use of pymarc as a nitrogen source for grazing dairy calves
TRANSCRIPT
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Livestock Production Scien
Use of pymarc as a nitrogen source for grazing dairy calves
J.M. Wawerua, S.A. Abdulrazaka,T, T.A. Onyangob, T. Fujiharac
aDepartment of Animal Science, Egerton University, PO Box 536, Njoro, KenyabNational Animal Husbandry Research Centre, PO Box 25, Naivasha, KenyacLaboratory of Animal Science, Shimane University, Matsue-shi 690, Japan
Received 21 October 2003; received in revised form 21 January 2005; accepted 3 February 2005
Abstract
A study was conducted to determine optimal levels of pymarc inclusion as a protein supplement to Chloris gayana during
the dry season. Forty Friesian dairy calves of 65F7 kg weight, 20 each of males and females, were randomly allocated to a 10-
diet treatment in a completely randomized design in a factorial arrangement. The treatment diets were: control, 7.5, 15, 22.5,
and 30 g DM/kg W0.75 pymarc, with (PBM) or without molasses (PB). Live weight gains, intake, diet digestibility, rumen pH,
and rumen ammonia nitrogen were assessed in the 60-day experiment. Herbage intake did not differ (P N0.05) among the
treatments. Total intake was in the range of 2072–2636 g/day, diet digestibility 565–582 g/kg, and ADG 157–330 g/day, and
differed (P b0.05) with supplementation. The results showed that rumen pH did not differ significantly (P N0.05) between the
treatments, ranging between 6.97 and 7.17. Rumen NH3–N control groups PB and PBM had 109.9 and 106.5 mg/l, respectively,
while those supplemented increased linearly (P b0.05) to 166.5 and 177.14 mg/l, respectively, at the highest level of
supplementation. The nutritional profile and potential degradation level of pymarc as well as the performance of calves indicate
the latent value as a supplement in providing nitrogen to poor-quality basal diets in the dry season.
D 2005 Published by Elsevier B.V.
Keywords: Pymarc; Molasses; Calves; Intake; Average daily gain
1. Introduction
The demand for animal products in human diet is
steadily and substantially increasing with the
increasing population, which is expected to be
0301-6226/$ - see front matter D 2005 Published by Elsevier B.V.
doi:10.1016/j.livprodsci.2005.02.004
T Corresponding author. Division of Research and Extension,
Egerton University, PO Box 536, Njoro, Kenya. Tel.: +254 51
62550; fax: +254 51 62442.
E-mail address: [email protected] (S.A. Abdulrazak).
higher than the production by the year 2010. This
demands an increase of livestock production (out-
put) and productivity (output per unit input)
(Delgado et al., 2001). However, lack of adequate
quantity and quality of feed is a major constraint
especially in the dry season (Walshe et al., 1991).
This is evidenced by high calf mortality (15–20%),
morbidity, and low body weight gain of calves at
farm levels (Gitau et al., 1994). This scenario has
led to diminishing replacement stocks, while delay-
ing age at first service, or more likely the servicing
ce 96 (2005) 233–238
J.M. Waweru et al. / Livestock Production Science 96 (2005) 233–238234
of heifers with a poor weight for age, which
inevitably results in poor heifer conception and
lactation. By-products like pymarc may have poten-
tial to mitigate feed shortage during the dry season.
Pyrethrum marc (pymarc) produced in large quanti-
ties in Kenya is the waste product after dried
pyrethrum flowers have been ground and pyrethrins
extracted with petro ether. The material is further
treated by steam to remove any residual petro ether
and to destroy the very small percentage of
pyrethrins remaining after extraction (Ayre-Smith,
1956). Extensive work has been done on the
nutritional value of by-products such as fishmeal,
oilseeds, molasses, and bran; however, limited work
has been reported on pymarc as a supplement for
growing calves. The objective of this experiment
was to determine the potential nutritive value of
pymarc based on chemical composition, fibre,
minerals, phenolic concentration in vitro, in sacco
degradation, and the effects of incremental levels of
pymarc as a protein supplement to Rhodes grass
pasture by Friesian dairy calves.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Chemical analysis
Dry matter (DM), ash, and nitrogen (N) content
were measured according to AOAC (1990). Neutral
detergent fibre (NDF), acid detergent fibre (ADF), and
acid detergent lignin (ADL) were determined accord-
ing to Van Soest et al. (1991). Mineral content was
determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry
(Varma, 1991). Phenolic compounds were determined
as described by Julkunen-Titto (1985). Chromium
oxide content in faeces was determined by atomic
absorption spectroscopy according to the method of
Williams et al. (1962).
2.2. In sacco and in vitro digestibility
The rate and extent of degradation of the pymarc
were determined in fistulated Friesian steers using
the nylon bag technique (arskov et al., 1980) as
described by Abdulrazak and Fujihara (1999). The
DM disappearance values were fitted to the expo-
nential equation of arskov and McDonald (1979),
where the degradation curve is described as: within a
lag time T, y =A, which is the initial washing loss;
beyond the time T, y =a + b (1�e�ct) where:
y =percent degraded time t, a =an intercept repre-
senting the portion of dry matter at initiation of
incubation (time 0), b =the portion of dry matter
potentially degraded in the rumen, c =a rate constant
of degradation of fraction b , and t = time of
incubation.
Samples were incubated in vitro in rumen fluid–
buffer mixture in calibrated glass syringes following
the procedure of Menke and Steingass (1988).
Rumen liquor was obtained from two steers main-
tained on a similar diet to those of degradability
studies. Air-dried and ground (1.0 mm) pymarc
samples of about 200F5 mg were weighed. The
syringe pistons were lubricated with VaselineRpetroleum jelly to ease movement and to prevent
escape of gas. Thirty (30) milliliters of the mixed
rumen fluid plus buffer was used to inoculate the
200F5 mg samples placed in the 100-ml gas-tight
graduated glass syringes. The syringes were incu-
bated in a water bath maintained at 39F0.1 8C, andgently shaken every hour during the first 8 h of
incubation. Readings were recorded during 0, 3, 6,
12, 24, 48, 72, and 96 h after incubation. Organic
matter digestibility and metabolizable energy values
of feeds were calculated using 48-h gas production
values as described by Abdulrazak and Fujihara
(1999).
2.3. Feeds and supplements
The calves were grazed on Chloris gayana pasture,
supplemented with 100 g of bran and increasing level
of pymarc at control, 7.5, 15, 22.5, and 30 g DM/kg
W0.75 with or without molasses (PBM and PB),
respectively. The calves were offered a complete
mineral lick (Afya BoraR stock Lick) and clean water
at all times.
2.4. Measurement of intake and digestibility
Each day, the calves were dosed with two paper
capsules containing 2.5 g of powdered chromium (III)
oxide during each supplementation. After 6 days of
adaptation, two faecal grab samples were taken daily
during supplementation for a period of 5 days. The
Table 2
In vitro gas production (ml/200 mg DM) and DM degradation
characteristic of pymarc and Rhodes grass
Gas production 24 h 48 h a +b (ml) OMD48 (h)
Pymarc 49.1 60.4 70.6 74.3
Rhodes grass 27.7 41.6 53.6 57.0
DM degradability 24 h 48 h A B A + B
Pymarc 24.9 36.7 10.1 51.6 61.7
Rhodes grass 23.5 31.5 3.5 46.4 49.9
a and b are constants in the equation (arskov and McDonald
1979). OMD48 (h)= in vitro organic matter digestibility calculated
from the equation: OMD (%)=18.53+0.9239 gas production (a
48 h)+0.054 CP (Menke and Steingass, 1988). A=washing loss
B =portion degraded with time (arskov and McDonald, 1979).
J.M. Waweru et al. / Livestock Production Science 96 (2005) 233–238 235
daily samples were bulked and dried in an oven at 65
8C and analysed for DM, OM, and chromium oxide
content.
Intake was estimated from the ratio between the
faecal output collected for the portion attributable to
the concentrate and indigestibility of the herbage
using the equation of Malossini et al. (1996): HI (kg
OM day�1 ) = (D �R /F �1 c � ( 1 �OMDc ) ) /
1�OMDh), where HI is herbage intake; D is the
quantity of Cr2O3 administered; R is the recovery of
the marker in faeces; F is its concentration in faeces
(g/kg OM); and 1c is the quantity of concentrate fed
(kg OM). The term 1c� (1�OMDc) represents
faecal output from concentrate; OMDh was deter-
mined in vivo where three calves were confined for
10 days. The total amount of faeces excreted each
day was recorded and a sample of 10% was taken
for DM and OM analysis, respectively. The digest-
ibility of the supplemented animals was calculated
by fitting the values to the formulae OMD=1� (D�R/F)/HI (kg OM day�1) (Malossini et al., 1996).
2.5. Statistical analysis
The data on dry matter intake (DMI), average
daily gain (ADG), and diet digestibility were
subjected to analysis of covariance using the general
linear model of SAS computer package (SAS, 1987).
Initial liveweight was used as a covariant in the
analysis of DMI and liveweight changes. The model
included the effect of molasses. An F test at 5%
probability level was used to test for significance and
Table 1
Chemical composition, phenolic concentration, and mineral
concentration in pymarc
Composition Phenolics Minerals
(% DM) (% DM)Macrominerals
(% DM)
Microminerals
(ppm)
CP 14.00 TEPH 5.19 Ca 0.37 Zn 36.95
OM 92.69 TET 2.57 Mg 0.14 Cu 45.00
EE 3.12 CT 0.03 P 0.08 Fe 671.00
NDF 36.95 S 0.09 Mn 33.60
ADF 33.91 Al 0.06 Co 3.89
ADL 10.50
CP=crude protein; NDF=neutral detergent fibre; ADF=acid
detergent fibre; ADL=acid detergent lignin; OM=organic matter;
EE=ether extract; TEPH=total extractable phenolics; TET=total
extractable tannins; CT=condensed tannins.
0
20
40
60
80
100
0 3 6 12 24 48 72 96
Incubation (Hrs)
Deg
rada
bilit
y
Pymarc
Rhodes grass
Fig. 1. In sacco DM degradation of pymarc and Rhodes grass hay
(basal diet) used in the study.
,
t
;
significantly different means separated using orthog-
onal contrasts.
3. Results
The results of chemical composition, phenolic
concentration, and mineral concentration of pymarc
supplement and Rhodes grass are presented in Table
1. The results of the in vitro gas production and dry
matter degradability of pymarc supplement and
Rhodes grass roughage are shown in Table 2, while
results of the in sacco dry matter degradability of
pymarc supplement and Rhodes grass roughage are
demonstrated in Fig. 1. Table 3 shows the mean DMI,
OMI, ADG, diet digestibility, rumen pH, and rumen
NH3–N obtained in the experiment. Low acceptability
Table 3
Intake, ADG, digestibility, pH, and rumen NH3–N in calves grazed Rhodes grass pasture supplemented with pymarc
Level of supplement (g DM/kg W 0.75)
Molasses 0 7.5 15 22.5 30 S.E.M.
Diet intake
DMI (kg/day) B � 2.00a 2.12 2.13a 2.05a 1.96a 0.014
+ 2.02a 2.15a 2.03a 2.06 1.89a
T � 2.07c 2.30bc 2.50 ab 2.60a 2.60a 0.014
+ 2.11c 2.34bc 2.41ab 2.64a 2.63a
OMI (kg/day) B � 1.70a 1.83a 1.91a 1.93a 1.86a 0.012
+ 1.72a 1.87a 1.93a 1.91a 1.90a
T � 1.79c 2.01b 2.29a 2.48a 2.34a 0.012
+ 1.79c 2.19b 2.36a 2.54a 2.62a
ADG (g/day) � 157a 228b 276c 293c 296c 4.770
+ 169a 241b 289c 308cd 330d 3.970
Digestibility
DMD (g/kg DM) � 565c 570b 570b 570b 582a 0.050
+ 565c 570b 570b 571b 573b
OMD (g/kg DM) � 571.26e 581.29d 597c 611b 624a 0.070
+ 570.26e 580.85d 596c 612b 625a
pH � 7.06a 7.04a 7.07a 6.97a 7.17a 0.03
+ 7.11a 7.14a 7.08a 6.99a 6.99a
Rumen NH3–N (mg/l) � 109.9a 138.2b 155.9bc 170.1c 166.5c 8.530
+ 106.3a 148.8b 155.9bc 166.5c 177.1c
a,b,c Means within a row with different superscript are significantly different ( P b0.05); B=basal diet; T= total diet (B+supplement).
J.M. Waweru et al. / Livestock Production Science 96 (2005) 233–238236
of pymarc was observed during the first 3 weeks of
the experiment; however, during the subsequent
weeks, all pymarc offered in all treatments was
consumed except at the level of 30 g DM/kg W 0.75
without molasses. Supplementation did not have a
significant effect on basal diet (B) intake. TDMI,
TOMI, and ADG were different (P b0.05) (Table 3).
The values for apparent digestibility indicated that the
control groups had the lowest DM and OM digesti-
bility. The pH value ranged between 6.97 and 7.17,
while rumen NH3–N ranged between 106.5 and 177.1
mg/l and was different.
4. Discussion
The results of chemical composition (Table 1)
were within the reported ranges of 11.8–14.38%
crude protein in other works on pymarc (Irungu et
al., 1981; Kitilit et al., 1996; Muiruri et al., 2001).
Mineral concentration compares and also contrasts
with what has been reported in other works with
pymarc (Griffin, 1974; Thomas, 1975). Calcium is
closely related to phosphorus metabolism and a
dietary Ca:P ratio of 1:1 to 2:1 is assumed to be
ideal for growth and bone formation (Underwood,
1981). Griffin (1974) reported a ratio of 1.88:1, while
ratios of 4.6:1 were obtained in this work. Factors
such as soils, climate, and season contribute to
variation in the concentration of minerals (Spears,
1994). This ratio, however, does not affect the
performance of calves; Ca:P ratios in the range of
1:1 to 7:1 have been shown to have no effect on
calves’ performance (Underwood, 1981). Iron
requirements of ruminants are not well established
(Underwood, 1981); however, NRC (1989) suggested
30–100 ppm. Although a level of 671 ppm was
obtained, the level is below the maximum tolerable
level of 1000 ppm for cattle (NRC, 1989). Never-
theless, iron is rarely of practical concern in grazing
animals, except in circumstances involving blood loss
or disturbance of iron metabolism as a consequence
of parasitic infestation or disease (McDowell, 1985).
A copper concentration of 45 ppm was obtained;
although higher than that reported by Griffin (1974),
this level is within the minimum requirement and the
maximum tolerable limit of 10–100 ppm, respec-
tively, reported in cattle (NRC, 1989). Other minerals
J.M. Waweru et al. / Livestock Production Science 96 (2005) 233–238 237
compare favourably with the reported work (Griffin,
1974; Thomas, 1975).
Supplementation of C. gayana pasture with
pymarc diets with (PBM) or without molasses
(PB), respectively, was different although not sig-
nificant, ranging from 1699 to 1899 g/day. The lack
of increase in intake of the basal diet is suggested to
be due to adequate content of CP in the basal diet of
C. gayana (72 g/kg DM), which meant that intake
was not limited. Therefore, since the rumen microbe
requirements for nitrogen had been met, additional
high-quality pymarc had no further stimulating effect
on the intake of the basal diet. Gulbransen (1974)
reported that supplements substitute part of the basal
diet; however, he showed further that the degree of
substitution was greater for poor-quality forage than
high-quality forage. The increases in total DMI
results are consistent with other works (Irungu et
al., 1981; Kitilit et al., 1996). An increase in intake
could probably be due to the small particle size of
pymarc, which increases the outflow rate and
reduces the rumen retention time, hence boosting
intake. Minson (1982) reported increased intake by
14–77% following provision of supplementary pro-
tein. An establishment of a suitable rumen environ-
ment that aids digestion could also explain the
increased intake.
Improvement of ADG and diet digestibility prob-
ably occurred as a result of the higher nutritive value
of pymarc and the reduction on the fibre and
improved rumen environment. Improved liveweight
gains have also been reported on roughage diets
supplemented with pymarc (Irungu et al., 1981; Kitilit
et al., 1996). The better response of PBM to PB could
be attributed to a more suitable rumen environment as
a result of supplying readily available source of
energy (molasses) to micro-flora, which in turn leads
to a high microbial activity leading to higher NH3–N,
increased TDMI and TOMI, and improved diet
digestibility. This is a phenomenon of synchronization
of energy and protein, which results in a better supply
of energy and protein to microbes and hence a more
efficient microbial protein synthesis (Sinclair et al.,
1995). It could also be explained by the elevation of
feed intake and improved diet digestibility.
Total gas production varied, with pymarc showing
higher gas production than Rhodes grass, which was
also reflected in higher OMD (48 h) of 74.34% and
56.97%, respectively. The OMD shows that pymarc
has the potential to supply metabolisable energy more
efficiently than Rhodes grass, adding to its value as a
nitrogen supplement. Changes in digestibility (in vitro
dry matter digestibility—IVDMD) are associated with
increasing NDF (fibre) content. The higher rate of
potential degradation (Table 2) observed may be
related to the higher content of NDF in Rhodes grass
(72%) relative to 37% in pymarc. Similar trends in
degradation have been reported (Kitilit et al., 1996)
using pymarc and sorghum silage with NDF of 53.3%
and 77.8%, respectively. The nutritional profile and
potential degradation level of pymarc is an indicator
of the latent value as a supplement in providing
nitrogen to poor-quality basal diets.
The rumen pH was above 6.2, a value suggested to
be a critical level in initiating cellulosis (Mould and
arskov, 1984) for PBM and PB diets. Rumen NH3–N
ranged from 106.5 to 177.14 mg/l. This value is well
above the stipulated threshold of 45–60 mg/l (Kanja-
napruthipong and Leng, 1998). It is possible that the
supplement diet created a more suitable rumen
environment in supplying a ready source of energy
for microflora, which in turn led to higher microbial
activity and NH3–N turnover. It was concluded that
pymarc is a good nitrogen source for dry season
feeding.
Acknowledgement
Financial assistance for this research from Egerton-
KARI collaboration is gratefully acknowledged.
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