usda forest service_handtools for trail work

8/8/2019 USDA Forest Service_Handtools for Trail Work

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Handtools for Trail Workandtools for Trail Work

2005 Edition005 Edition



United Statesnited StatesDepartment ofepartment ofAgriculturegriculture

Forest Serviceorest Service

Technology &echnology &DevelopmentevelopmentProgramrogram

2300 Recreation300 RecreationFebruary 2005ebruary 200505235232810810MTDCTDC

In cooperationn cooperationwithith

United Statesnited StatesDepartment ofepartment ofTransportationransportation

Federal Highwayederal HighwayAdministrationdministration



United StatesDepartment ofAgriculture

Forest Service

Technology &DevelopmentProgram

2300 RecreationFebruary 200505232810MTDC

In cooperationwith

United StatesDepartment ofTransportation

Federal HighwayAdministration

U N I T

E D S T AT E S O F A

M E R

I C A

D E P

A R T M

E N T O F TR AN S P

O R T

A T I

O N


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Richard Hallman Forester (retired)

USDA Forest Service Technology & Development Program Missoula, MT

TE92A17Technical Services, Recreation

February 2005 Updates Handtools for Trail Work , 1988 (88232601MTDC)

The Forest Service, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), has developed thisinformation for the guidance of its employees, its contractors, and its cooperating Federal andState agencies, and is not responsible for the interpretation or use of this information by anyoneexcept its own employees. The use of trade, firm, or corporation names in this document is forthe information and convenience of the reader, and does not constitute an endorsement by theDepartment of any product or service to the exclusion of others that may be suitable.

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs andactivities on the basis of race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political beliefs,sexual orientation, or marital or family status. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs.)Persons with disabilities who require alternative means for communication of programinformation (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact USDAs TARGET Center at(202) 720-2600 (voice and TDD).

To file a complaint of discrimination, write USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, Room 326-W,Whitten Building, 1400 Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, D.C. 202509410, or call(202) 720-5964 (voice and TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer.

Handtools for Trail Workandtools for Trail Work2005 Edition005 Edition


United StatesDepartment ofAgriculture

Forest Service

Technology &DevelopmentProgram

2300 RecreationFebruary 200505232810MTDC

In cooperationwith

United StatesDepartment ofTransportation

Federal HighwayAdministration



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The Missoula Technology and Development Center(MTDC), working with trail crews throughout the United

States, has standardized a comprehensive document onthe use and maintenance of handtools involved in trail work.Information collected from industry experts, from interviewswith trail crew members, and from extensive literature and

bstract

market research on the subject provides the text for thisdocument. It stresses safe and efficient tool use. It des-

cribes each tool and presents nomenclature and mainte-nance procedures, including sharpening techniques andrehandling methods. The document is intended for bothexperienced and inexperienced trail crews.


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cknowledgments

This document was prepared by William R. Hutchesonand Dale Mrkich, former Forestry Technicians at MTDC.

The work was accomplished under the direction of JerryOltman, former MTDC Forester and Project Leader.

Special thanks to MTDC staff Bert Lindler, Sara Lustgraaf,Brian Vachowski, and Gary Hoshide for helping develop

this revised edition.


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The tools shown here are those used most often by ForestService trail crews. They are categorized into tools for

sawing, chopping, grubbing, digging and tamping, pounding

bout This Document

and hammering, lifting and hauling, peeling and shaping,and sharpening and rehandling. Each tool is described

along with helpful techniques for use and maintenance.


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Abstract ________________________________________ ii

Acknowledgments _______________________________iii About This Document _____________________________iv

Introduction _____________________________________ 1

Safe Trail Work __________________________________ 3

Tools for Sawing _________________________________ 5

Tools for Chopping ______________________________ 13

Tools for Grubbing ______________________________ 17

Tools for Digging and Tamping ____________________ 21 Tools for Brushing ______________________________ 23

Tools for Pounding and Hammering ________________ 29

Tools for Lifting and Hauling ______________________ 33

Tools for Peeling and Shaping ____________________ 37

Tools for Sharpening ____________________________ 41

Tools for Rehandling ____________________________ 45

Bibliography ___________________________________ 49 AppendixAmerican Pattern Files _________________ 51

Index __________________________________________ 53

ontents


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Cover photo: The 1924 Trail Gang in the Flume, Courtesy of the Appalachian Mountain Club.

You can order a copy of this document using the order formon the FHWAs Recreational Trails Program Web site at:http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/rectrails/trailpub.htm

Fill out the order form and fax it to the distributor listed on the form. If you do not have Internet access, you can send a fax request to 3015771421, e-mail your request to: [email protected] , or mail your request to :

USDOT, Federal Highway AdministrationOffice of Human Environment, Rm. 3240

400 7th St. SW.Washington, DC 20590

Produced by: USDA Forest Service, MTDC

5785 Hwy. 10 WestMissoula, MT 59808-9361

Phone: 4063293978Fax: 4063293719

E-mail: [email protected] Web site: http://www.fs.fed.us/t-d (Username: t-d; Password: t-d)

U N I T E D S T AT E S O F A

M E R I

C A

D E P A R T M

E N T O F T R AN S P

O R T A T

I

O N

This document was produced in cooperation with theRecreational Trails Program of the Federal HighwayAdministration, U.S. Department of Transportation.

This document is disseminated under the sponsorship ofthe U.S. Department of Transportation in the interest ofinformation exchange. The United States Governmentassumes no liability for its contents or use thereof.

The contents of this report reflect the views of the con-tractor, who is responsible for the accuracy of the datapresented herein. The contents do not necessarily reflectthe official policy of the Department of Transportation.

This report does not constitute a standard, specification, orregulation. The United States Government does not endorseproducts or manufacturers. Trade or manufacturers namesappear herein only because they are considered essentialto the object of this document.
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/rectrails/trailpub.htmhttp://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/rectrails/trailpub.htmmailto:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]://www.fs.fed.us/t-dhttp://www.fs.fed.us/t-dmailto:[email protected]:[email protected]://www.fs.fed.us/t-dhttp://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/rectrails/trailpub.htm


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ntroduction

Trail work requires many kinds of handtools like saws, axes,picks, hammers, shovels, and grub hoes. To be safe and

productive, trail workers must know how to select the besttools for the job, use them skillfully, and maintain themcorrectly. However, modern technology has caused a gapin our handtool knowledge. Most trail tools have becomeuncommon in our everyday work world, which contributesto accidents, low productivity, and frustration.

This manual should help reduce accidents and increaseproduction. It is intended for Forest Service employees,

volunteers, and others who do trail work. It provides tipsfor using and maintaining common trail tools. Proper useand maintenance of handtools contributes to safe andefficient trail work and to a better trail system.


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Introduction


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afe Trail Work

Keys to productive, safe, trail work are sharp tools, propertool use, team work, and awareness of hazards. Such

knowledge cannot come from a manual. Ask experiencedcrew members for help. Work as a team. Watch forhazards to other crew members. Alert each other to unsafetools and hazards. Productive, safe crews depend on eachmember being alert, informed, and caring.

There are general safety rules to observe when usinghandtools. Survey the environmental hazards surroundingeach task and use proper personal protective devices likehardhats, gloves, and safety glasses. Select the right toolsfor the job. Carefully inspect their condition before you usethem. Make sure handles are sound, smooth, and straight;heads are tight; and cutting edges are sharp.

Avoid transporting tools loose in vehicles. Use tool boxes.Place tools in sheaths, especially if they have sharp cuttingedges. Load and unload tools with care. Always use gloves.Pass tools so others avoid grasping a cutting edge. Neverthrow a tool.

Be aware of nearby workers. On the trail, carry tools byholding them at your side and downhill, with blades

forward and the handles behind. If you should slip, dropthe tool to the side to prevent falling on the blade. Desig-nate a central drop point for tools near the worksite sotools are less likely to be lost. Mark handles with a smallstrip of bright orange paint for easy visibility.

You need training to use a crosscut saw. Your training,experienceand in some caseslevel of certification,can allow you to buck trees already on the ground, or toundertake the more advanced (and hazardous) businessof felling standing trees. Be sure you are properly trainedand certified before cutting either standing or fallen trees.Remember that using an ax exposes you to similarhazards.

At days end, identify tools that need maintenance andschedule time for repairing or replacing tools. In the field,store tools safely and out of the weather.


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Safe Trail Work


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ools for Sawing

Asymmetric saw

Symmetric saw

Felling crosscut saw

Bucking crosscut saw

1 A cut made with flat-ground teeth tends to bind when cuttingunder compression.

2 A cut made by taper-ground teeth is less likely to bind.

2 1

Types of crosscut saws.

Crew members using a bucking crosscut saw.

Crosscut Saws

There are two types of crosscut saws. Symmetric crosscutsaws are designed for a sawyer at each end, and asym-metric saws require only one sawyer. They are heavier sothey can be pushed and pulled without buckling. Thereare two basic patterns for symmetric crosscuts felling crosscuts are light, flexible, and have concave backs thatconform easily to the arc of the cut and the sawyers arm.The narrowed distance between the teeth and back helpssawyers wedge the cut quickly. Felling saws are usuallypreferred by trail crews. Bucking crosscuts have straightbacks and are heavier and stiffer than felling saws. Theirweight helps the saw cut faster and the stiffness preventsbuckling on the push stroke when one person saws. Most

asymmetric saws are bucking saws. Symmetric saws arepulled by each sawyer. There is no push stroke.

The points of most crosscut saw teeth lie on the arc of acircle. These cut easier than a straight-tooth saw and arealmost as simple to maintain. Crosscut blades are groundflat or ground with a taper from front to back. A flat-ground blade displays uniform thickness throughout. Flat-ground saw teeth require more set than taper-groundsaw teeth.


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A crosscut saw sheathed with a piece of fire hose.

Velcro strip

Sheathed saw

Velcro strip

Top edgeexaggerated for clarity.

Each line represents uniform thicknesstapering from thicker at the teeth to thinner at the top.

The teeth are a uniform thickness.

CRESCENT TAPER-GROUND SAW

Top edge

The teeth vary in thickness.

STRAIGHT TAPER-GROUND SAW

End view

End view

Before sawing a log with a crosscut, swamp the area toremove materials that could interfere with the cut. Next,

check the lay of the log to determine what will happenwhen the cut is made. Saw from the uphill side unless youare placing an undercut on a standing tree. Remove loosebark from the line where the saw will pass. Avoid gettingthe saw into the dirt at the end of the cut. If necessary,place a piece of bark under the log or dig it free under thecut. Make final strokes with one end of the saw so only endteeth will dull if you slip.

When carrying a saw, lay it flat across one shoulder withthe teeth guarded and facing away from the neck. Carrythe saw on the downhill shoulder. Grasp the front handlefrom under the blade. Remove the rear handle to preventsnagging on overhanging limbs. Transport saws at the rearof a line of workers. Use blade guards made of sections ofrubber-lined firehose slit lengthwise with Velcro fastenersto facilitate removal. Saws need extra protection when theyare transported in a vehicle. They should be securedbetween pieces of plywood cut to blade width, or otherwiseprotected. Store saws straight. Either hang them or laythem flat. Storing saws in a bent position can bow the saw.Before storing, the blade should be coated with a protect-ant to prevent corrosion. Never store a saw in a wet sheath.

A sharp crosscut is a pleasure to operate, but a dull orincorrectly filed saw is a source of endless frustration.Quality crosscut saw filers are increasingly difficult to find.Good instruction for crosscut saw filing is still available,however. We recommend The Crosscut Saw Manual byWarren Miller (Tech. Rep. 77712508MTDC, rev. 2003).The manual discusses in detail how a saw works andoffers experience-tested methods for choosing, using, andmaintaining a saw. Copies are available from MTDC.

Taper-ground saws vary from thick-at-the-teeth to thin-at-the-back so their teeth require less set. Taper-ground saws

work well for trail jobs because they begin cuts quickly andare slower to bind than flat-ground saws. For all-aroundtrail use, a taper-ground felling crosscut is very effective.Taper-ground saws are often called crescent, precision, segment, or arc-ground saws.

One-person saw blades vary from 3 to 4 1 2 feet and thesesaws weigh 4 to 5 pounds. Two-person saws generallyhave 6-foot blades and weigh about 8 pounds.

Many modern crosscuts have solid ends. That is, the teethdo not extend to the ends of the blade. For finishing somecuts, however, you will often need a saw with teethcontinuous to both ends. A saw with continuous teeth isneeded to cut a log in dirt or deep duff, for example.

Tools for Sawing


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Tree sap may bind the crosscut blade in the cut. To preventthis, lightly lubricate the blade with a citrus-based solvent.

If a flask is stoppered with a cork that has been groovedlengthwise, the blade can be evenly coated with a film ofcitrus-based solvent by inverting the flask and whiskingthe cork along the blade surface. An alternative would bea squirt bottle of citrus-based solvent that could spread asmall stream of the fluid along the blade.

A leaning tree will have compressed fibers on its underside.In this case, a cut on that side could quickly bind a saweven after it has been undercut. If this happens, saw asmuch as possible, remove the saw, and chop away thesevered wood. A down log can be under compression if itis only supported on the ends. A cut made in the middlewill bind the saw as the weight of the log closes the kerf.Sometimes a cut can be continued by driving a wedge intothe cut behind the saw. If the saw still binds, one sawyershould underbuck the log from the bottom. Remove onehandle to reduce the chance of the blade kinking if thesevered log carries it to the ground. Plant an ax in the logso the handle can support the back of the saw. Slightlynotch the handle for a saw guide. Linseed oil in the notchallows the saw to run easily and minimizes handle wear.The flexible hickory holds the saw in the cut.

The cutting teeth of a crosscut saw sever the fibers onboth sides of the kerf. The raker teeth cut like a plane,peel the fibers, and collect them in sawdust gulletsbetween the teeth. From there they are carried out of thecut. A properly sharpened crosscut cuts deep and makesthick shavings.

Placement of the handles also determines how the sawcuts. For a vertical cut with the teeth pointing down andthe handles up, the pull stroke will be easier the farthertoward the end of the handle the hands are placed.Pointing the handles down reverses the situation. Forsaws that have two holes on each end, changing thehandle position from the lower to the upper hole will havethe same effect as moving the hands several inches upthe handle.

Another good reference that presents time-tested techniquesfor using and maintaining crosscut saws is Saws That Sing: A Guide to Using Crosscut Saws (Tech. Rep. 04232822 MTDC), by David Michael. Copies are available fromMTDC.

Tools for Sawing

Hand chain saw

Bow Saws

Bow saws are useful for clearing small downfall and forlimbing. Modern bow saws come in many sizes and consistof a tubular steel frame designed to accept replaceableblades. Blades detach by loosening a wing nut or releasinga throw clamp. The clamp-type saw does not require nutsand bolts that are easily lost. Unless spare nuts or boltsare carried along, the saw becomes useless. Blade lengthscan vary from 16 inches to 36 inches. Saws weigh from 1to 4 pounds. Let the saw do the work. Apply a little down-ward force with each stroke. When the bow saw is usedfor one sawyer, lean slightly over the frame and let yourweight provide some downward pressure with each pushof the blade. Forcing the blade into the cut may bind orbreak the blade. Use as much of the length of the blade aspossible; the saw will cut smoother and stay sharp longer.

Hand Chain Saws

The hand chain saw weighs only 2 pounds compared to11 to 16 pounds for a conventional crosscut saw. The sawshowed promise during early testing, but over time, it hasnot proved to be a suitable replacement for a traditionalcrosscut saw. It may be appropriate for occasional oremergency use. It is safer to carry and easier to pack.


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Bow saw

Bow saws effectively clear trails.

The Sandvik all-purpose bow saw has a hardened 3 4-inch by36-inch blade, and a Swedish steel frame with a knuckleguard. The blade changes easily and has a tension lever. Itsweight is 2 1 4 pounds.

The Sandvik Buckmaster is used for heavy-duty bucking jobs.The precision 3 4-inch blade never needs refiling. The frameis Swedish oval tubing, with a knuckle guard and a tensionlever for quick blade change. It weighs 3 to 3 1 2 pounds.

The Sandvik Swifty is designed for light pruning and landscape work.The tension-mounted blade is 3 4 inch wide and 21 inches long, andfeatures a peg-tooth design. The quick-action tension lever facili-tates blade changing. It has a Swedish steel f rame with a knuckleguard, and weighs 1 1 4 pounds.

A small bow saw is used for pruning, limbing, landscaping, camping.The 21-inch raker tooth blade is quickly and easily replaced usinga tension lever. The strong tubular steel frame is designed to allowuse of the entire cutting blade. It weighs 1 1 2 pounds.

The Portex self-storing Swedish bow saw features a 3 4- by 16-inchSwedish steel blade with raker teeth for cutting firewood, limbs, orlumber. It has an aluminum frame with a no-slip, plastic hand grip.All parts disassemble and nest inside the handle, and are easy toreassemble. Weight is 1 1 4 pounds.

Although the bow saw is designed for one person, twopeople can saw large logs more effectively. Two people

operate the bow saw like a crosscuteach works only onthe pull stroke.

The teeth are needle-sharp, so wear gloves when sawingand keep hands clear of the cut and the blade. Carry bowsaws by your side with the blade pointed down. Sheathe theblade with small-diameter fire hose and Velcro fastenersor plastic blade guards when not in use. Always carry spareparts and plenty of replacement blades on the trail.

Since worn blades are replaced rather than sharpened,maintenance consists of blade replacement, periodicchecks to see that bolts are tight, and an occasional lightoiling. Take care when oiling these and other trail tools.Too much oil can trap dirt in tool joints.

Examples:

Sandvik all-purpose bow saw

Sandvik Buckmaster bow saw

Sandvik Swifty bow saw

Small bow saw

Portex Swedish bow saw

Tools for Sawing


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Folding Pruning Saw

Pruning saws used in trail clearing quickly limb small branches.

Tuttle tooth pruner

The Tuttle tooth pruner is a handy all-purpose saw for generalpruning requirements. The teeth are designed for fastcutting of large limbs and firewood. The 21-inch blade is47 8 inches wide at the butt, and 1

1 8 inches wide at the point.Weight is 1 1 4 pounds.

The Meylan pruning saw combines a curved ax handle and a curvedsaw blade that enables a sawyer of average height standing onthe ground to prune nearly 10 feet high. The handle is 36 incheslong and the blade is 16 inches long. Weight is 2 1 2 pounds.

The double-edge pruner has fine teeth on one edge for lighttrimming, and lightning teeth on the other edge for heavier jobs. The blade is 2 1 2 inches wide at the handle, and

29 32 inch at the point. The fine edge has eight points per inch,and the other edge is 11 32-inch pitch lightning teeth. Weightis about 1 pound.

Meylan pruning saw

Double-edge pruner

Pruning Saws

Pruning saws are useful for limbing, some brushing, andremoving small downfall, especially where space is limitedand cutting is difficult. The triangular handle design limitscutting depth, however. Blades vary from 10 to 36 inches,and saws weigh from 3 4 to 2

1 2 pounds.

Folding pruning saws are also handy. Some triangular sawscollapse for carrying; other folding saws have a curvedblade with teeth on the underside attached to a shorthandle by a bolt and wing nut. The bolt and nut lock theblade open for use and closed for carrying, like a pocketknife. These blades may be sharpened with a 6-inch cant

saw file. Blades are also easy and inexpensive to replace.Check the bolt often for tightness. Carry replacement parts.

Smokejumpers use folding saws to retrieve parachutes andother equipment from trees or bushes.

Pruning saws should be used, maintained, and carried likebow saws.

Pruning saws used in trail clearing quickly limb smallbranches.

Examples:

Tools for Sawing


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The folding pruner has a 10-inch curved blade with a sure-gripwood handle that folds to protect the cutting edge. Theblade has 6 1 2 cross-cut points per inch, and is 1

15 16 incheswide at the butt, and 1 2 inch at the point. Weight is

3 4 pound.

The Bartlett special utility saw has a 24-inch diamond-toothpattern blade (four points per inch). Weight is 1 1 2 pounds.

The curved pruner is an excellent general-purpose prunerfor fast cutting of small limbs. It has an easy-to-grip, knife-type wood handle, and is trimmed with nickeled screws.The 14-inch blade has seven reverse-rip points per inchand is 1 1 2 inches wide at the handle, and

9 16 inch wide atthe point. Weight is 1 2 pound.

The professional tree-pruning saw (heavy-duty) has extra-large teeth and gullets for speed cutting of large limbs. Theconcave cutting edge is precision set and beveled-filed, andcuts fast on the pull stroke. The blade is flat-ground, 26 incheslong, 3 5 16 inches wide at the butt, and 1

13 32 inches at thepoint. Weight is 1 1 2 pounds.

The Skodco pruning saw has a 24-inch blade with specialbaked-on blued finish and straight-toothed edge for cuttingon the pull stroke. The extra large hand hole enables easyuse while wearing gloves. The blade is 3 9 16 inches wide atthe butt, 1 3 8 inches at the point, and has 4

1 2 points per inch.Weight is 1 3 4 pounds.

Curved pruner

Bartlett special utility saw

Professional tree-pruning saw

Pole pruning saw

When using a pole saw, be aware of other workers nearby.Cut only those limbs whose ends you can see. Clear anarea for dropping limbs. When cutting larger limbs, maketwo cuts. Begin with a slight cut on the underside of thebranch to prevent bark from tearing when the limb issevered from the top.

Carry pole saws by your side. Grip the handle near theblade and point it away from your body and down. Longhandles may require another worker to carry the toolfarther back on the handle. Dont let the end of the handledrag on the ground.

Sharpen these saws with a slim taper file. Pole sawshave alternately offset teeth that are beveled on bothedges. Clamp the blade so the gullets are exposed about1 8-inch to minimize chatter during sharpening. Align thefile in the first gullet against the front and trailing edges oftwo adjacent teeth. The file should form an angle of about65 with the blade. File every other gullet, then reversedirection and file alternate gullets at the same angle. Fouror five strokes per tooth should suffice. File teeth equally;unevenly filed teeth will differ in height. The shorter teethwill be ineffective while cutting.

When transporting blades, provide a small protective boxthat holds approximately 10 to 15 blades vertically. Eachblade should be separated by a 1 4-inch plywood partition.

Pole Saws (Pole Pruners)

This saw has a curved blade attached to a long extensionhandle and is used to prune high protruding limbs. Theteeth face backward on the underside of the blade, so thecut is made on the pull stroke. The curved blade helpsprevent binding and transfers the weight of the tool to thebranch to aid cutting. Handles typically extend from 4 to16 feet.

Skodco pruning saw

Folding pruner

Tools for Sawing


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The head of this tree trimmer cuts limbs11 2 inches in diameter. This heavy-duty,

malleable, iron pruner head has a steel cablechain that works through a ballbearing pulley for

a powerful, center-cut action. The poles are 5 to 6feet long. Weight is up to 4 pounds.

The telescoping fiberglass tree prunerhas a blade that cuts limbs up to 1 1 4

inches in diameter. The multipower pulleydesign and gear-driven lever give three

times more cutting power. The 16-inch needle-point saw blade cuts on the pull stroke to reduce

binding. Telescoping fiberglass pole adjusts from 6feet to 12 feet. Weight is 7 pounds.

The 16-inch blade on this pole pruningsaw adjusts to three different positions on

the aluminum head. It has a large hook forpushing branches, raising ropes, etc. The built-

in paint brush holder applies tree wound paint.The poles are 5 to 12 feet long. Weight is from 2 to

4 pounds.

The strong, malleable iron pruner on this treetrimmer has a steel chain working through a

ballbearing pulley for a powerful center-cut action.It cuts 1-inch diameter limbs. Poles vary from 5 to 12

feet. Weight is about 3 lbs.

The cord-actuated pruner bladeon this 15-foot long pruner cuts

limbs up to 1 1 8 inches in diameter. Amultipower leverage system increases

your pull on the cord 15 times for quick,easy cuts. The 16-inch needle point, Teflon-

coated saw blade cuts on pull strokes to reducebinding. The three 5-foot wooden poles may be

quickly assembled and taken apart. Weight is 7 lbs.

Telescoping fiberglass tree pruner

Pole pruning saw

Tree trimmer

Cord-actuated pruner

Tree trimmer

Examples:

Tools for Sawing


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Wedges

Use wedges as levers to prevent the sides of a cut frompinching a saw blade before the cut is finished. Most jobsrequire soft wedges that will not damage saw teeth. ABSplastic wedges are available in different lengths, widths,and weights. Some have metal inserts in the heads. Othertypes of wedges are designed to be used in combinationsfor felling. Wooden wedges are no longer used by theForest Service.

Select the correct wedge for the job. Replace wedgeswhen they become chipped or broken.

Tools for Sawing

Using one or more wedges keeps a saw blade from being pinched.


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Twice the diameter

of the log.

Equal to the

diameter of the log.

Chopping through logs.

Correct Incorrect

Using an ax for limbing.

Ax

V-notch Sharpening in the field.

Hatchet

crotch wood is dense. When chopping branches above thecrotch, place something solid under the chopping point toprevent the branch from springing back and slapping you.

Carry axes by your side with the head forward. Grasp the

handle firmly just behind the head and keep the cuttingedge away from your body and down. Sheath all axesbefore transporting.

When sharpening, consider the job at hand. If you mustreshape the blade, maintain the original shape as much aspossible. Discard axes with poor profiles or cracked heads.Grind the blade slowly, arcing with the grinder toward theblades midpoint so it has a full-width convex bevel. Becareful not to hollow grind blades, which produces aconcave blade bevel the radius of the grinding wheel. Finishwith a mill bastard file and an ax stone.

When sharpening in the field, secure the ax so both handsare free. A double-bit can be lodged in a tree stump or log,and a single-bit can be secured with the butt end in a V-notch. Wear gloves on both hands, and use a file guard onthe file. Finish with an ax stone.

An Ax to Grind: A Practical Ax Manual (Tech. Rep. 9923

2823MTDC), by Bernie Weisgerber, is a practical anddetailed handbook about axes, their history, and theircontinuing use.

Hatchets

Many trail workers include hand axes or hatchets amongtheir tools. Hatchets work well for trimming small green

stems or freshening blaze markers along the trail. They areeasily and safely carried in belt-mounted sheaths.

Hatchet heads are usually made of heat-treated steeldesigned to accept wood or fiberglass handles. Some havea steel handle forged to the head. They can weigh from 1to 3 pounds and handles range from 10 to 16 inches long.

Tools for Chopping


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A plumb hammer/hatchet is a half-hatchet with hardened,tempered bit and a strong fiberglass handle. It has a 3- to4-inch bit, is about 13 1 2 inches long, and weighs 2

1 2 lbs.

A sportsmans ax has the blade and handle forged from one-piece steel. The length is 13 1 2 inches and the blade is 3

1 4 inches. Weight is 24 ounces.

The forestry ax has a 1 1 4-pound head, 14-inch hickory handle,and weighs 1 3 4 pounds.

The tree-sounding ax has a 1 2-pound head that is designedfor sounding trees. Foresters like its small size (10 incheslong; 2 1 2-inch blade) for carrying in a vest or jacket pocket.Weight is 1 pound.

An all-steel campers ax is 16 inches long and is forged fromone-piece steel. It has a 4-inch blade, and weighs 2 3 4 lbs.

Use and maintain hatchets like regular axes. Rememberthat these tools are not designed for excessive pounding.

Additional hazards may also exist for users becausehatchets are single-grip tools.

Examples:

Sportsmans ax

Forestry ax

Plumb hammer/hatchet

All-steel campers ax

Tree-sounding ax

Tools for Chopping


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Tools for Chopping


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ools for Grubbing

Combination (or Combi) tool developed for firefighting, is popular fortrail work.

Pulaski

Pulaski head detail

Fan-shaped blade bevel tapered back 2 to 3 inches.

3 8 -inch bevel

Use short strokes and let the hoe hit the ground on it s corner.

Pulaskis

The Pulaski combines an ax and a grub hoe into onemultipurpose firefighting tool. Pulaskis adapt easily to trailwork, especially for crews limited to a few tools, or crewswith only a general idea of the job to be done. Combinationtools are less effective than single purpose tools. An axbalances better and chops more safely and grub hoes aremore efficient than Pulaskis. Pulaskis weigh about 5 1 2 pounds. Most have a 36-inch handle.

When using the hoe, stand bent at the waist with your backstraight and parallel to the ground, knees flexed, and onefoot slightly forward. Hold the handle with both hands sothe head is at an angle to your body, and use short,smooth, shallow swings. Let the hoe hit the ground on itscorner. Use the ax end to chop large roots after the dirt hasbeen cleared by the hoe. Always wear safety goggles whilegrubbing to guard against flying chips of rock and dirt.

Carry the Pulaski at your side. Grip the handle firmly nearthe head and point the ax end away from your body anddown. Sharpen the cutting edge like an ax. When sharpen-ing the hoe, maintain the existing inside edge bevel. Neversharpen the top of the hoe.

Combi Tools

The combination or combi tool is basically a militaryentrenching tool on a long handle. It functions as a hoe,pick, or shovel. These tools have recently been developedto aid Forest Service firefighting crews. Because of theirwide blade and longer handle, most users have found themless fatiguing to use than traditional tools.

Use, carry, and maintain the tool as you would a Pulaskior McLeod.

Combi tool


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The combi tool serves as a hoe, pick, or shovel.

McLeod

Pick

The pick head has one chisel tip and a pointed end.

Wing nut

Secure the head to the frame by placing a bolt through the eye of thehead and fastening it with a wing nut. This allows for easy removaland keeps both hands free for sharpening.

SHARPENING A PICK

McLeods

The McLeod combines a heavy-duty rake with a large,sturdy hoe. McLeods work well for constructing trailsthrough light soils and vegetation or for reestablishing treadalong sloughed side cuts. They are inefficient in rocky orunusually brushy areas. The hoe edge is about 9 3 4 incheswide, the six rake teeth are 3 1 2 inches long, and the handleis 48 inches long. Weight is about 5 pounds.

Carry McLeods like shovels with the head forward and thehandle behind. Grip the handle firmly near the head andhold it away from your body while you walk. Sharpen thehoe with a mill bastard file. Maintain a 45 outside edgebevel. Honing the edge with a whetstone is unnecessary.Rake tines sometimes bend and should be straightened,but they are not sharpened.

Picks

Pick heads have a pointed tip for breaking hard rock byforcing a natural seam. They also have a chisel tip forbreaking softer materials. Picks commonly weigh 5 to 10pounds and most have 36-inch handles.

When using a pick, stand comfortably with your feet aboutshoulder-width apart and one foot slightly forward. Graspthe handle with your forward hand near the head; place theother hand near the handle end. Bending over at the waistand keeping your back straight and parallel to the ground,work the pick like a Pulaski hoe with short, deliberate,downward strokes. Avoid raising the pick overhead whileswinging; this wastes energy and creates a safety hazardbecause the heavy, narrow tool head cannot be easilycontrolled or directed. Always wear safety goggles whilepicking to guard against flying chips of rock.

An oval-tapered eye and handle end cause pick heads totighten when swung, but allow a worker to remove handlesfor carrying and sharpening. Sometimes a small screw isscrewed into the handle just below the head to preventslipping. Before sharpening, secure the tool head to freeboth hands. Use a grinder or mill bastard file to sharpenpointed tips to 1 8-inch square. When sharpening chisel tips,maintain the factory bevel.

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Cutter mattock

Pick mattock

Cutter mattock

Types of mattocks.

Adze hoes are useful tools for constructing trails.

Mattocks

The cutter mattock uses the same grubbing blade as pickmattocks, but includes an opposing 2-inch cutter bladeinstead of a pointed tip. Crews working in deep, rooty soiloften prefer these tools; roots are severed with the cutterblade and then pried out with the grubbing end. Follow theuse instructions outlined for Pulaskis.

The pick mattock is often recommended as the standardtool for trail work. It is used like a pick. It has a pointed tipfor breaking rocks and a grubbing blade for working softermaterials. The grubbing blade may also be used to cutroots or remove small stumps. Moreover, with the edge ofthe tool, you can tamp dirt and loose rocks or smooth anew tread, and the handle helps measure the trails width.

Mattock handles are similar to pick handles. They areusually 16 to 17 inches long and they can be removedwhen transporting and sharpening the heads. Mattocksweigh about 2 1 2 pounds.

Maintain good cutting edges on mattocks. Keep grubbingblades sharpened to maintain a 35 edge bevel on theunderside. Sharpen pick ends like a pick, and maintainfactory bevels on cutter blades.

Adze, Grub, and Hazel Hoes

Use adze hoes, grub hoes, or hazel hoes to break sodclumps when constructing new trail or leveling an existingtrail tread. These hoes are also useful in heavy duff.Operate hoes like Pulaskis, mattocks, and picks. Work thetool at an angle across the front of your body so the handleis not between your legs. Bend at the waist, keeping yourback straight, knees flexed, and feet shoulder-width apartwith one foot slightly forward. Control the swing by graspingthe handle near the end with one hand and near the middlewith the other. Choking the handle and swinging straightdown may cause the handle to hit your shins or knees. Useshort, shallow chops to save energy. Strike so the tool hitsat an angle on its corner.

The tapered eyes and handle ends of these hoes forceheads to tighten during use, but make them easily remov-able for carrying and sharpening. Like picks and mattocks,you can also use a screw to hold the head from slippingon the handle. To sharpen, remove the handle, secure thehead so both hands are free, and use a file or grinder tobring the cutting edge to an inside bevel of 45 . Carry thesehoes like Pulaskis, picks, or mattocks.

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Draw or swan neck hoe

Adze hoe

Grub hoe

Hazel hoe

Draw or swan neck hoes are useful for leveling or weeding.These hoes are light duty tools, however, and may oftenprove impractical for trail use. Carry draw hoes like shovels,with the sharpened edge away from the body and down.Sharpen the edge to an outside bevel of 45 . Finishing witha whetstone is unnecessary for all hoes.

Grub hoe being used for trail work.

Tools for Grubbing


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ools for Digging and Tamping

Press your arm against your thigh to gain leverage.

Sharpening square-edge and taper-edge shovels.

Round-point shovel

Square Round point Taper

Shovel types.

Shovels

Shovels are available in various blade shapes and handlelengths. In general, shovel blades are tapered for shiftingloads, square-edged for scooping, or pointed for digging.Handle lengths vary from D-handles of about 27 inches tolonger-handled shovels up to about 48 inches. They weighfrom 3 to 5 pounds. Long-handled shovels are usuallypreferred for trailwork. A shovel with a detachable handleis often a good choice. Firefighters use a shovel with adetachable handle that is designed to scrape combustiblematerial down to mineral soil. It is lightweight and durableand well-suited for scraping as opposed to digging.

When shifting or scooping materials, bend your knees andlift with your legsnot your back. Use your thigh as afulcrum to push against the shovel. This makes the handlean efficient lever and saves your energy and your back.When digging, make the top diameter of the hole largeenough so that it wont interfere with the shovel handlewhile removing loose dirt as the hole deepens. A shovelused with a pick or bar is most effective; picks or bars makeprying with the shovel unnecessary. Wiggling the shovelhandle while applying foot pressure on the blade will helpyou dig deeper.

Carry shovels with the head forward and the handlebehind. Grip the handle firmly near the head and hold itaway from your body while you walk. Sharpen bladeswith a mill bastard file. Start filing the edge just below thefoot rest and work to the point. File away from blade

center. Maintain the bevel on the inside (top) surface ofthe blade approximately at a 45 angle. Sharpen square-edge and tapered-edge shovels on the bottom only. Finalhoning is unnecessary.


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Digging and tamping bar

Digging and Tamping Bars

A digging and tamping bar is about the same length as acrowbar, but much lighter. It is designed with a chisel tipfor loosening dirt or rocks and a flattened end for tamping.These bars are not prying tools. Bars are approximately70 inches long with a 2 1 2-inch-wide tamping end.

Carry digging bars at their balance point, like shovels orcrowbars. Maintain bars by keeping them as straight as

possible and by sharpening the chisel tip to retain thefactory bevel.

Tools for Digging and Tamping


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ools for Brushing

Lopping shears allow branches to be cut cleanly and flush with treetrunks.

Lopping shears

Hook and anvil cutting blades.

Cutting blade

Hook HOOK BLADE

ANVIL BLADE

Cutting blade

Anvil

The hook places the weight of the shears on the limb.

Cutting edge

Lopping shears

Sharpening lopping shears.

Lopping and Pruning Shears

Lopping and pruning shears are similar in design anduse, although lopping shears have longer handles toimprove reach, and gear drives to increase leverage forthicker stems. Cutting edges vary, but generally oneblade binds and cuts a stem against an anvil or beveledhook. We recommend the hook and blade shear foroverhead cuts because the curved blades transfer theweight of the shears to the limb. Quality shears have rust-resistant steel blades. Handles are wood or aluminum.Handles range from 26 to 36 inches long. Limbs up to 3inches can be cut with shears.

Transport shears with the blades closed. Grip the tool onone handle just behind the blade and carry it by your side.Clean moisture and sap from blades after use. Keep metalparts lightly oiled to prevent rust. Frequently check nutsand bolts for tightness, and always carry replacements inthe field.

To sharpen, spread thehandles apart, resting one orboth ends on a flat surface.Use a mill bastard file on thecutting blade only; neither hooksnor anvils are sharpened.Maintain factory bevelswhile filing toward thecutting edge. Use awhetstone to remove thewire edge.


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True-Temper lopping shears give a 1 1 2-inch diameter cut. Thetubular steel handles provide extra strength and the rubber cushiongrips absorb shocks. These are used by biologists to remove deer

jawbones. The shears are 26 inches long and weigh 2 1 4 pounds.

The Hi-Tork lopper makes a 1 1 2-inch diameter cut. It is designed forhardwood, frozen wood, brush, and deadwood. The shears are 27inches long and weigh 3 pounds.

Point-cut pruners make a 1 1 4-inch diameter cut. The blades openwide to cut suckers or sprouts at blade point. Weight is 3 pounds.

Snap-cut professional lopping shears make a 1 3 4-inch diameter cut.They are a gear-driven lopping shear with tremendous cuttingpower10 pounds force applied to the handles gives 300 poundsof cutting power. The shears are 30 inches long and weigh 5 1 2 lbs.

Bank blade

Bush hook

Bank Blades and Bush Hooks

Bank blades and bush hooks are designed specifically for

cutting through thickets of heavy brush or saplings. Theirlong handles and heavy heads will add momentum to theforce of your swing, but their curved blades also pose extrasafety hazards. Always maintain a firm grip with both handson the handle. Cut with a slicing rather than a hackingmotion. Remember that bank blades have cutting edgeson both edges of the blade. Stay clear of other workers. Beaware of the increased possibility of glancing blows, andalways control the swing to avoid cuts to the legs or feet.Wear shin guards when operating these tools. Blades areavailable in 12- to 16-inch lengths. Handles are 36 inchesor 40 inches long. The tool weighs from 3 1 2 to 5 pounds.

Carry bank blades and bush hooks with the head forwardlike a shovel. Grip the handle near the head and hold thehook away from the body and down.

Forester heavy-duty brush cutters make a 2-inch diameter cut forheavy-duty jobshardwood, deadwood, branches, or brush. Therugged steel construction is even strong enough to dehorn and clipcattle. Both blades cut to reduce bark damage. The shears are 27to 34 inches long and weigh 4 to 8 pounds.

Heavy-duty lopping shears are ideal for the forester. They have ashhandles, make a 3-inch diameter cut, and are 37 1 2 inches long.Weight is 5 1 2 pounds.

Examples:

True-Temper lopping shears

Snap-cut lopping shears

Forester heavy-duty brush cutter

Heavy-duty lopping shears Hi-Tork lopper

Point-cut pruner

Tools for Brushing


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Council single-edge, eye-and-strap bush hook

True-Temper single-edge, eye-and-strap bush hook

True-Temper double edge, ax-eye type bush hook

Council double edge, ax-eye type bush hook

Sharpening a bush hook.

Bush hooks are used for clearing work that is too heavy for ascythe and not suited for an ax. They are available withsingle-edged, eye-and-strap blade, or double-edged, ax-eyeblade type. They have hickory handles 12 to 36 inches longand weigh 2 to 4 1 2 pounds.

True-Temper bank blade

Council bank blade

Bank blades are used for clearing thick undergrowth and brush.The blade is sharpened on both sides. Blade lengths may be12 or 16 inches. Hickory handles are available in 36 or 42inches. These tools weigh 1 to 5 1 2 pounds.

Long-handled clearing knife

Swedish brush (Sandvik) ax

A Swedish brush ax cuts small saplings and brush easily, safely.The replaceable Swedish steel blade has a 5 1 2-inch cuttingedge. The hickory handle is 27 inches long overall, and weighs21 2 pounds.

Sharpen bank blades and bush hooks with a mill bastardfile and finish with a whetstone. Always wear your gloves

and use a file guard. Stroke along the straight edges ofthe blades and swing the stone or file in an arc tomaintain the factory edge bevel on curved sections.

Clearing Knives and Swedish Brush (Sandvik) Axes

These clearing tools work well in brushy thickets or whenclearing in rocky or confined areas. Clearing knives looklike small, short, brush hooks, so use, carry, and sharpenthem accordingly. Handle length will determine if the toolis operated one- or two-handed. Use and carry a short-handled clearing knife like a machete.

Brush axes have different blades than clearing knives. Thereplaceable Swedish steel blade has a 5 1 2-inch cuttingedge. The ax has a 27-inch long handle. It weighs about21 2 pounds. They have removable blades held in a C-shaped frame under tension. Tension may weaken andcause blades to pop out. Bend the frame outward slightlyto increase tension. The blade can be removed for sharp-ening. Avoid overheating the blade and losing the temper.Replace badly damaged blades.

Examples:

Bush hook

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Sharpening the brush ax.

Machete

Woodsmans Pal

Collins machete

Barteaux & Sons machete

Seymour machetes

Woodsmans Pal with a hardwood handle

Woodsmans Pal with a hand guard and a leather grip

The Seymour machetes are for cutting heavy weeds, brush,vines, grass, and shrubs. They have heavy-duty, hand-forgedSwedish steel blades and polypropylene safety handles thatare 17 to 24 inches long. Weight is a few ounces to 2 pounds.

Woodsmans Pal axes are used forcutting, chopping, digging, hacking,and pulling. They are 16 inches longand weigh 1 1 2 pounds.

Machetes and Woodsmans Pals

Machetes and Woodsmans Pals are used to clear weeds,brush, and small trees along a trail. Machetes becamecommonly used in Forest Service work after World War IIwhen surplus knives were used extensively for brushing.Machetes have blades from 17 to 24 inches long and weighup to 2 pounds. The Woodsmans Pal is shorter andsturdier than the machete and includes a cutting hook anda knuckle guard. It is used for cutting, chopping, digging,hacking, and pulling. It is 16 inches long and weighs about11 2 pounds.

Because these are single-grip tools, a worker must alwaysmaintain a firm grip while swinging. Also, be aware of the

location of fellow workers. The hook on the end of theWoodsmans Pal can slip as it is pulled toward you and cutlegs or hands, or it may strike the back of an operatorshead on the back swing. Both tools come with belt sheathsthat make them easy and safe to carry.

When sharpening, use a mill bastard file or whetstone tomaintain the factory edge bevel. Sharpen the hook of theWoodsmans Pal using the procedure described for thebrush hook. Protect sharpened edges at all times.

Examples:

Brush ax

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Blade

Tang

Grass nail

Nibs

Snath

Scythe parts.

Corn knife

The tobacco knife blade is tough alloy steel that is 12 inches long by1 inch wide and 3 32-inch thick. It is beveled and sharpened with anax stone only on one side. The round hardwood handle is 1 1 4 inches in diameter.

Tobacco knife

Corn Knives

These tools, also called tobacco knives, come in a varietyof shapes and sizes. They are commonly used for handbrushing on tree and tobacco plantations.

Corn knives are single-grip tools, so hold tightly to thehandle while operating. Stand well balanced and bend atthe waist. Use your free hand to steady the stems youintend to cut. Wear a glove to protect your free hand fromscratches or burns from weeds.

When carrying, grip the knife on the handle near the blade.Carry the tool by your side with the blade pointed awayfrom your body and down. When sharpening, maintainfactory edge bevels. Corn knives may have curved bladesthat are sharpened on only one side like brush or weedhooks, or they may have straight or adjustable blades thatare sharpened on both sides like machete.

Scythes Scythes efficiently mow open areas of weeds or grass.Grass or weed scythes have 24- to 40-inch blades andlong handles. Brush scythes have shorter, sturdier bladesand handles and are often preferred by trail crews.

Operate the scythe by grasping the handles (nibs) project-ing from the bar (snath) and rhythmically sweeping the

blade low to the ground across and in front of you. A grassnail placed between the bar and the blade keeps vegeta-tion from catching in that junction.

Carry scythes by your side in one hand, blade forward andhandle behind. Keep control of the blade by grasping the

handle near the blade and pointing the blade away fromyour body with the tip down. Stop and change hands if thetool becomes too heavy. Transport scythes well behind aline of workers, and work only in areas clear of others.

Before sharpening the scythe, stand the handle on its endso the blade is horizontal and the tip points down. Use awhetstone or scythestone to hone the blade from back tofront (tang to tip) on both sides. Maintain the factory edgebevel. If the blade is badly chipped detach it from thehandle and reshape it with a grinder or file. Return the edgeto a bevel of 10 . Although some argue that the wire edgefacilitates cutting light vegetation, we recommend removingit. A lesser known method of sharpening involves beatingthe blade with a special hammer to shape and sharpen itwithout grinding. Finish with a whetstone.

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Sickle

Grass hook

Weed hook

P u s h i n g

c u t t e

r

1 1 2 i n c

h e s w

i d e

The arc of the pulling cutter measures 3 1 2 inches.

Weed hook and head diagram.

Sickles and Grass Hooks

Sickles are curved knives used to cut weeds or grass inlimited space. The single grip handle angles upward so theblade cuts parallel to the ground while the operator standsbent at the waist. The blade is 12 inches long and thehandle is 4 to 5 inches long.

Carry the sickle by your side with the cutting edge awayfrom your body and pointed down. Maintain a firm grip on

the handle when carrying or using.

Maintain sickles with a whetstone or scythestone. Theblade is beveled on the top side only. Remove the wireedge by working the stone flat against the backside.

The grass hook combines features of scythes and sickles.It can be operated like a scythe from an upright position,but the small blade is maintained like a sickle.

Weed Hooks

Workers can easily trim annual vegetation along a trailwith a weed hook. These tools have a curved insideblade that cuts by pulling through stems toward theoperator and a straight top blade that cuts by pushing.Long handles allow the operator to remain upright.

Since these tools are light enough to operate with a singlegrip, carry them by the handle with the head away from the

body and down and weed as you walk. Always maintainsafe distances between workers. Remember that the toolhas two cutting edges and that swinging it could be espe-cially hazardous. Sharpen weed hooks with a mill bastardfile and finish with a whetstone. Use a curving stroke on thepulling cutter that follows the inside edge around to the tip.Sharpen the pushing cutter on the top side only.

Weed Cutters (Grass Whips) Weed cutters are used for cutting light growth like grassesand annuals that grow along trails. They are lightweightand durable and usually swung like a golf club. The sharperthe blade, the less energy needed to cut. Both edges areserrated and cut on the forward and return strokes. Whensharpening the edges of these tools, remember that differ-ent models have the blade bevels on different sides. Theframe may interfere when sharpening top-beveled blades.It may be best to remove the blade and screw it to a blockof wood for sharpening. Maintain a 25 bevel on bothserrated and straight blades. Cutters usually have a 9- by2-inch blade and a 40-inch long handle.

Weed cutter (grass whip)

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ools for Pounding and Hammering

Stone sledge

Sledge Hammers

Sledge hammers have heads that weigh from 8 to 20pounds, which are forged from heat-treated high carbonsteel. They usually have two rounded striking faces withbeveled edges to minimize chipping. Thirty-six inch handlesare common. Handles can be fiberglass or wood.

Driving sledges are used to set heavy timbers and driveheavy spikes or hardened nails. Stone sledges are usedto break boulders or concrete. Because of differences intempering, these tools are not interchangeable.

Swing sledge hammers carefullymore like mattocks andpicks than axes. Carry these tools like axes, holding the

handle by your side, extending the handle behind you, andgripping the hammer near the head.

Maintain hammers by keeping striking faces smooth. Usea grinder, but do not allow the tool to overheat, which willweaken its temper. The temper is shallow, and excessivegrinding will go through to soft metal. Have a blacksmithrecondition those with badly chipped or mushroomed faces.Check handles regularly for tightness or cracks. Repair orreplace them as needed.

Hand-Drilling Hammers

Hand-drilling hammers are used to drillsteel into rock or to drive wedge andfeathers into cracks or drilledholes. There are two types ofhand-drilling hammers single

jacks and double jacks. Bothhave two rounded strikingfaces with beveled edges tominimize chipping.

Single jacking involves an individual holding a drilling steelin one hand and hitting it with a hammer held in the other.The single jacks have 3- or 4-pound heads and 10-inchhandles. The short handle helps you place blows accur-ately and resists breaking better than longer handles.Engineers hammers with 3- or 4-pound heads and 14-inchhandles can also be used for modified double jacking. Anoperator sits or kneels near the steel and hammers withboth hands while another worker holds the steel. Theproximity of both hands to the head required by the 14-inchhandle assures that accuracy and safety are not sacrificed.Large double jacks with 6- or 8-pound heads and 36-inchhandles are available for experienced drillers. For more

information on hand drilling, we recommendHand Drilling and Breaking Rock (Missoula

Technology and Development CenterTechnical Report No.

8423-2602-MTDC,August 1984).

Single jacking.

Sledge hammer

Nevada or long pattern sledge

Double face sledge

Hand-drilling hammer


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Double jacking.

Carry single jacks like hatchets and double jacks like axesor Pulaskis. Always wear gloves on the hands holding thesteel to prevent injury from a glancing blow. Both drillersand holders should wear safety glasses or goggles to guardagainst flying rock chips.

Maintain drilling hammers by grinding striking facessmooth. Avoid overheating and excessive grinding withelectric grinders that will destroy the shallow temper of thestriking faces. If faces are badly chipped or unevenly worn,have them reconditioned by a blacksmith. Check handlesregularly for tightness or cracks, and repair or replace themas needed.

Nailing Hammers

Nail hammers have heads with a heat-treated steel face fordriving nails, and claws on the other end for pulling. Headsvary in weight from 7 to 28 ounces. Impact handles arehickory, fiberglass, or steel forged directly to the head.Handles are usually 12 to 14 inches long.

When hammering, maintain a securegrip on the tool near the handle

end. Start nailswithlighthitsuntil

youcanclear your nail-

holding hand.Concentrate on the

nail head and place eachhit carefully. When

removing nails, position the head upside down against aflat surface, and catch the nail head between the claws.Pulling the hammer toward you causes the head to rockthe claw end up and extracts the nail. For larger nails, ablock placed between the head and the surface willincrease your leverage. To carry hammers, grip thehandle near the head, holding the tool away from yourbody as you walk. Maintain them like the other hammersdiscussed in this section.

Nailing hammer

Face

Head Poll

Claw

Cheek Neck

Tools for Pounding and Hammering


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Tools for Pounding and Hammering


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Bending your knees and lifting with your legs avoids back strain orinjury.

Wheelbarrow

Cant hook

Peavy

Wheelbarrows

Wheelbarrows help carry rocks or dirt to or from the work-site. Most wheelbarrows have a metal box and frame, woodor aluminum handles, and solid rubber or pneumatic tires.We recommend pneumatic-tired wheelbarrows becausetire inflation can be changed to roll easily on uneven terrain.

Select a wheelbarrow stout enough for the job. Typically,wheelbarrows hold 4 to 5 cubic feet and weigh 20 or morepounds. Lift a loaded wheelbarrow with your legs, not withyour back. Keep your back straight, bend at the knees toget into a lifting position, and grasp the handles firmly.

Balancing heavy loads on uneven terrain requires strongarms and legs. To avoid tipping, keep the loads center of

gravity low to the ground. Good footing is essential. Learnand work within your physical limits. Several light loads willbe easier and safer to manage than one large one. Preventmuscle strains by starting light and working up to heavyloads.

Although wheelbarrows usually require little maintenance,there are some things you can do. Lightly oil the wheel andaxle occasionally, unless it has sealed bearings. Checkhandle bolts often for tightness and carry replacements inthe field. Keep the box cleandirt, water, or debris leftstanding in wheelbarrows will accelerate rusting. Turn theunit over at the end of the days work, or if possible, store itout of the weather.

Cant Hooks and Peavies

Cant hooks and Peavies afford leverage for moving orrotating logs. The cant hook was originally used with a jampikea long pole with a spiked end. Loggers separatedpieces with the hook after using the pike to pry them apart.Later these tools were combined by an American black-

smith, John Peavy, and the new tool bore his name. Theyweigh from 4 to 6 pounds and have handles from 2 1 2 to 5feet long. The size of log to be handled will dictate the sizeof the tool.

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To roll a heavy log, use a series of short bites with the hookand maintain your progress by quickly resetting it. Catch

the log with the hook hanging down so the point of thespike becomes the fulcrum on top of the log. Rotate the logusing the leverage of the handle working the tool like aratchet. Moving large logs may require several hooksworking together. Avoid taking large bites; a heavy log willroll back and pin the handle before the hook can be reset.

Carry the Peavy by your side with the point forward. Forbalance, grip the handle behind where the hook attaches.Before walking, secure the hook against the handle toprevent injury to the operator or damage to the point of thehook. These tools also need maintenance. Keep hingedparts lightly oiled for proper movement. Spiked ends andhooks are usually bolted to handles, so check these fre-quently for tightness. Remove the spike ends and hookswhen replacing handles. Carry replacements in the field.Sharpen hook ends with a mill bastard file and finish witha whetstone. Maintain factory bevels as much as possible.

Timber Carriers

Timber carriers enable teams of workers to move logs.With one tool the log is dragged. Several carriers couldallow four or more persons to carry a large log. Hooks are3 to 16 inches; handles are typically 4 feet long. Carriersweigh about 7 to 8 pounds.

Maintain the tongs on a timber carrier like cant hooks andPeavies. The tongs attach to the handle with a single boltthat is removed for handle replacement and carrying.

Timber carriers allow several persons to carry logs.

Room for two persons on each side.



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ools for Peeling and Shaping

A drawknife peels the bark off of logs.

Bark spud

Drawknife

Sharpening a drawknife using a stone set in a wood block.

TOP VIEW SIDE VIEW

Vise

Routed block

Whetstone

Whetstone

Drawknives

Drawknives work best to peel dry logs. A standard draw-knife has an 8- to 10-inch blade with perpendicular handlesat each end and is 4 to 5 inches long.

Bark Spuds (Peeling Spuds)

Use a bark spud to peel green logs. Theyhave a 3 to 4-foot long handle and weighabout 4 pounds. Position the log about hiphigh. Hold the tool firmly with both handsand push the dished blade lengthwise alongthe log under the bark. Always pry awayfrom your body. Three sharpened edgesmake this tool unusually hazardous to useand transport. Be mindful of the blade whenworking or walking near others.

Carry the spud at your side. Grip the handlenear the middle and walk with the cuttingedges away from your body and down.Maintain the original shape of the cutting bladewhen sharpening. Use a file and a whetstoneon each edge on both sides.

For greatest efficiency, position the log about waist high.When using the drawknife, grasp both handles so thebeveled edge of the blade faces the log. Begin each strokewith arms extended and pull the tool toward you whilekeeping even pressure on the blade. Keep fingers clearof blade corners. Since the knife shaves to attain a flatsurface, the largest strips will come from log edges.

You can change the thickness of shavings by rocking theblade back and forth on the edge bevel. Practice will yieldproficiency.

Carry drawknives by one handle and at your side. Sharpendrawknives with a file or grinder. Maintain the edge bevelat 33 , and keep the blade cool to preserve the temper.Finish with a whetstone. Whet the blade by holding onehandle with the blade facing up and securing the other.Hold the stone on the blade flat against the bevel and moveit across the blade in a circular motion. When a wire edgeforms on the full length of the blade, lightly whet the flatside to remove it.

Another whetting method employs a stoneset in a wood block. Secure the block with

the stone protruding above it so both knifehandles will clear. Grasp both handles with thebevel facing down and pull the blade diagonally

across the stone along its edge.Remove wire edges by operating

similarly on the other side.


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Carpenters adze

Hewing a log with a carpenters adze.

Poll

Shoulder

Cutting edge

Eye

Squared handle end

Blade

Detail of the carpenters adze head.

Broadax

Carpenters Adzes (Cutting Adzes)

This tool trims and shapes wood surfaces like hewedtimbers or flattened logs. The cutting edge is 4 to 7 incheswide and 8 to 10 inches long. Adze heads weigh from 3 to5 pounds with a cutting blade set perpendicular to thehandle. The blade curves from the front of the head to thecutting edge, roughly matching the arc of the curved handle.

To use a cutting adze, stand astride or on top of the log tobe hewed. Grip the handle with both hands and swing itwith short strokes in a pendulum motion along the log.Use your thigh as a stop for your arm and to control thedepth of the cut. When standing on a log and swinging,take care to position yourself to miss your feet and legs.

A square tapered eye and handle end allows the head totighten when swung, but also allows its removal for carrying

and sharpening. Some adzes may have a small set screwto further secure handles to heads. Keep the adze sharp.Maintain the cutting edge by regularly touching it up witha whetstone. If the blade needs reshaping, grind the edgebevel on the underside to 30 . Finish with a whetstone.

Broadaxes Use a broadax for hewing if no adze is available. Positionthe log so that scores are on one side and perpendicularto the ground. Depending on the size of the log, stand onthe side opposite the scores or on top of the log. Large logsmay require you to work on the same side as the scores.

Additional safety hazards exist when hewing with a regularax. Maintain control of the ax by grasping the handle nearthe middle with hands several inches apart. Use shortswings to sever scored sections. Work the length of the login one direction to remove most of the wood, then reversedirections for smoothing. Be extremely careful of glancingblows; work slowly and carefully. Frequent rest periods willhelp ensure efficiency and safety.

Tools for Peeling and Shaping


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Log dogs steady the log while it is being hewn.

Log dog

Hew logs in the following manner:

1 Elevate the log onto two short cross pieces and anchorit with log dogs. Log dogs are timber workers clamps. Oneend is driven into the log and the other into a stable support.The log is held in place and both of the workers handsare free for hewing.

2 Mark a plumb line down the center of oneend and a horizontal line perpendicular to

it. Be sure to place the horizontal line deepenough to attain the desired width offinished flat surface.

3 Repeat theprocedure at theopposite end andsnap two chalk linesconnecting the horizontalend lines.

4 Using an ax orsaw, score the logto the depth of thechalk lines, making thegrooves parallel to the butt endsand as close together as necessary tohew a flat surface.

5 Hew (remove) the scored sections with an adze orbroadax. If you use a broadax, hew the log face perpen-dicular to the ground rather than parallel, as shown here.The remaining sides may be marked, scored, and hewedas necessary.



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ools for Sharpening

Dull tools are useless and dangerous.

Edge bevel Bla de

b e vel

B lad e of c uttin g ed ge t ool

When sharpening an ax or Pulaski blade, for example,work the stone in small circles across and into theblade.

Edge

bevel

Stone

Ax blade

Pulaski blade

Feather or wire edge

Sharpening stone

A wire edge is removed by honing theopposite edge.

About Sharpening

A tool need not be old and worn to need sharpening. Manytools arrive dull from the factory. They may leave in goodcondition but become damaged during shipping. Inspect alltools before use. Sharpening makes tools last longerasmall scratch that is ignored could lead to a serious crackor nick in the blade.

Use a material likea file orgrindstone thatis harder thantool steel toremove metalfrom the edge. If there are no visible nicks, a touch-up witha whetstone will restore a keen cutting edge. In theseinstances, you need only restore the edge bevel. Whetting

the edge removes very small bits of metal from the bladeand causes the remaining metal to burr slightly on the

cutting edge. This burr is called a feather, or wire edge.Remove this weak strip by honing the edge on the otherside. The correctly honed edge is sharp, has no wireedge, and does not reflect light or show a sharpening line.Wear gloves when sharpening cutting edges.

Restoring the blade bevel requires coarser grinding tools toaffect the shape of worn cutting blades. Reshape bladeswith hand files, sandstone wheels, or electric grinders.Remove visible nicks by grinding the metal back on theblade. Remember, however, that the correct blade bevelmust be maintained. Remove the metal necessary to makethe blade smooth while retaining its proper shape. If theshape is too radically affected, either have a blacksmithrecondition the tool head or discard the tool.

The Missoula Technology and Development Center hasdeveloped a handtool sharpening gauge that provides aquick guide to the proper cutting angle for a number oftools. The gauge takes the guesswork out of sharpeningPulaskis (both ends), axes, shovels, combination tools, andMcLeods. It has a no-go line that shows when a Pulaski

Stone

Right Right Wrong


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The handtool sharpening gauge is a handy aid for inspecting andsharpening a variety of fire handtools.

This file has a knuckle guard made from oldlinen hose.

File Handle

Knuckle guard

Single-cut file for finishing metal edges

Double-cut file for removing larger particles for shaping

Curved-cut file for softer metal jobs

Rasp-cut file for softer materials like wood

head is too worn to refurbish. The handtool sharpeninggauge is available from the General Services Administra-

tion, item number: NSN 5210-01-324-2776, NFES 0510.

Files

Files come in single, double, curved, or rasp cuts. Single-cut files have one series of parallel teeth angled 60 to 80 from the edge, and are used for finishing work. Double cutshave two series of parallel teeth set 45 to each other; theyare used for restoring shape. Curved and rasp cuts areused for shaping soft metals and wood, respectively.

Files vary in length and shape. Files are measured from thepoint to the heel, excluding the tang (the tip used to attach ahandle). Length determines the coarseness of files. Thereare generally three degrees of file coarseness: bastard, second cut, and smooth. The bastard will be the coarsestfile available, however only when it is included amongdifferent cuts of files of the same length. Of the manyshapes of files currently on the market, you will probablynot often use mill and flat files. Mill files are single-cut, andflat files are double-cut. A 10-inch mill bastard file is goodfor all-around tool sharpening.

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Comparative coarseness of files of uniform length.

Bastard Second cut Smooth cut

Always wear gloves and goggles while filing.

Grindstone

Grinding parallel to bevels maintains the correct angle.

Flat surface and edge

Rounded edge is dull

Grinding like this would remove rounding, but alter the edge bevel

Chisel edge

Wedge- tapered edge

Before filing, fit the file with a handle and knuckle guard.Always wear gloves on both hands to prevent cuts fromthe sharpened edge. Secure the tool so both hands arefree for filing. Use the largest file you can, depending onthe size, nature, and workable stroke length of the job.Remember that files are designed to cut in one direction

only. Apply even pressure on the push stroke, then lift thefile up and off the tool while returning for another pass.Store or transport files so they are not thrown togetherand protect them from other tools.

Maintain files with a brush or file card. A file brush hascoarse and fine bristles and a wire pick for extractingtrapped filings. A card has a small brush and a wire scorer.

Grinders

A manually operated sand-stone wheel that runs throughor receives dripping water

is the best all-roundgrinding tool. Thewheel turns slowly

enough to allowmonitoring ofthe amount ofmetal beingremoved andthe waterkeeps the

blade cool.For volumesharpening,a sandstone

wheel may beprovided with mechan-

ical power, but only if it remains geared to the samemaximum rpm that a hand operation would allow.

Electric bench grinders quickly reshape damaged tools, butextreme caution must accompany their use. Improper elec-tric grinding can ruin both the bevel and temper of a tool.High speeds remove metal from the blade quickly, whichcan cause it to weaken and chip easily. High speeds alsoallow heat buildup in tool heads, which can destroy temperand make it impossible for the blade to hold an edge. Usingelectric grinders, grind slowly and keep the blade cool.Inspect blades frequently to prevent too much metal frombeing ground from the blade. Dip the tool in water or coolit in open air. Avoid grinding on flat sides of electric wheelsbecause they will weaken and break.

Tools for Sharpening


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ools for Rehandling

Plastic wedges used for securing tool heads.Wooden wedges are the choice of traditionalists.

Plastic wedge

2 7 8 i n c he s

2 1 4 i n c h e s

About Rehandling

Wood handles are common to most trail tools and are themost common type of replacement handle. Hickory makesthe best handles for impact tools because it combineshardness and stiffness with excellent resiliency. For benthandles or simple handholds, ash is usually used.

When choosing tool handles, remember that straight grainsoffer maximum flexibility and strength. If possible, the grainshould also be tight and knot-free, and it should run parallelto the wedge slot. Avoid coated handles. Painting or stain-ing can hide flaws in materials or construction.

Fastening Wedges

The best wedges for securing tool heads are hardwood orplastic. Traditionalists swear that wooden wedges are best,but many new tools are equipped with plastic wedges.Avoid metal wedges for fastening heads to handles; thesecrush and weaken handle wood and make broken handlesdifficult to remove by drilling.

Sometimes a handle may need only a new wedge becausethe handle was not broken but loosened. In this case,carefully drill out the old wedge; remove the handle; cleanthe slot; and replace the handle on the head.

The grain of ax handles should run parallel to the wedge slot.

Good

Bad

Diagram of the wedge slot and end grain of ax handles.

Good Bad


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Rehandling Procedures

Regularly inspect all tool handles and replace any cracked,rough, or badly weathered handles as soon as possible.When a tool needs a new handle, follow this step-by-stepprocedure. We have selected ax handles as the examplefor this discussion, but the technique is adaptable to othertrail tools:

Clear the eye of the tool. To remove worn or brokenhandles from the eye of a tool, place it upright in a viseand drill several holes into the wood from the top. Theseholes relieve pressure on the wood inside the eye so it canbe driven out with a hammer and punch. If heads areepoxy-bonded to handles, soak the head in boiling waterto soften the bond.

Size up the tool and match an appropriate handle to thehead. All handles will need some reshaping by hand to fitthe head. Be sure that the top of the handle will fill the eyeof the tool in both length and width.

Saw the handle to an approximately correct length. If thehandle was not factory sawed to accept a wedge, removethe head, secure the handle, and carefully saw down abouttwo-thirds the depth of the head.

Inscribe two perpendicular centering lines across thelength and width of the handle end inside the eye. You willuse them as a guide/check for centering the handle in theeye later. Make an additional mark below the head and justabove where the handle broadens to denote the final seatfor the head.

Slowly remove excess material from the handle using aspoke shave, wood rasp, or grinder.

Fit the eye of the tool to the handle. Light tapping on thetool head will allow repeated removal of the handle withoutdamaging the wedge slot. Continue shaving and fitting untilthe head rests squarely 1 4 to

3 8 inch above the final seatingmark. Make sure that the head is straight on the handle.

With tool head aligned perpendicular with the handle,draw a line across both sides of the handle at the final

seating mark. Saw a shallow cut along these lines to createa square shoulder. Fit the tool head to rest lightly on thisshoulder.

With rasp and sandpaper, uniformly backslope thehandle from the perimeter of the handle to where the headfinally seats. Carefully smoothing the handle just below thehead prevents splintering.

Use a long tapered wedge that extends the full width ofthe slot to attach the head to the handle. Drive the wedgeinto the slot, and tap alternately on the wedge and the endof the handle until the striking tool bounces off each withequal force. Use epoxy to fill remaining voids between thehandle and the eye and seal out moisture.

After the epoxy sets, trim excess wood flush with thetop of the head. A hacksaw works best here because theblade will not be dulled by the metal, and because the sawblade can be turned 90 on the frame.

Remove any varnish or paint from the handle. A lightcoating of raw linseed oil regularly applied will protectagainst drying and cracking. Some woods workers recom-mend drilling short holes in the base of the handle andperiodically filling them with linseed oil. The oil penetratesthe entire handle through natural pores in the wood.

A loose handle can be temporarily tightened in the fieldby soaking the head in water or linseed oil. The wood inthe head swells to accommodate the fluid and fits tighterin the eye. Make permanent repairs as soon as possible.

Handles may also be shaved to fit individual grips morecomfortably to reduce impact shock and hand and armcramps. When shaving handles, proceed slowly andcarefully; it is better to remove too little wood and have totrim again than to remove too much and have a weak orunusable handle.

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A Size up the tool head and match it to the handle. Note that thehandle protrudes excessively long through the head. Scribe it to becut off.

B Saw the handle to about the correct length. The handle has beenroughly fitted so the head slides to within about 1 2 inch of the finalseating position.

C A line has been scribed below the roughly-fitted handle. The linedenotes the final shoulder upon which the head sets.

D The tool head has been snug-fitted to the square seatingshoulder. Note that there is about 1 2 inch excess handle above thehead.



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E All surfaces just below the handle should be sanded smoothbefore the head is placed to insert the wedge. The wedge has beenstarted in kerf.

F The wedge has been driven home with the alternate driving ofthe wedge and the end of the tool handle.

G Use a hacksaw to trim off the excess handle and wedge flushwith the tool head. Turn the saw blade 90 on the frame to facilitatethe flush cut.

H The finished mounted tool. The handle can be finish-sanded andoiled with raw linseed oil to protect against moisture.



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ibliography

The recreational trails publications produced by the Missoulaand San Dimas Technology and Development Centers

are available at the Recreational Trails Program Web siteof the Federal Highway Administration U.S. Departmentof Transportation: http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/ rectrails/publications.htm

Printed copies can be ordered using the information on thefront cover of this report.

Electronic versions of the trails publications plus a broadercollection of recreation publications produced by the Missoulaand San Dimas Technology and Development Centers areavailable at the Technology and Development Internet site(Username: t-d, Password: t-d): http://www.fs.fed.us/t-d/ search/

Birchard, William, Jr.; Proudman, Robert D. 2000. Appa-lachian trail design, construction, and maintenance: 2nded. Harpers Ferry, WV: Appalachian Trail Conference.ISBN 191795372X. 237 p. (Copies for sale at 888 2878673.)

Birkby, Robert C. 1996. Lightly on the land: the SCA manualof backcountry work skills, Student Conservation Asso-ciation. The Mountaineers. ISBN 0898864917. 272 p.(Copies for sale at 6035431700.)

Demrow, Carl; Salisbury, David. 1998. The complete guideto trail building and maintenance. 3d ed. Boston, MA:Appalachian Mountain Club. 1SBN 1878239546.246 p. (Copies for sale at 8002624455.)

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