, care of cylinders must still be taken, particularly with the fibreglass wrapped and composite cylinders. The importance of the weight of CNG cylinders can vary widely. Ultimately, the duty cycle of the vehicle and its need to reduce weight, such as with buses and garbage trucks, will determine the most appropriate choice of cylinders. One perception that often arises is that it is not possible to carry enough CNG because the cylinders weigh too much or take up too much space. However, if lightweight cylinders are used and the actual fuel needs of the vehicle are taken into account, weight is often not an issue at all (vehicles often carry more fuel than is actually required). For heavier vehicles, innovative solutions for cylinder locations include placement beneath the bunk in a sleeper cabin, or on the roof. In some cases, especially buses, carrying the cylinders on the roof actually helps to distribute weight over axles more evenly. It is also important to mention that Biogas, after its upgrading, has similar characteristics to Natural Gas and the vehicle and infrastructures used are basically the same.

4.2 Compressed Natural Gas Fuelling stations

Installing a fuelling system generally is a complicated process and a number of important factors need to be considered, such as the equipment size, the installation requirements, the site preparation, the regulations and permits (these may be national or local), the fleet fuelling profile (fuel quantity required, time of day needs, etc.) and the operation costs (gas and electric costs, maintenance requirements, etc.). The design criteria for a Natural Gas Vehicle (NGV) filling station require some important data namely for the station capacity and sizing. It has to be taken into account the refuelling profile (per 24h max), the type of NGV, the suction pressure (natural gas grid), the gas quality, the available power capacity on location, the sound emission level on location, the land availability (at least 300m2), and the expected fleet increase over some years, for example 10 [18]. The safety distance to other buildings outside the station should be not less than 5m, though some local regulations asked for more distance. Generally, the noise level


should not exceed 65dB(A) in 1m distance to the outside of the compressor building. In urban areas the level has to be lower. A NGV filling station can be categorised in fast and slow fill. In a fast fill station pressurized fuel is stored in tanks that are continually refilled by compressors. Multiple tanks may be configured in a cascading arrangement, in which tanks come into service as needed. In a slow fill facility vehicles are filled directly from the compressor. Such equipment, which includes compressors but no storage tanks, typically serves small fleets [7]. The main advantage of a slow fill over a fast fill system is that it usually has lower cost. Fast fill systems require 'cascade storage' which essentially stores fuel at pressure which is then fed to the dispenser. With a slow fill system, the fuel is fed directly from the compressor to the vehicle's on-board storage cylinder. This means less space is required for equipment and lower up-front and maintenance costs [15]. It should be kept in mind that light duty vehicles have cylinders with the capacity of 20Nm3 and that it can be assumed that they refill at least 15N.m3 each time. The compressors usually used for light duty filling stations have the capacity of 150Nm3/h, which means that it is possible to refill an average of 10 vehicles per hour [17]. On the other hand, heavy duty vehicles have cylinders with the capacity of 150 to 200m3 at 200bar. This proofs that natural gas compressors must be dimensioned accordingly to the type of fleet that is going to use the filling station. A public filling station should have at least two compressors, in case one of them fails. A NGV filling station comprises the following components:

• Gas inlet; • Dryer; • Compressor; • Storage and • Dispenser.

Modern stations also include credit card readers and should have an emergency shutdown device. The components above mentioned can be used in different ways as we can see in Figure 6, Figure 7 and Figure 8.


Figure 6: Complete CNG Systems - Fast Fill [17]

1 - Gas grid 2 - Gas meter 3 - Fuelmaker or Phill 4 - Connector

1

3 42

House Garage

Figure 7: Complete CNG Systems - Slow Fill (Home filling) [18]

30


5 4

1 2 3

1 - Gas grid 2 - Compressor station 3 - Buffer 4 - Dispensing posts 5 - Connectors

Figure 8: Complete CNG Systems - Slow Fill (Fleet filling) [18]

The storage cylinders used in CNG refuelling systems are usually made of carbon steel. These cylinders are typically placed on a concrete slab without enclosure but can also be placed in underground vaults (this is uncommon and presents some additional safety concerns such as an asphyxiation hazard to personnel in the vault in the

resence of a leakage). p Piping for CNG refuelling facilities must be compatible with natural gas and capable of four times the rated service pressure without failure. Stainless steel seamless tubing is

ost commonly used for CNG piping. m The CNG fuelling dispensers can be categorised in fast fill and slow fill. Fast fill CNG dispensers perform much like public gasoline stations and typically serve large fleets or public customers that can not wait overnight for fuelling. Pressurized fuel is stored in tanks that are continually refilled by compressors. Multiple tanks may be

h draw fuel directly from residential gas es, can also be available to private owners.

configured in a cascading arrangement, in which tanks come into service as needed. In a slow fill CNG facility, fuelling requires an extended period — usually overnight parking — because the vehicles are filled directly from the compressor. Such equipment, which includes compressors but no storage tanks, typically serves small fleets. Slow fill CNG fuelling appliances, whiclin There are also two types of CNG dispenser nozzles. Type 1 is typically used in public fuelling (Figure 9), while Type 2 (Figure 10) is used in fleet fuelling, for larger vehicles uch as buses which require more and faster volume.

s

31


Figure 9: Type 1 nozzle typically used at public CNG fuelling stations [7]

Figure 10: Type 2 nozzles usually found in onsite fleet fuelling facilities [7]

It is of most importance to have in mind that some procedures have to be made when fuelling a CNG vehicle [7]:

• Open the fuel door and remove the protective cap on the vehicle fuel receptacle;

• Remove the fuelling nozzle from the dispenser; • Inspect the fuelling hose and nozzle for damage; • Place the nozzle on the receptacle and pull back to ensure it is secure; • Turn the fuelling valve handle on the nozzle to the “open” position; • Swipe the fuelling card through the card reader; • Turn the dispenser fuelling handle to the “on” position; • After the fuel stops flowing, turn the dispenser fuelling handle to the “off”

position; • Turn the fuelling valve handle on the nozzle to the “vent” position; • Remove the nozzle from the receptacle and place it back on the dispenser and • Replace the protective cap on the vehicle fuel receptacle.

32


4.3 Compressed Natural Gas Vehicles Maintenance

The rate of unscheduled repairs is slightly higher for the gasoline vehicles than for the CNG vehicles (on a per mile basis). No differences in the types or frequencies of fuel system or engine-related maintenance and repairs. When compared over similar mileage ranges the gasoline vehicles tended to need slightly more repairs related to brakes and tires than the CNG vehicles.

Table 8: Maintenance and repair cost summary [19]

CNG Vehicles Gasoline Vehicles Scheduled maintenance (average for vehicle type)

$2354 $3454

Unscheduled maintenance (average – with accidents)

$1628 $1499

Unscheduled maintenance (average – without accidents)

$519 $769

Non-mechanical repairs (average for vehicle type)

$711 $634

Other costs (average for vehicle type)

$46 $123

Total maintenance and repair (average – without accidents)

$3630 $4979

Total maintenance and repair: cents per mile

(average – without accidents) 3.39 3.95


Maintenance of the buses, as the result of NGVeurope-Thermie project in Augsburg, Germany is illustrated below.

Table 9: Maintenance measures for diesel and natural gas buses

Measures Diesel Natural Gas

Changing of motor oil 30,000 km

Manufacturer's recommendation: 30,000 km; expected for the

future: 45,000 km. No special motor oil required

Valve adjustment 60,000 km

Manufacturer's recommendation: 15.000 km (Only necessary for the first motor generation. The new designed lean burn motor

operates with lower temperatures longer intervals are expected)

Changing of sparking plugs ---- Manufacturer's recommendation: 15,000 km

4.4 Vehicle Availability

At the moment, a large range of light and heavy duty vehicles that use natural gas are available in the market. The next table presents an overview of these models.


Table 10: Natural Gas vehicles available in the market

Light Vehicles Buses Utility Vans Light Trucks Heavy Trucks

CNG

Citroen:

• Berlingo 1.4 and C3 1.4

bivalent

Fiat:

• Multipla 1.6

• Panda

• Punto 1.2

• Doblo Natural Power 1.6

Ford:

• Focus Cmax CNG

Mercedes:

• E 200 NGT

Opel:

• Astra Caravan,

monovalentplus with Combo

1.6 CNG and Zafira 1.6 CNG

Peugeot:

• Partner 1.4 bivalent

Volvo:

• S70, S60, S80 CNG

Volkswagen:

• Caddy 1.9, Touran 1.9, Golf

Iveco: (http://www.irisbus.com/cgi-

bin/irisbus.dll/Irisbus/index.jsp)

• CNG Tector and CNG Cursor 8, Daily

Metano

Scania:

• L94UB CB60 Low Floor CNG

Irisbus:

• Agora CNG

Mercedes:

• Citaro CNG

• Sprinter

Neoman

EKOBUS CNG Buses

Heuliez GX 317

Volvo 7000

Van Hool

(http://www.transbus.org/construc/index.html)

Citroen:

• Berlingo 1.4

• Jumper

Fiat:

• Doblo 1.6

• Ducato

Bipower

Opel:

• Combo 1.6

CNG

Peugeot:

• Partner 1.4

• Boxer CNG

Volkswagen:

• Transporter

ECOFUEL

Mercedes:

• NGT

Sprinter

Ford:

• Transit

Iveco:

• Daily

Fiat:

• Ducato

natural

power

Renault:

• Midlum

Mercedes:

• ECONIC

Iveco:

• Euro Tech

UT 190 E

22 CNG

• Euro Tech

MH 260 E

26 CNG

Renault:

• Puncher

http://www.irisbus.com/cgi-bin/irisbus.dll/Irisbus/index.jsp

http://www.irisbus.com/cgi-bin/irisbus.dll/Irisbus/index.jsp

http://www.transbus.org/construc/index.html


Variant EcoFuel

Renault:

• Kangoo 1.6 16V CNG

• Clio 1.6



Outdoors storage of CNG containers have to be above ground on stable, non-combustible foundations or in vaults that are ventilated and have drainage. CNG storage containers have to be mounted away from adjoining property lines, buildings, nearest public streets or sidewalks, or any source of ignition. They shall also not be located below electrical power lines or in a location that might be hit by falling electrical power lines. Containers of flammable or combustible liquids, as well as readily ignitable materials, have to be kept away too. Fuelling stations should also have a facility layout plan that includes [7]:

• Locations of fuel storage tanks, pumps, and dispensers; • Locations of the emergency shutdown device (also known as ESD) and fire

extinguishers; • A pre-planned evacuation route; • At least one designated assembly area; • The street address of the facility and • Descriptions of adjoining facilities.

Every fuelling station should have an emergency action plan. The plan should first identify what constitutes an emergency. The list of emergency action items should include [7]:

• Specific evacuation procedures; • The phone numbers of local police, fire, and maintenance departments and

medical providers and • Descriptions of safety systems and practices.

Two key pieces of safety equipment warrant special attention [7]:

• The emergency shutdown device, which is typically located on or adjacent to the fuelling island. Activating it will close at least two isolation valves, causing the compressor and gas flow from storage to the dispenser to stop and

• The fire extinguishers, which are usually located on or adjacent to the fuelling island. These are used to eliminate oxygen from a fire. The driver must be properly trained to extinguish a natural gas fire.

It is critical to keep ignition sources away from CNG as the mixture with air is very flammable. When on CNG fuelling station premises, one should not light matches, smoke cigarettes, or use cell phones. Although CNG systems are sealed (no air enters the fuel systems of the station or vehicle), it is still important to play it safe. The cell phones have to be turned off and no re-entering the vehicle during fuelling is permitted. In the area of the station three hazardous zones have to be indicated as [20]: Zone 0: for areas in with an explosive gas atmosphere is present continuously or for long periods; Zone 1: for areas in with an explosive gas atmosphere is likely to occur in normal operation and


Zone 2: for areas in with an explosive gas atmosphere is not likely to occur in normal operation and, if it does occur, is likely to do so only infrequently and will exist for a short period only. This ex-zone classification is in accordance with the EU regulations (EN 60079.10, Directive 94/9/EC). In the event of a CNG fire, evacuate the immediate area, press the emergency shutdown device and call the fire department. Do not attempt to disconnect the nozzle from the vehicle. Furthermore, do not try to extinguish the fire unless you are specifically trained to do so – especially if the fire is near fuelling or storage equipment. If you suspect a gas release at the dispenser, close the nozzle valve and turn the dispenser shutoff valve a quarter-turn to the “off” position. Next, disconnect the fuelling nozzle from the vehicle, and reattach it to the mounting bracket on the dispenser. Once the leak is stopped, report the situation to the maintenance technician and the station attendant. During an accidental release it is essential to wear self-contained breathing apparatus when entering the release area unless the atmosphere is proved to be safe. The area must be evacuated and adequate air ventilation has to be ensured, as well as the elimination of ignition sources. No known ecological damage can be caused by the accidental release of this product. Never the less, it should not be discharged into areas where there is a risk of forming an explosive mixture with air. Waste gas should be flared through a suitable burner with flash back arrestor. The supplier should be contacted if any guidance is required. Natural Gas may have some health hazards, as methane is a simple asphyxiant and inhalation is a primary route of exposure. The overexposure symptoms (almost always occurring in a closed inhabited space) may include shortness of breath, unconsciousness and loss of mobility. The victim may not be aware of asphyxiation. In low concentrations it may cause narcotic effects that include dizziness, headache, nausea and loss of co-ordination. The victim should be removed to an uncontaminated area and kept warm and rested. A doctor should be called and artificial respiration applied if breathing has stopped [21]. The European Natural Gas Vehicle Association (www.engva.org) has its Training Institute where periodically specific training is given.

4.6 Costs

4.6.1 Fuel Cost Purchase prices for natural gas vehicles are somewhat higher than for similar conventional vehicles (between 5 to 15%). The auto manufacturers' typical price premium for a light-duty CNG vehicle can be $1 500 (1 199 Euro) to $6 000 (4 797 Euro), and for heavy-duty trucks and buses it is in the range of $30 000 (23 977 Euro) to $50 000 (39 967 Euro) (U.S values) [25]. Incentives can help defray some of the increase in vehicle acquisition costs. In addition, fleets may need to purchase service and diagnostic equipment if access to commercial CNG vehicle maintenance facilities is not available.

http://www.engva.org/


CNG historically costs about 30% to 50% less than gasoline, which varies by country and continent. As a reference, it is possible to say that on September 2008, CNG cost (including VAT) was 0.908 Euro/kg in Italy.

4.6.2 Station Cost The size of a CNG refuelling station has strong influence on the economics of the station. A small station has a higher investment cost per Nm³ of CNG than a large station. However, the station can only be economic if there is a maximum use of the station (over 80%). Therefore, in the calculations the user profile is an important input. As reference values below are presented some costs for the needed equipment (all regarding to the German price scale) [20]. Equipment Costs (all these are budget prices ± 10%):

– Compressor Pack • Compressor Delivery: 150 Nm³/h € 100-150 000,- • Compressor Delivery: 350 Nm³/h € 150-250 000,- • Compressor Delivery: 500 Nm³/h € 250-350 000,- • Compressor Delivery: 750 Nm³/h € 350-450 000,-

– Storage • Bottle Storage:

– Price per m³ Volume: € 7 000,- • Tube Storage:

– Price per m³ Volume: € 12 000,-

– Dispenser – One Hose, one meter: € 22 000,- – Two Hose, one meter: € 30 000,- – Two Hose, two meter: € 38 000,-

– Infrastructure

• Civil Work: – Foundations: Local – Price per m² Paving: Local – Steel Structure: Local

– Power and Gas

– Power connection: Local – Transformer Unit: Local – Gas grid connection: Local

Having in mind these prices, the cost calculation for three particular cases can be made, with local tax not included:

CASE 1 – Compressor delivery: 150 Nm³/h – Delivery volume per day: 3 000 Nm³ – Sales Price: € 0.72 p. kg


– Annual profit: € 147 651.91

CASE 2 – Compressor delivery: 350 Nm³/h – Delivery volume per day: 7 000 Nm³ – Sales Price: € 0.72 p. kg – Annual profit: € 534 562.49

CASE 3 – Compressor delivery: 1 500 Nm³/h – Delivery volume per day: 25 000 Nm³ – Sales Price: € 0.72 p. kg – Annual profit: € 1 632 772.10


This and more detailed information are available on http://www.iangv.org. 1. What is natural gas? Natural gas forms when plant and animal matter are trapped beneath solid rock under tons of pressure for millions of years. Made up mostly of methane, natural gas is both odourless and tasteless in its original form. 2. How safe is natural gas? Statistics clearly show natural gas to be the safest energy form. Compared to other energy sources, it has an enviable safety record because of several factors. Natural gas is non-toxic. The odorant that we add makes it easy to detect small leaks. Since natural gas is lighter than air, it dissipates quickly in a well-ventilated area. These factors, combined with the rigorous controls and safety standards that regulate the industry, make natural gas a safe energy choice. 3. Is a natural gas vehicle more dangerous than a gasoline or diesel car? No. Natural gas vehicles (NGV) are in fact safer than most other vehicles. The natural gas used in cars is the same natural gas that is used in many millions of homes for cooking and eating. Natural gas is lighter than air and thus, in the event of an accident, rises into the atmosphere away from its source. Vapours from liquid fuels on the other hand tend to 'pool' at ground level, creating the potential for explosions. Natural gas is also relatively difficult to ignite, requiring specific concentrations and temperatures before ignition occurs. Compressed natural gas (CNG) cylinders are tested in the most extreme conditions, even having bullets fired at them, before they receive standards approval. Despite the safety characteristics of NGV, proper safety precautions must still be observed. Caution should be taken when refuelling and repairs or installations should only be carried out by qualified personnel.

http://www.iangv.org/


4. What are the advantages of natural gas over diesel? Natural gas is an inherently cleaner alternative fuel that produces very low particulate and nitrogen dioxide emissions. Utilizing natural gas fuel not only provides greater overall emission reductions, but also supports the goals of fuel diversity and reducing petroleum dependence. 5. Is a natural gas vehicle as powerful as a 'normal' vehicle? The average motorist does not notice a difference between fuels, but usually there will be a variation - sometimes a natural gas engine will be more powerful and sometimes less. Natural gas can operate under higher compression than gasoline, which increases efficiency, but another factor that affects power is whether or not a vehicle has been 'optimized' for natural gas. Bi-fuel vehicles are often optimized for gasoline which means the full 'value' of natural gas may not be realised. Ironically, the low noise generated by a natural gas engine, compared to a diesel engine, sometimes gives the mistaken impression that the vehicle has lost power. Drivers unfamiliar with natural gas vehicles (NGV) often report lower power, but upon testing, the vehicle is found to be more powerful than its diesel equivalent. As diesel and gasoline vehicles are requiring more and more 'after treatment' to reduce emissions, the efficiency and power of these vehicles is often reduced. 6. Is it easy to refuel a CNG vehicle? Yes. In many ways it's easier than using diesel or gasoline. The process is similar but, because the refuelling coupling is pressure sealed, and because there are no liquids, there are no spills to contend with. Users of home or work refuelling systems have it even easier, as they have the convenience of refuelling without interfering with their daily routine. Of course, as with any fuel, proper safety procedures should be followed. Always ensure the engine is switched off before refuelling.


5. Conclusions The main objective of the present deliverable was to produce a manual for Alternative Fuel Vehicles fleet operators that could congregate all the relevant information for each alternative fuel. In chapter 2 it was made the description of Compressed Natural Gas as an Alternative Vehicle Fuel including properties and characteristics, fuelling stations, vehicles maintenance, vehicles availability, safety and regulations, costs and frequently asked questions, in chapter 3 it was made the description of biodiesel as an Alternative Vehicle Fuel including properties and characteristics, fuelling stations, vehicles maintenance, vehicles availability, safety and regulations, costs and frequently asked questions and in chapter 4 it was made the description of ethanol as an Alternative Vehicle Fuel including properties and characteristics, fuelling stations, vehicles maintenance, vehicles availability, safety and regulations, costs and frequently asked questions. This report is particularly directed to Maintenance Personnel, Drivers and Fleet Owners who can get an overview of the different technologies that can be adopted and the necessary supporting infrastructure. It can be concluded that physically biodiesel is very similar to diesel fuel. There has been no proof that any of the metals currently used in the distribution, storage, dispensing, or onboard fuel systems for diesel fuel would not be compatible with biodiesel. The main difference between diesel and biodiesel is that the last one is more aggressive to the elastomers that may be used in pumps and meters. Therefore, the existent filling stations and tanks can be used for biodiesel with only small modifications. The cleaning a conventional diesel tank may be sufficient. Vehicles may need to change the fuel filter when changing to biodiesel after a long period in which mineral oil diesel only has been used, due to the fact that it acts as a solvent and residues of the diesel fuel can be released and block the filter. If biodiesel is used in non-approved vehicles, some rubber and synthetic materials can be damaged under certain circumstances after longer usage, this can be remedied by using the approved materials. The oil change intervals should be upheld as specified by the manufacturer. Ethanol requires proper fuel handling techniques to prevent fuel contamination. Attention has to be paid when selecting materials, as some materials can be incompatible with alcohols. When these materials (such as aluminium) come in contact with ethanol, they may dissolve in the fuel, which can damage engine-parts and result in poor vehicle driveability. The costs of ethanol facilities will, of course, vary depending on the circumstances that apply to each particular establishment. Vehicles which operate on ethanol may require more frequent servicing because of the modified components in the fuel system and on the engine. On the other hand, installing a CNG fuelling system generally is a complicated process and a number of important factors need to be considered, such as the equipment size, the installation requirements, the site preparation, the regulations and permits (these may be national or local), the fleet fuelling profile (fuel quantity required, time of day needs, etc.) and the operation costs (gas and electric costs, maintenance requirements, etc.). The size of a CNG refuelling station has strong influence on the economics of the station. A small station has a higher investment cost per Nm³ of CNG


than a large station. However, the station can only be economic if there is a maximum use of the station (over 80%). It can be said that the rate of unscheduled repairs is slightly higher for the gasoline vehicles than for the CNG vehicles (on a per mile basis). There are no differences in the types or frequencies of fuel system or engine-related maintenance and repairs.


6. References [1] A critical review of biodiesel as a transportation fuel in Canada, prepared by Dr.

Chandra B. Prakash, principle GCSI - Global Change Strategies International Inc. for the Transportation Systems Branch Air Pollution Prevention Directorate Environment Canada, March 25, 1998;

[2] “Cleaner Fuels & Vehicles – A summary of Road Transport Fuels and

Technologies from an Environmental Perspective”. TREATISE, 2005; [3] “Instructions for the handling with Biodiesel in filling stations”. Association of

Quality Management Biodiesel reg. Ass, May 2004; [4] “Biodiesel Handling and Use Guidelines”. US Department of Energy. Energy

Efficiency and Renewable Energy, November 2004; [5] “Biodiesel in Bus Fleets”. UFOP; [6] “Biodiesel Flowerpower – Facts, Arguments, Tips”. UFOP, 2004; [7] “Alternative Fuel Driver Training Companion Manual”. US Department of Energy

– Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, September 2005; [8] “Biofuels in the Dutch Market: a fact-finding study”. NOVEM, November 2003; [9] EUBIA – European Biomass Industry Association,

http://p9719.typo3server.info/214.0.html [10] “B-100 Safety Data Sheet”. National Biodiesel Board. http://www.biodiesel.org/; [11] European Biodiesel Board – http://www.ebb-eu.org; [12] “Storing and Dispensing E85 and E95”. Experiences from Sweden and the U.S.

Bioethanol for Sustainable Transport, November 2005; [13] “Handbook for Handling, Storing, and Dispensing E85”. US Department of

Energy – Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, April 2006; [14] “Etamax D Safety Data Sheet”. Svensk Etanolkemi AB. November 2005; [15] IANGV – International Association for the Natural Gas Vehicle,

http://www.iangv.org; [16] ENGVA – European Natural Gas Vehicle Association, http://engva.org/; [17] APVGN – Associação Portuguesa do Veículo a Gás Natural,

http://www.apvgn.pt/; [18] “Refuelling Technology – Generic Training”. ENGVA, November 2004;

http://p9719.typo3server.info/214.0.html


http://www.ebb-eu.org/

http://www.iangv.org/

http://engva.org/

http://www.apvgn.pt/


[19] “A Review of Comparative Studies. Maintenance Costs for NGVs versus

Conventional Vehicles.” ENGVA, 2003; [20] “Refuelling Technology – Station Design Workshop”. ENGVA, 2006; [21] “Methane Safety Data Sheet”. Air Liquide, July 2002; [22] “Methane Material Safety Data Sheet”, Air Products and Chemicals, Inc; [23] Bechtold, Richard L., “Alternative Fuels Guidebook. Properties, Storage,

Dispensing, and Vehicle Facility Modifications”. Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, Pa., 1997;

[24] Vogelbush – Technology, Engineering & Construction of Bioprocess Plants.

http://www.vogelbusch.com/; [25] Alternative Fuel Data Center. US Department of Energy – Energy Efficiency and

Renewable Energy. http://www.eere.energy.gov; [26] CIVITAS – Cleaner and better transport in cities. http://www.civitas-initiative.org; [27] SeQuential Biofuels – http://www.sqbiofuels.com.

http://www.vogelbusch.com/

http://www.eere.energy.gov/

http://www.civitas-initiative.org/

http://www.sqbiofuels.com/


A. Practical Examples

The following examples are practical cases from the project CIVITAS – Cleaner and better transport in cities, that illustrate some success cases of AFV implementation (please see http://www.civitas-initiative.org for detailed information on these and other cases).

B100 bus fleet The Graz public transport company operates all of its ca. 120 busses on 100% biodiesel. A large part of this fuel is provided by processed used cooking oil. Objectives / Innovative Aspects:The measure objectives are:

• To convert the entire public transport bus fleet of Graz to biodiesel; • To thereby reduce emissions and environmental impacts from the public

transport system; • To enhance the image of public transport and • To support the collection of used cooking oil by marketing this measure.

The 100% switch to alternative fuel for the entire bus fleet of the city of Graz is new. Graz was (2006) the only city in Europe operating on 100% biodiesel for the entire fleet. The Measure:Graz collects used cooking oil on a large scale. This UCO is converted into biodiesel and along with biodiesel produced from rape seed provides the whole bus fleet with fuel. The bus fleet also got an optimised high quality interior design (information screens, air conditioning, better acoustic and visual information and ramps for mobility impaired persons).

The attractiveness of the city will increase due to lower pollution levels by the biodiesel driven buses. Public transportation will become more user friendly, especially for the disabled and other specific target groups.

The local public transport company (GVB) carries out a series of technical, ecological and economical trials of 100% biodiesel operation. These trials were successful. Within the framework of CITIVAS Trendsetter, the whole bus fleet was either converted to biodiesel operation or new busses were bought already equipped for biodiesel operations.

Implementation Status:All busses (120) operate on 100% biodiesel fuel; in winter additives have to be added and about 30% fossil diesel has to be added. There are own biodiesel filling stations. There is a regular monitoring of fuel quality (supported by the local university) and of the engines and engine components. (Expected) Results:The operation is very successful. However, it is only possible because biodiesel is fuel tax exempt.

http://www.civitas-initiative.org/


The experience from Graz: 100% Biodiesel in the whole bus fleet (and now also taxis) with used cooking oil bases biodiesel is unique and could be spread to all European cities. Often this is hindered by extra guarantees asked for by bus and car manufacturers. Usually operating with a 30% biodiesel mix is already deemed difficult, Graz proves the contrary.

Biodiesel taxi fleet & biodiesel service station In Graz, the largest taxi company is switching its entire fleet from diesel to biodieselcars. In order to promote biodiesel for others, the taxi filling station is available also forthe public. Objectives / Innovative Aspects:The measure objective is to accelerate the gradual change from fossil fuel to biodiesel in the largest taxi fleet in Graz. In Austria, Graz is the first city to switch to biodiesel for a complete taxi fleet of this size. A new biodiesel service station for taxis will be established to meet the increased demand for biodiesel. The Measure:Taxi 878 in Graz has 220 cars in its fleet and is thereby the city’s biggest taxi company. The company wants to reduce its environmental impact and works actively for this. All drivers have been introduced to environmental issues as a part of a one day training programme for the entire company. In order to make the shift from diesel to biodiesel easier, a fuelling station for biodiesel was established at Taxi 878 headquarters. The filling station is also open to the public, thus encouraging other companies as well as citizens to use biodiesel. The large-scale introduction of biodiesel in a taxi company makes it possible to gather information about repair, maintenance and service needs when using biodiesel. Most Taxi 878 drivers are not employees but franchisers, which add an extra challenge to the shift. A central decision to use another fuel is not enough - facts and information must convince individual members to voluntarily change fuels. A campaign to this end addressed subjects such as quality of the biofuel, using the fuel on cold winter days and biodiesel use in general. Implementation Status:After solving technical problems with the fuel filters, over 25 % of the taxi fleet has switched to biodiesel within Trendsetter, it is expected that the target of 60% will be reached in 2006. (Expected) Results:Conversion to biodiesel of a private taxi fleet with many franchised individual operators is much more difficult then of a centrally controlled public fleet. “Time is


money” is much more important. As technical problems arose (blocked fuel filters) the whole project was put on hold. There were also problems with the liabilities and involved guarantees from car manufacturers. Helpful is the participation and supporting role of experts. It was proven within this project, that a supervision of an expert group (in this case carrying out fuel quality tests and determining the source of lacking quality and ensuing technical problems) s essential for the whole project. So if problems arise do not hesitate to get support of an expert group.

Biodiesel in the UK Biodiesel operation of vehicle fleets is poorly developed in the UK. Thedemonstration will expose the practicalities of using biodiesel, and how it can beintroduced into UK vehicle fleets, whilst evaluating the impact on greenhouse gasemissions. Objectives / Innovative Aspects:The objective is to seek and promote a clearer understanding of how bio diesel can help provide cleaner public vehicles in inner city areas. Specifically, the measure will provide a demonstration of bio diesel fuel for public bus operators and taxi fleets and, we hope, other public institutions. The Measure:Setting up and organising the logistics and infrastructure for the supply, storage and management of mixing bio diesel fuel blends and dispensing them into transport fleets. Researching, sourcing and implementing the modifications necessary to run vehicles on blends of higher concentrations of biodiesel. Evaluating comparatively the fuels’ performance in fleets using controlled onboard measuring techniques and analyses for fuel economy, NOx and particulate emissions, amongst others. Investigating and calculating the life cycle environmental impacts of Global’s biodiesel production from waste oil and expansion to rapeseed feed stocks and the implications for wider dissemination of bio diesel in fleet transport. Evaluating comparatively the fuels’ performance in fleets using controlledonboard measuring techniques and analyses for fuel economy. Implementation Status:Background Research: Literature Study Liaison with partners and specialists Monitor background and existing conditions - current bus fuel economy etc.Planning: Experiment design, equipment sourcing and costing.Source bio diesel safe parts and fit to vehicles. Install and test monitoring equipment and test normal diesel emission and performance. Set up fleet bio diesel trial logistics, fuel storage and agreements.Ongoing data collection and conditioning for analysis. Detailed vehicle performance/emissions testing activities.


Launch 5% blend at Anglian. Launch 5% blend at Dolphin Taxies. Run primary vehicle trials increasing bio diesel concentration. Set up trials with municipal vehicle fleets (Police & County Council). (Expected) Results:30%+ well to wheel reduction in greenhouse gas emissions from bus services -100% trial; 2%+ well to wheel reduction in greenhouse gas emissions from bus services - 5% trial; 2%+ well to wheel reduction in greenhouse gas emissions from municipal vehicle fleet trial; 6%+ well to wheel reduction in greenhouse gas emissions from taxi fleet trial;6%+ well to wheel reduction in greenhouse gas emissions from police vehicle fleet trial; Compliance with Euro IV emission standards; Positive public opinion; Take up of bio-diesel within other vehicle fleets.

Ethanol in Malmö The University hospitals MAS will exchange half their vehicle fleet with cleanvehicles before the end of 2008. In absolute numbers it will be approximately 30new vehicles where 50% will be fuelled on ethanol and 50% on naturalgas/biogas. Objectives / Innovative Aspects:The aim is that all the Region’s vehicles will be clean vehicles in the future. By the end of 2008 at least 50 % of University Hospital MAS vehicles will be clean vehicles. App. 30 clean vehicles (50% ethanol/50% vehicle gas). Using clean vehicles on a daily basis within a large organization will spread the positive experience of these vehicles more widely. The Measure:An increasing proportion of clean vehicles will be purchased or leased as follows:

• By the end of 2006 at least 30 % of all purchased/leased vehicles will be clean vehicles;

• By the end of 2007 at least 40 % of all purchased/leased vehicles will be clean vehicles;

• By the end of 2008 at least 50 % of all purchased/leased vehicles will be clean vehicles.

Implementation Status:Implementation timetable for month 1-18. M 12-16 Specification of vehicles and


planning of procurement. M 16-42 Procurement of vehicles.

(Expected) Results:With a fleet of vehicles of which half are environmental vehicles (50% ethanol and 50% vehicle gas) then the emission of carbon dioxide would be reduced as follows: Today UMAS has 65 vehicles that each drives on average 15,000 km/year using petrol results in an emission of carbon dioxide in total of approximately 244 tons/year. Totally the reduction in the emission of carbon dioxide will be around 64 tons /year, or 16% lower than at present if half the fleet of vehicles switches to cars run on ethanol or vehicle gas.

Operation of biofuel and CNG vehicles in Debrecen The proposed biofuel program of Debrecen represents the most evident efforts to create a sustainable mobility system in a form of a wide integration of waste-management, district heating, electricity production and public transport. Objectives / Innovative Aspects:After the positive results of the necessary studies a full-fleet-scale usage of bio fuels will be implemented in the non-electric part of the public transport system of Debrecen. The Measure:Biogas operation in two terms:

• after positive study results a test mode; • if the test mode is successful a full scale implementation of biogas

usage can be realized in the public transport. the necessary investments:

• biogas cleaning system; • storage and supply system.

o conversion of 7 conventional diesel buses to CNG ones (target: fleet of

20 CNG buses); o operation in priority areas of acquisition; o installing of CNG engine acquisition and installing of CNG fuel tank

reinforcement of the vehicle chassis; o necessary modifications of vehicle electronics; o necessary test and state license procedure; o analysis of framework conditions for local biodiesel and biogas

production and usage and implement recommendations; o demonstration of biodiesel and biogas usage in PT buses and road

maintenance vehicle new CNG buses will also be purchased; o old diesel buses will be taken out of circulation.


Implementation Status:• Cooperation with local experts; • Compilation of a study about CNG and biogas in public transport; • Bid for the consumables; • Regular local meetings with academic staff; • Discussion with German firms in Budapest about required technological

facilities. (Expected) Results:The converted CNG will be used in the inner city centre to contribute to the improvement of emission impacts.

Operation of clean bus fleets (CNG) in Toulouse During the MOBILIS project, Toulouse aims to execute a large deployment ofCNG solution. With the objective to get a 100% clean public transport fleet in2008, Toulouse will purchase 60 CNG buses, will put in place a GNV fillingstation and will launch the so-called “CNG at home” solution for private

ouseholds.h Objectives / Innovative Aspects:The global objective of this measure is a shift towards clean PT fleets by substituting diesel with CNG engines and launch of a commercial offer of CNG for private households. For public transport Toulouse aims to have a 100% clean vehicle fleet by 2008. A dedicated evaluation plan will estimate (ex-ante) the potential environmental gains, while (ex-post) the real gains will be defined. The Measure:The development in Toulouse of a large fleet of clean vehicles has concretely begun with the decision, in 2002, of renewing the whole bus fleet with CNG buses. Within the MOBILIS project, this policy would be reinforced by the acquisition of new CNG buses in place of the old diesel bus and the building of a new filling gas station in the new depot that should be built for 2007 (in the place of the one that has been destroyed). CNG development started in France in 1998 with the bus market. This development was followed by the development of CNG garbage trucks. Almost no vehicles were running in 1998. More than 1500 buses and almost 200 Garbage Trucks are now running in France. A new small compressor has been developed to be installed in home garages connected to the natural gas network. This small compressor enables the refuelling of the vehicle during the night. The compressor is being tested by Gaz de France at the R&D Division for the French application. In parallel, it is being tested by Canadian for the North American market.


Implementation Status:CNG vehicles fleet:

• Acquisition of 60 new CNG buses and their affectation / exploitation on high quality bus lines;

• Building of a new CNG filling station, located in the new bus depot that should be built for the beginning of 2007.

CNG at home:

• Develop the content of the commercial offer together with the car manufacturers and gas professionals;

• Develop some communication strategies and communication tools to sell the offer;

• Evaluate the satisfaction of CNG Customers with satisfaction studies; • Evaluate the profitability of the CNG at Home offer by market segment; • Develop some communications tools to communicate in France and in

Europe about the MOBILIS project results. (Expected) Results:CNG vehicles fleet:

• To build a new gas filling station with a capacity of 200 buses; • To extend the CNG bus fleet from 125 to 185 vehicles; • To reduce the pollutant emission of the bus fleet.

CNG at home: The main result of this measure is to develop a first reference in Europe. The Toulouse demonstration program will be a means to develop and test the “CNG At Home” offer and to communicate about it. It will also be a means to build some new technical, marketing, commercial tools that will be then spread out to the French and European market. The key target is to have 1000 homes equipped with the small compressor at the end of the project in the Toulouse Area.


B. Questionnaire for the Erection of a CNG/H2 Refuelling Station

This questionnaire was taken from “Refuelling Technology – Station Design Workshop”, ENGVA, 2006.

53


C. Safety Data Sheets

• Biodiesel Safety Data Sheet (this and more detailed information are available on “B-100 Safety Data Sheet” from the National Biodiesel Board –http://www.biodiesel.org/)

1. CHEMICAL PRODUCT General Product Name: Biodiesel (B100) Synonyms: Methyl Soyate, Rapeseed Methyl Ester (RME) Product Description: Methyl esters from lipid sources CAS Number: Methyl Soyate: 67784-80-9; RME: 73891-99-3; 2. COMPOSITION/INFORMATION ON INGREDIENTS This product contains no hazardous materials. 3. HAZARDS IDENTIFICATION Potential Health Effects: INHALATION: Negligible unless heated to produce vapors. Vapors or finely misted materials may irritate the mucous membranes and cause irritation, dizziness, and nausea. Remove to fresh air. EYE CONTACT: May cause irritation. Irrigate eye with water for at least 15 to 20 minutes. Seek medical attention if symptoms persist. SKIN CONTACT: Prolonged or repeated contact is not likely to cause significant skin irritation. Material is sometimes encountered at elevated temperatures. Thermal burns are possible. INGESTION: No hazards anticipated from ingestion incidental to industrial exposure. 4. FIRST AID MEASURES EYES: Irrigate eyes with a heavy stream of water for at least 15 to 20 minutes. SKIN: Wash exposed areas of the body with soap and water. INHALATION: Remove from area of exposure; seek medical attention if symptoms persist. INGESTION: Give one or two glasses of water to drink. If gastro-intestinal symptoms develop, consult medical personnel. (Never give anything by mouth to an unconscious person.) 5. FIRE FIGHTING MEASURES Flash Point (Method Used): 130.0 C or 266.0 F min (ASTM 93) Flammability Limits: None known EXTINGUISHING MEDIA: Dry chemical, foam, halon (may not be permissible in some countries), CO2, water spray (fog). Water stream may splash the burning liquid and spread fire. SPECIAL FIRE FIGHTING PROCEDURES: Use water spray to cool drums exposed to fire. UNUSUAL FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARDS: Biodiesel soaked rags or spill absorbents (i.e. oil dry, polypropylene socks, sand, etc.) can cause spontaneous combustion if stored near combustibles and not handled properly.



Store biodiesel soaked rags or spill absorbents in approved safety containers and dispose of properly. Oil soaked rags may be washed with soap and water and allowed to dry in well ventilated area. Firefighters should use self-contained breathing apparatus to avoid exposure to smoke and vapor. 6. ACCIDENTAL RELEASE MEASURES SPILL CLEAN-UP PROCEDURES Remove sources of ignition, contain spill to smallest area possible. Stop leak if possible. Pick up small spills with absorbent materials and dispose of properly to avoid spontaneous combustion (see unusual fire and explosion hazards above). Recover large spills for salvage or disposal. Wash hard surfaces with safety solvent or detergent to remove remaining oil film. Greasy nature will result in a slippery surface. 7. HANDLING AND STORAGE Store in closed containers between 50°F and 120°F. Keep away from oxidizing agents, excessive heat, and ignition sources. Store and use in well ventilated areas. Do not store or use near heat, spark, or flame, store out of sun. Do not puncture, drag, or slide this container. Drum is not a pressure vessel; never use pressure to empty. 8. EXPOSURE CONTROL /PERSONAL PROTECTION RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: If vapors or mists are generated, wear a NIOSH approved organic vapor/mist respirator. PROTECTIVE CLOTHING: Safety glasses, goggles, or face shield recommended to protect eyes from mists or splashing. PVC coated gloves recommended to prevent skin contact. OTHER PROTECTIVE MEASURES: Employees must practice good personal hygiene, washing exposed areas of skin several times daily and laundering contaminated clothing before re-use. 9. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES Boiling Point, 760 mm Hg: >200°C Volatiles, % by Volume: <2 Specific Gravity (H2O=1): 0.88 Solubility in H2O, % by Volume: insoluble Vapor Pressure, mm Hg: <2 Evaporation Rate, Butyl Acetate=1: <1 Vapor Density, Air= 1:>1 Appearance and Odor: pale yellow liquid, mild odor 10. STABILITY AND REACTIVITY GENERAL: This product is stable and hazardous polymerization will not occur. INCOMPATIBLE MATERIALS AND CONDITIONS TO AVOID: Strong oxidizing agents HAZARDOUS DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: Combustion produces carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide along with thick smoke. 11. DISPOSAL CONSIDERATIONS WASTE DISPOSAL: Waste may be disposed of by a licensed waste disposal company. Contaminated absorbent material may be disposed of in an approved landfill. Follow local, state and federal disposal regulations.


12. TRANSPORT INFORMATION UN HAZARD CLASS: N/A NMFC (National Motor Freight Classification): PROPER SHIPPING NAME: Fatty acid ester IDENTIFICATION NUMBER: 144920 SHIPPING CLASSIFICATION: 65 13. OTHER INFORMATION: This information relates only to the specific material designated and may not be valid for such material used in combination with any other materials or in any other process. Such information is to the best of the company’s knowledge and believed accurate and reliable as of the date indicated. However, no representation, warranty or guarantee of any kind, express or implied, is made as to its accuracy, reliability or completeness and we assume no responsibility for any loss, damage or expense, direct or consequential, arising out of use. It is the user’s responsibility to satisfy himself as to the suitableness and completeness of such information for his own particular use.

• Ethanol Safety Data Sheet (this and more detailed information are available on “Etamax D Safety Data Sheet” from Svensk Etanolkemi AB, November 2005.)

1. IDENTIFICATION OF THE SUBSTANCE/PREPARATION AND OF THE COMPANY/UNDERTAKING

Identification of the substance or preparation: ETAMAX D

Use of the substance/preparation: Motor fuel for diesel engines

Company/undertaking identification: Svensk Etanolkemi AB Box 286 S-891 26 Örnsköldsvik Sweden

Contact: Mona Lindström, Telephone +46 660 758 00; fax +46 660 516 29 www.sekab.com

Emergency telephone: 112, ask for the Chemical Emergency in Sweden.

Date of issue: Revised: 2005-10-11 Previous issue: 2005-08-15

2. COMPOSITION/INFORMATION ON INGREDIENTS

Substances CAS No. EEC No. Conc. weight-% Symbol letters; R


phrases*

Ethanol 95%

Beraid

(polyethyleneglycol)

Methyl-t-butyl ether

Isobutanol

64-17-5

25322-68-3

1634-04-4

78-83-1

200-578-6

500-038-2

216-653-1

201-148-0

90-92

5-7

< 3

< 1

F; R11

F; R11 Xi; R38

R10 Xi; R37/38-41 R67

* Classification and R phrases as given in Council Directive 67/548/EEC on the approximation of laws, regulations and administrative provisions relating to the classification, packaging and labelling of dangerous substances, as last amended 2001/59/EC. R phrases are explained under heading 16.

3. HAZARDS IDENTIFICATION Classification: Highly flammable. Health hazard: Inhalation of high vapour concentrations may cause

headache, tiredness and impaired ability to react. May cause skin dryness.

Environmental hazard:

The substances of the product have little toxic effect on aquatic organisms and will not bioaccumulate in the aquatic environment. Ethanol is easily degradable, while Methyl-t-butyl ether is not. When accidentally released, most will evaporate to the atmosphere. The evaporation is considerably prevented if the substance penetrates deeper into the soil.

Fire hazard: Highly flammable liquid. The vapours can form explosive mixtures with air at temperatures below room temperature. Clothes contaminated with ethanol are a fire hazard.

Physicochemical hazard:

Can damage packing, lacquered and painted surfaces, sealing and protective coating of grease and materials of natural rubber.

4. FIRST AID MEASURES Inhalation: Fresh air. Skin contact: Remove contaminated clothing. Wash skin with water. Eye contact: Flush with water. Consult doctor if any negative effect remains. Ingestion: Give a couple of glasses of milk or water to drink. Consult doctor if

a larger amount has been ingested.


Symptoms and effects:

Inhalation: High concentrations may cause burning and stinging discomfort in nose and throat, cough, dizziness, tiredness, headache, impaired judgment and ability to react. Ingestion: Strong burning and stinging discomfort in mouth and throat. Ingestion of large amounts may cause vomiting and unconsciousness as well.

5. FIRE-FIGHTING MEASURES Use powder or carbon dioxide extinguisher or water spray. If close to the fire, move or keep the container cool using a diffuse spray of water.

6. ACCIDENTAL RELEASE MEASURES

Personal precautions:

Observe the risk for ignition and explosion! Remove sources of ignition, such as flame, sparks or heat. Personal protection, see heading 8.

Environmental precautions:

Keep away from drains. Dam up large accidental releases with an inert material, such as sand, dirt or similar.

Methods for cleaning up:

Small amounts can be flushed away with plenty of water. Collect large amounts using absorbent material such as sand, dirt or similar. Collect and treat as hazardous waste, see heading 13. Contact appropriate authorities in case of large accidental releases.

7. HANDLING AND STORAGE

7.1 Handling

Ensure good ventilation. If the general ventilation is not sufficient, mechanical ventilation or local exhaust ventilation should be used.

Do not smoke! Handled separated from sources of ignition. Avoid a free falling jet of the liquid. Use appropriate grounding and electrical connection during loading and unloading.

7.2 Storage


Observe the fire hazard! Stored separated from sources of ignition. No smoking, welding, flames or sparks. Prevent formation of sparks due to static electricity. Use explosion proof electrical equipment.

Do not store in aluminium containers. Containers should be kept properly closed.

Storing large amounts of flammable liquid may require permission; contact local authorities.

Store in a segregated and approved area. (In case of storing with flammable gas or easily ignited material please observe local regulations concerning safety distances.)

8. EXPOSURE CONTROLS/PERSONAL PROTECTION

8.1 Exposure limit values Ethanol: 1000 mg/m

3 (NGV/TWA;

Sweden/Finland/Denmark) Methyl-t-butyl ether: 110 mg/m

3

8.2 Occupational exposure controls

Personal protection: Respiratory protection: Respiratory protection

might be needed during prolonged handling, for example full or half mask with gas filter type A or self contained breathing apparatus.

Eye protection: Safety glasses might be needed during prolonged handling or when there is a risk for splashing.

Hand protection: Gloves might be needed during prolonged handling and when there is a risk for splashing or direct contact (see below).


Breakthrough time > 8 hours 4 – 8 hours 1 – 4 hours < 1 hour

Glove material Butyl rubber, 4 H Nitrile rubber, teflon, Viton Neoprene, polyethylene latex, PVA, PVC,…

9. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

9.1 General information Appearance: Red coloured liquid Odour: Slightly pungent.

9.2 Important health, safety and environmental information Solubility in water: Soluble

Soluble in most solvents Solubility in organic solvents: Flash point: (Method SS-EN 22719) 9 °C Boiling point: 78,5 °C Explosive limits: 3,5 –

15 Vol-%

Relative evaporation rate (ether = 1): 0,1 Vapour pressure: 5,8 KPa (20 °C) Vapour density (air = 1): 1,59

9.3 Other information

Density: 0,83 g/cm3

Auto-ignition temperature: 360 °C

10. STABILITY AND REACTIVITY

10.1 Conditions to avoid

Heat or other sources of ignition.

10.2 Materials to avoid

Reacts explosively with strong oxidizers such as calcium hypochlorite, nitric acid and hydrogen peroxide.

10.3 Hazardous decomposition products

May form explosive fulminates with certain nitrates.


11. TOXICOLOGICAL INFORMATION

Inhalation: Inhalation of high concentrations may cause burning and stinging discomfort in nose and throat, cough, dizziness, tiredness, headache, vomiting, impaired judgment and ability to react.

Skin contact:

Degreases the skin, which may cause dry and chapped skin or skin cracks. Prolonged or repeated contact might cause eczema.

Eye contact:

Splash in the eye causes burning and stinging discomfort. Even vapour can irritate the eyes.

Ingestion: Ingestion causes strong burning and stinging discomfort in mouth and throat and other symptoms as when inhaled. Ingestion of large amounts may cause vomiting and unconsciousness as well.

The product contains ethanol, which is a well-known intoxicant. In large amounts it may cause disturbances of the central nervous system, lead to paralysis of the breathing apparatus and also harm the liver.

Toxicological data:

Ethanol:

Methyl-t-buthyl ether:

LD50

oral rat 14 400 mg/kg; LD50

oral rat 7 060 mg/kg; LDLo

oral dog 5 500 mg/kg; LC

50 inhalation rat 20 000 ppm/10h; LC

50 inhalation

rat 38 mg/litre/10h; LD50

dermal rabbit >20 000 mg/kg.

LD50

oral rat 4 g/kg; LD50

dermal rabbit 10 000 mg/kg; LC50

inhalation rat 23 500 ppm/4h; LC50

inhalation rat 23 576 ppm/4h

12. ECOLOGICAL INFORMATION

The substances of the product have little toxic effect on aquatic and terrestrial organisms and will not bioaccumulate in the aquatic environment. Ethanol is easily degradable, while Methyl-t-butyl ether is not. When accidentally released, most will evaporate to the atmosphere. The evaporation is considerably prevented if the substance penetrates deeper into the soil.

12. 1 Aquatic toxicity


Ethanol:

Methyl-t-butyl ether:

LC50

fish 96h 13 480 mg/litre (Pimephales promelas) EC50

Daphnia 48h 9268-14221 mg/litre (Daphnia magna) IC

Lo algae 7days 5 000

mg/litre (Scenedesmus sp.)

LC50

fish 96h 110 mg/litre (Pimephales promelas) EC50

Daphnia 48h 651 mg/litre (Daphnia magna) IC

50 algae 72h > 800 mg/litre

(Scenedesmus sp.)

12.2 Mobility


Koc 6 (very high mobility in Cohasey earth (94% sand).

12.3 Persistence and degradability

Ethanol:


BOD5/COD 0,4 – 0,8

0% in 28 days (OECD test 301D) Activated sludge: BOD21

1% of TOD

12.4 Bioaccumulative potential

Ethanol:


BCF <10 fish (calculated) Log Pow

-0,32

BCF < 5 (Japanese carp) Log Pow

2,90

13. DISPOSAL CONSIDERATIONS

Should be treated as hazardous waste, EWC-code 20 01 13, (Solvents from municipal waste and similar…) according to Commission Decision 2000/352/EC, with amendments, pursuant to Article 1(4) of Council Directive 91/689/EEC on hazardous waste. Contact local authorities for national regulations.

14. TRANSPORT INFORMATION

UN IMDG (sea) ADR/RID (road/rail)

DGR (air)

UN No: 1170 Class: 3 Class: 3 Class: 3


Packing group: II EmS No: 3-06

Marine pollutant: No

15. REGULATORY INFORMATION

Symbols: Flame (F)

R/S phrases and other labelling information:

R11 HIGHLY FLAMMABLE

S16 Keep away from sources of ignition - No smoking S33 Take precautionary measures against static discharges S51 Use only in well-ventilated areas

16. OTHER INFORMATION

R phrases referred to under headings 2: R11 Highly flammable; R10 Flammable; R41 Risk of serious damage to eyes; R36 Irritating to eyes; R37 Irritating to respiratory system; R38 Irritating to skin; R67 Vapours may cause drowsiness and dizziness.

• Natural Gas Safety Data Sheet (this and more detailed information are available on “Methane Material Safety Data Sheet” from Air Products.)

1. PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION PRODUCT NAME: Methane FORMULA: CH4 CHEMICAL NAME: Methane, Saturated Alphatic Hydrocarbon, Alkane SYNONYMS: Methyl Hydride, Marsh Gas, Fire Damp MANUFACTURER: Air Products and Chemicals, Inc. 7201 Hamilton Boulevard Allentown, PA 18195 - 1501 PRODUCT INFORMATION : (800) 752-1597 MSDS NUMBER: 1070 REVISION: 6 REVIEW DATE: July 1999 REVISION DATE: July 1999 2. COMPOSITION / INFORMATION ON INGREDIENTS Methane is packaged as pure product (>99%).


CAS NUMBER: 74-82-8 EXPOSURE LIMITS: OSHA: None established ACGIH: Simple Asphyxiant NIOSH: None established 3. HAZARD IDENTIFICATION EMERGENCY OVERVIEW Methane is a flammable, colorless, odorless, compressed gas packaged in cylinders under high pressure. It poses an immediate fire and explosion hazard when mixed with air at concentrations exceeding 5.0%. High concentrations that can cause rapid suffocation are within the flammable range and should not be entered. EMERGENCY TELEPHONE NUMBERS 800 - 523 - 9374 in Continental U.S. , Canada and Puerto Rico 610 - 481 - 7711 Outside U.S. ACUTE POTENTIAL HEALTH EFFECTS: ROUTES OF EXPOSURE: EYE CONTACT: No harmful affect. INGESTION: Not applicable INHALATION: Methane is nontoxic. It can, however, reduce the amount of oxygen in the air necessary to support life. Exposure to oxygen-deficient atmospheres (less than 19.5 %) may produce dizziness, nausea, vomiting, loss of consciousness, and death. At very low oxygen concentrations (less than 12 %) unconsciousness and death may occur without warning. It should be noted that before suffocation could occur, the lower flammable limit for Methane in air will be exceeded; causing both oxygen deficient and an explosive atmosphere. SKIN CONTACT: No harmful affect. POTENTIAL HEALTH EFFECTS OF REPEATED EXPOSURE: ROUTE OF ENTRY: None SYMPTOMS: None TARGET ORGANS: None MEDICAL CONDITIONS AGGRAVATED BY OVEREXPOSURE: None CARCINOGENICITY: Methane is not listed as a carcinogen or potential carcinogen by NTP, IARC, or OSHA Subpart Z. 4. FIRST AID MEASURES EYE CONTACT: No treatment necessary. INGESTION: Not applicable INHALATION: Remove person to fresh air. If not breathing, administer artificial respiration. If breathing is difficult, administer oxygen. Obtain prompt medical attention. SKIN CONTACT: No treatment necessary. NOTES TO PHYSICIAN: Treatment of overexposure should be directed at the control of symptoms and the clinical condition. 5. FIRE FIGHTING MEASURES FLASH POINT: AUTOIGNITION: FLAMMABLE RANGE: -306 °F (-187.8 °C) 999 °F (537 °C) 5.0% - 15% EXTINGUISHING MEDIA: Dry chemical, carbon dioxide, or water. SPECIAL FIRE FIGHTING INSTRUCTIONS: Evacuate all personnel from area. If possible, without risk, shut off source of methane, and then fight fire according to


types of materials burning. Extinguish fire only if gas flow can be stopped. This will avoid possible accumulation and re-ignition of a flammable gas mixture. Keep adjacent cylinders cool by spraying with large amounts of water until the fire burns itself out. Self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) may be required. UNUSUAL FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARDS: Most cylinders are designed to vent contents when exposed to elevated temperatures. Pressure in a cylinder can build up due to heat and it may rupture if pressure relief devices should fail to function. HAZARDOUS COMBUSTION PRODUCTS: Carbon monoxide 6. ACCIDENTAL RELEASE MEASURES STEPS TO BE TAKEN IF MATERIAL IS RELEASED OR SPILLED: Evacuate immediate area. Eliminate any possible sources of ignition, and provide maximum explosion-proof ventilation. Use a flammable gas meter (explosimeter) calibrated for Methane to monitor concentration. Never enter an area where Methane concentration is greater than 1.0% (which is 20% of the lower flammable limit). An immediate fire and explosion hazard exists when atmospheric Methane concentration exceeds 5.0%. Use appropriate protective equipment (SCBA and fire resistant suit). Shut off source of leak if possible. Isolate any leaking cylinder. If leak is from container, pressure relief device or its valve, contact your supplier. If the leak is in the user’s system, close the cylinder valve, safely vent the pressure, and purge with an inert gas before attempting repairs. 7. STORAGE AND HANDLING STORAGE: Store cylinders in a well-ventilated, secure area, protected from the weather. Cylinders should be stored upright with valve outlet seals and valve protection caps in place. There should be no sources of ignition. All electrical equipment should be explosion-proof in the storage areas. Storage areas must meet National Electrical Codes for class 1 hazardous areas. Flammable storage areas must be separated from oxygen and other oxidizers by a minimum distance of 20 ft. or by a barrier of non-combustible material at least 5 ft. high having a fire resistance rating of at least _ hour. Post “No Smoking or Open Flames” signs in the storage or use areas. Do not allow storage temperature to exceed 125 °F (52 °C). Storage should be away from heavily traveled areas and emergency exits. Full and empty cylinders should be segregated. Use a first-in first-out inventory system to prevent full containers from being stored for long periods of time. HANDLING: Do not drag, roll, slide or drop cylinder. Use a suitable hand truck designed for cylinder movement. Never attempt to lift a cylinder by its cap. Secure cylinders at all times while in use. Use a pressure reducing regulator to safely discharge gas from cylinder. Use a check valve to prevent reverse flow into cylinder. Never apply flame or localized heat directly to any part of the cylinder. Do not allow any part of the cylinder to exceed 125 °F (52 °C). Use piping and equipment adequately designed to withstand pressures to be encountered. Once cylinder has been connected to properly purged and inerted process, open cylinder valve slowly and carefully. If user experiences any difficulty operating cylinder valve, discontinue use and contact supplier. Never insert an object (e.g., wrench, screwdriver, etc.) into valve cap openings. Doing so may damage valve causing a leak to occur. Use an adjustable strap-wrench to remove over-tight or


rusted caps. All piped systems and associated equipment must be grounded. Electrical equipment should be non-sparking or explosion-proof. SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS: Always store and handle compressed gas cylinders in accordance with Compressed Gas Association, Inc. (telephone 703-412-0900) pamphlet CGA P-1, Safe Handling of Compressed Gases in Containers. Local regulations may require specific equipment for storage or use. 8. EXPOSURE CONTROLS/PERSONAL PROTECTION ENGINEERING CONTROLS: VENTILATION: Provide adequate natural or explosion-proof ventilation to prevent accumulation of gas concentrations above 1.0% Methane (20% of LEL). RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: Emergency Use: Do not enter areas where Methane concentration is greater than 1.0% (20% of the LEL). Exposures to concentrations below 1.0% do not require respiratory protection. EYE PROTECTION: Safety glasses and/or face shield. SKIN PROTECTION: Leather gloves for handling cylinders. Fire resistant suit and gloves in emergency situations. OTHER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT: Safety shoes are recommended when handling cylinders. 9. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES APPEARANCE, ODOR AND STATE: Colorless, odorless, flammable gas. MOLECULAR WEIGHT: 16.04 BOILING POINT (1 atm): -258.7 °F (-161.5 °C) SPECIFIC GRAVITY (Air = 1): 0.554 FREEZING POINT / MELTING POINT: -296. 5 °F (-182.5 °C) VAPOR PRESSURE (At 70 F (21.1 C)): Permanent, noncondensable gas. GAS DENSITY (At 70 F (21.1 C) and 1 atm): 0.042 lb/ft3 SOLUBILITY IN WATER (vol/vol): 3.3 ml gas / 100 ml SECTION 10. STABILITY AND REACTIVITY CHEMICAL STABILITY: Stable CONDITIONS TO AVOID: Cylinders should not be exposed to temperatures in excess of 125 °F (52 °C). INCOMPATIBILITY (Materials to Avoid): Oxygen, Halogens and Oxidizers REACTIVITY: A) HAZARDOUS DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: None B) HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: Will not occur SECTION 11. TOXICOLOGICAL INFORMATION LC50 (Inhalation): Not applicable. Simple asphyxiant. LD50 (Oral): Not applicable LD50 (Dermal): Not applicable SKIN CORROSIVITY: Methane is not corrosive to the skin. ADDITIONAL NOTES: Non 12. ECOLOGICAL INFORMATION AQUATIC TOXICITY: Not determined MOBILITY: Not determined PERSISTENCE AND BIODEGRADABILITY: Not determined


POTENTIAL TO BIOACCUMULATE: Not determined REMARKS: This product does not contain any Class I or Class II ozone depleting chemicals. 13. DISPOSAL CONSIDERATIONS UNUSED PRODUCT / EMPTY CONTAINER: Return container and unused product to supplier. Do not attempt to dispose of residual or unused quantities. DISPOSAL INFORMATION: Residual product in the system may be burned if a suitable burning unit (flair incinerator) is available on site. This shall be done in accordance with federal, state, and local regulations. Wastes containing this material may be classified by EPA as hazardous waste by characteristic (i.e., Ignitability, Corrosivity, Toxicity, and Reactivity). Waste streams must be characterized by the user to meet federal, state, and local requirements. 14. TRANSPORT INFORMATION DOT SHIPPING NAME: Methane, compressed HAZARD CLASS: 2.1 IDENTIFICATION NUMBER: UN1971 SHIPPING LABEL(s): Flammable gas PLACARD (When required): Flammable gas SPECIAL SHIPPING INFORMATION: Cylinders should be transported in a secure upright position in a well-ventilated truck. Never transport in passenger compartment of a vehicle. Ensure cylinder valve is properly closed, valve outlet cap has been reinstalled, and valve protection cap is secured before shipping cylinder. CAUTION: Compressed gas cylinders shall not be refilled except by qualified producers of compressed gases. Shipment of a compressed gas cylinder which has not been filled by the owner or with the owner’s written consent is a violation of Federal law (49 CFR 173.301).

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