us supreme court: 05-1120

8/14/2019 US Supreme Court: 05-1120

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Official - Subject to Final Review

IN THE SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - x

MASSACHUSETTS, ET AL., :

Petitioners :

v. : No. 05-1120

ENVIRONMENTAL :

PROTECTION AGENCY, ET AL. :

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - x

Washington, D.C.

Wednesday, November 29, 2006

The above-entitled matter came on for oral

argument before the Supreme Court of the United States

at 10:02 a.m.

APPEARANCES:

JAMES R. MILKEY, ESQ., Assistant Attorney General,

Boston, Mass; on behalf of Petitioners.

GREGORY C. GARRE, ESQ., Deputy Solicitor General,

Department of Justice, Washington, D.C.; on

behalf of Respondents.

1Alderson Reporting Company



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C O N T E N T S

ORAL ARGUMENT OF PAGE

JAMES R. MILKEY, ESQ.

On behalf of the Petitioners 3

ORAL ARGUMENT OF

GREGORY C. GARRE, ESQ.

On behalf of the Respondents 25

REBUTTAL ARGUMENT OF

JAMES R. MILKEY, ESQ.

On behalf of Petitioners 52




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P R O C E E D I N G S

(10:02 a.m.)

CHIEF JUSTICE ROBERTS: We'll hear argument

first today in 05-1120, Massachusetts versus

Environmental Protection Agency. Mr. Milkey.

ORAL ARGUMENT OF JAMES R. MILKEY

ON BEHALF OF THE PETITIONERS

MR. MILKEY: Mr. Chief Justice, and may it

please the Court:

If I may, I'd like to frame the merits very

quickly and then turn immediately to standing. Although

the case before you arises in an important policy area,

it turns on ordinary principles of statutory

interpretation and administrative law. EPA made a

decision based on two grounds, both of which constitute

plain errors of law reviewable under any standard.

EPA's principle grounds was that it lacked authority

over the emissions of the four substances at issue, even

if they, in fact, endanger public health and welfare.

That legal conclusion fails as a matter of law.

As a fallback position, EPA declined to

consider if these substances are endangering public

health and welfare, claiming its policy approach made

more sense than the regulatory scheme encompassed in

section 1202 of the Clean Air Act. Although EPA




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possesses a good deal of discretion in applying the

statutory endangerment test, it cannot rest its ruling

on impermissible grounds as it did here.

We are not asking the Court to pass judgment

on the science of climate change or to order EPA to set

emission standards. We simply want EPA to visit the

rulemaking petition based upon permissible

considerations.

And now, Your Honor, I'd like to turn to

standing. Petitioner showed a wide variety of injury in

fact, all of which are the kinds of harms the statute

was aimed at preventing. For example, our uncontested

affidavits establish that as a matter of physics, the

more greenhouse gases accumulate in the air, the more

temperatures are going to rise, ocean waters expand, and

the seas rise. And of course as the seas expand, they

rise everywhere around the world. Some areas such as

Massachusetts will be hit particularly hard because

we're also subject to a land subsidence, but that --

JUSTICE SCALIA: I thought that the standing

requires imminent harm. If you haven't been harmed

already, you have to show the harm is imminent. Is this

harm imminent?

MR. MILKEY: It is, Your Honor. We have

shown that the sea levels are already occurring from the




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current amounts of greenhouse gases in the air, and that

means it is only going to get worse as the --

JUSTICE SCALIA: When? I mean, when is the

predicted cataclysm?

MR. MILKEY: Your Honor, it's not so much a

cataclysm as ongoing harm. The harm does not suddenly

spring up in the year 2100, it plays out continuously

over time. And even to the extent you focus on harms

that occur in the future, there's nothing conjectural

about that. Once these gases are emitted into the area,

and they stay a long time, the laws of physics take

over.

JUSTICE SCALIA: Well, there's a lot of

conjecture about whether -- I gather that there's

something of a consensus on warming, but not a consensus

on how much of that is attributable to human activity.

And I gather that -- what is it? Something like seven

percent of the total carbon dioxide emissions are

attributable to automobiles in the United States?

MR. MILKEY: It's actually about 6 percent,

Your Honor.

JUSTICE SCALIA: 6 percent? Thank you.

MR. MILKEY: But it's important to point out

as well, though, that in the ruling we challenge, EPA

has disavowed authority over all U.S. sources of




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emissions, which constitute about 20 percent of

global --

JUSTICE SCALIA: Yes, but that doesn't go to

the harm that you're claiming. I mean, we're talking

about the, you know, the standing issue right now. And

if you've been harmed, you've claimed harm because of

carbon dioxide emissions, right?

MR. MILKEY: Agreed, Your Honor. But my

point was that they disclaimed authority over all

sources of carbon --

JUSTICE SCALIA: I understand, but that has

nothing to do with whether you have standing. That has

to do with the merits of the case. But on the standing

point, only new cars would be affected, right? So even

the reduction of the 6 percent would take a few years,

wouldn't it?

MR. MILKEY: It would take a few years, Your

Honor, but it is a basic premise of the Clean Air Act

that vehicle fleets regularly turn over --

JUSTICE SCALIA: I understand. But it goes

to how imminent the harm is and how remediable the

imminent harm is. If, in fact, the 6 percent will only

be reduced to maybe five and a half in the next few

years, your --

MR. MILKEY: Your Honor, we have shown in




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the record that a 40 percent reduction in carbon dioxide

from cars is currently feasible. And since those

emissions account for --

JUSTICE SCALIA: Not in the first year.

MR. MILKEY: No, no. We agree, Your Honor.

JUSTICE SCALIA: I mean ultimately, when all

the cars currently on the roads are off and the new cars

with, you know, whatever measures you think will reduce

the carbon dioxide are on the road, then 40 percent

would be the figure.

MR. MILKEY: Yes, Your Honor.

JUSTICE GINSBURG: But whatever position

holds for motor vehicles would similarly hold for power

plants, and has there been any application to EPA with

respect to carbon dioxide in power plants?

MR. MILKEY: There has, Your Honor. In

fact, EPA has turned down a rulemaking petition to

regulate them under the new source performance standard

section of the Clean Air Act, and that is currently on

appeal in the D.C. Circuit, but it is currently stayed

pending the outcome of this case, and it just --

CHIEF JUSTICE ROBERTS: Do you get the

benefit of that broader allegation in establishing your

standard? In other words, if you've challenged EPA's

refusal to apply a particular level of greenhouse




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regulation to a particular model of car, can you say,

well, they're following the same approach to a coal

powered -- coal fueled power plant, and so we get to

establish a broader injury? Or, aren't you limited to

the specific legal challenge you're raising here?

MR. MILKEY: Your Honor, I think it's

actually more direct in the sense that in the decision

we challenge here, they said greenhouse gases are not

air pollutants under any regulatory provision of the

act. So at least on --

CHIEF JUSTICE ROBERTS: Don't you have to

show injury from their decision here? The fact that

other people, or you presumably as well might be injured

by their decisions that you are not challenging here,

that doesn't help your standing here, does it?

MR. MILKEY: I believe it does, Your Honor,

because we cannot win that other case unless we win this

case here in terms of the authority question. And in

any event, it is important to point out that because of

the scale of the problem, relatively small percentage

deductions in global emissions can lead to real world

results.

JUSTICE KENNEDY: But at the outset, you

made this, some of this perhaps reassuring statement

that we need not decide about global warming in this




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case. But don't we have to do that in order to decide

the standing argument, because there's no injury if

there's not global warming? Or, can you show standing

simply because there is a likelihood that the perceived

would show that there's an injury?

MR. MILKEY: Your Honor, especially in this

case where none of our affidavits were challenged, I

don't think the Court needs to go there ultimately on

the merits because we showed through our uncontested

affidavits that these harms will occur. There was no

evidence put in to the contrary, and I would add that

the reports on which EPA itself relies conclude that

climate change is occurring in --

CHIEF JUSTICE ROBERTS: Those affidavits

talked about the fact that if the government starts to

regulate, the technology is going to change, if the

technology changes, other governments will adopt it, and

all that, and that strikes me as sort of spitting out

conjecture on conjecture, the sort that we disapproved

of.

MR. MILKEY: Your Honor, although we believe

we have shown other governments will follow suit, we are

not in any sense relying on that. We can easily show

our standing without relying on that. And that's

because --




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CHIEF JUSTICE ROBERTS: Same argument if the

automobile emissions were 1 percent contributors?

MR. MILKEY: It would be the same argument.

And I would add that EPA in other contexts has

determined on several occasions that a 1 percent

contribution is significant under the Clean Air Act.

CHIEF JUSTICE ROBERTS: How is that

consistent with our taxpayer standing cases where the

argument is that a taxpayer doesn't have standing to

challenge an illegal expenditure as a general matter

simply because his contribution, the benefit that he's

claiming is so small and so widely dispersed?

MR. MILKEY: Your Honor, it is different

because here there is particularized injury that we have

shown. The injury doesn't get any more particular than

states losing 200 miles of coastline, both sovereign

territory and property we actually own, to rising seas.

JUSTICE ALITO: If you look ahead, I don't

know how far imminence allows you to look ahead, but

let's say we're looking at 5 years or 10 years, what

particularized harm does the record show that

Massachusetts will, or faces an imminent threat of

suffering, that can be traceable to the reductions that

you want to produce through these regulations?

MR. MILKEY: Well, Your Honor, if I can deal

10

Alderson Reporting Company



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with the traceability part of that question first,

traceability is easy to show here because the extent of

our harm is caused by the overall amount of the gases in

the air. And being focused on the 20 percent of all

U.S. sources, or the 6 percent of the cars, that's still

a sizeable portion of the problem, so we know that 6 or

20 percent is there.

In terms of the particular harms, similarly

we have shown --

JUSTICE ALITO: 6 percent is the total

emissions, the total contribution from motor vehicles in

the United States, right?

MR. MILKEY: To the global carbon dioxide

emission.

JUSTICE ALITO: To the global. And so, the

reduction that you could achieve under the best of

circumstances with these regulations would be a small

portion of that, would it not?

MR. MILKEY: It would be, we have shown in

the record it would be about a two-and-a-half percent

over the time it takes to turn the fleet over. But it's

important that given the nature of the harms, even small

reductions can be significant. For example, if we're

able to save only a small fraction of the hundreds of

millions of dollars that Massachusetts parks agencies

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are projected to lose, that reduction is itself

significant.

CHIEF JUSTICE ROBERTS: That assumes

everything else is going to remain constant, though,

right? It assumes there isn't going to be a greater

contribution of greenhouse gases from economic

development in China and other places that's going to

displace whatever marginal benefit you get here.

MR. MILKEY: Yes, Your Honor. But reducing

domestic emissions will reduce our harm, the harm we

would otherwise face regardless of what --

CHIEF JUSTICE ROBERTS: Not if your harm is

the alleged loss of coastline. Not necessarily. It

depends upon what happens across the globe with respect

to greenhouse emissions.

MR. MILKEY: Your Honor, we would still lose

coastline but we would not lose as much because these

harms are cumulative, and while reducing U.S. emissions

will not eliminate all the harm we face, it can reduce

the harm that these emissions are causing.

So it will necessarily reduce our harm and

satisfy redressibility.

JUSTICE SCALIA: I mean, do we know that

that's a straight line ratio, that a reduction of

two-and-a-half percent of carbon dioxide -- well, two

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and a half overall would save two-and-a-half percent of

your coastline? Is that how it works? I'm not a

scientist, but I'd be surprised if it was so rigid.

MR. MILKEY: Your Honor, I don't believe

it's established it's necessarily a straight line. But

I want to emphasize that small vertical rises cause a

large loss of horizontal land. For example, where the

slope is less than 2 percent, which is true of much of

the Massachusetts coastline, every foot rise will create

a loss of more than 50 feet of horizontal land. And for

example, in the State of New York, the Oppenheimer

affidavit projects that New York could well lose

thousands of acres of its sovereign territory by the

year 2020. So the harm is already occurring. It is

ongoing and it will happen well into the future.

CHIEF JUSTICE ROBERTS: What's your

strongest case from this Court to support your standing

allegation?

MR. MILKEY: Your Honor, what I would say to

that is our standing here is so much more direct and

particularized than, for example, the harm this Court

found sufficient in Laidlaw, which was --

CHIEF JUSTICE ROBERTS: Laidlaw was a

specific citizen suit provision, wasn't it?

MR. MILKEY: It was, Your Honor.

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CHIEF JUSTICE ROBERTS: So doesn't that make

it somewhat analytically distinct from this case?

MR. MILKEY: I don't believe so, Your Honor.

Here I think the fact that the States are showing harm

not only to them in a property sense, but in their

sovereign capacity --

JUSTICE KENNEDY: What's your authority for

that? I have the same question as the Chief Justice. I

was looking at your brief for the strongest case.

Suppose there were a big landowner that owned lots of

coastline. Would he have the same standing that you do

or do you have some special standing as a State, and if

so what is the case which would demonstrate that?

MR. MILKEY: Well, Your Honor, first of all,

we agree that a large landowner would himself or herself

have --

JUSTICE SCALIA: What of a small landowner?

JUSTICE KENNEDY: No, no. I'm asking

whether you have some special standing --

MR. MILKEY: Yes --

JUSTICE KENNEDY: -- as a State and, if so,

what's the authority for that?

MR. MILKEY: Your Honor, first of all, I do

think we have special standing. For example, here it's

uncontested that greenhouse gases are going to make

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ozone problems worse, which makes it harder for us to

comply with our existing Clean Air Act responsibilities.

And the -- in the West Virginia case, which

is a D.C. Circuit case, the Court found that that itself

provided an independent source of standing. In terms of

Supreme Court cases, the -- it's been -- for 200 years,

this Court has recognized loss of state sovereign

property as a traditional --

JUSTICE KENNEDY: Well, I don't know. 1907

was Georgia versus Tennessee Copper, and that was

pre-Massachusetts versus Mellon. That seems to me your

best case.

What about a small landowner? I asked the

question about a big landowner. Suppose you have a

small landowner and he owned a lot?

MR. MILKEY: Your Honor, I think if someone

is losing property because of this problem, then that

person would have standing, but we're nowhere near a de

minimis threshold here. We have shown we own property,

200 miles of coastline which we're losing, and we think

the standing is straightforward.

JUSTICE SCALIA: No, I'm not sure -- I think

our opinions have even said it, but certainly

commentators have often said it, that really the far

margin of our standing cases has been, you know, the

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famous scrap case, in which the allegation was that the

added pollution from municipal incineration of municipal

waste which would -- which couldn't be transported by

rail for burial because the ICC rates were too high,

that added pollution interfered with the students' --

they were Georgetown Law students -- their hiking in the

George Washington Forest along the Blue Ridge.

That seems to me a much more immediate kind

of damage; yet that's been referred to as really the far

margin of our standing cases. You're talking not about

their being affected by ambient air but being affected

by a stratospheric effect which then has another

consequence that you allege.

MR. MILKEY: Your Honor, once these are

emitted the laws of physics take over, so our harm is

imminent in the sense that lighting a fuse on a bomb is

imminent harm. It may take --

JUSTICE GINSBURG: Mr. Milkey, does it make

a difference that you're not representing a group of law

students, but a number of States who are claiming that

they are disarmed from regulating and that the

regulatory responsibility has been given to the Federal

Government and the Federal Government isn't exercising

it? I thought you had a discrete claim based on the

sovereignty of States and their inability to regulate

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dependent on the law Congress passed that gives that

authority to the EPA. I thought that was --

MR. MILKEY: Your Honor, you are correct

that we are saying that provides us also an independent

source of our standing.

JUSTICE SCALIA: I don't understand

that. You have standing whenever a Federal law preempts

State action? You can complain about the implementation

of that law because it has preempted your State action?

Is that the basis of standing you're alleging?

MR. MILKEY: In short, Your Honor --

JUSTICE SCALIA: Do you know any case that

has ever held that?

MR. MILKEY: Your Honor, I would cite you to

the amicus brief of the State of Arizona et al., which

cites several cases, albeit not in this Court, that

stand for that principle.

Your Honor, if I may turn to the merits

quickly, section 202(a)(1) provides EPA jurisdiction

over any air pollutant that motor vehicles emit. It's

not restricted to certain types of air pollutants or to

air pollutants that cause certain kinds of harm. And

not only does the act define air pollutant with

comprehensive breadth, but we know these four substances

are air pollutants from other evidence.

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For example, Congress itself expressly

referred to carbon dioxide as an air pollutant in

section 103(g). And since by definition all air

pollutants are air pollution agents, we know that

Congress understood carbon dioxide to be an agent of air

pollution. And if air pollution --

CHIEF JUSTICE ROBERTS: Moving from your

authority argument to the exercise of authority, the

clause 202(a)(1) requires EPA to prescribe standards

which in their judgment cause or contribute to air

pollution reasonably anticipated to endanger public

health. And they say they haven't made that judgment

yet, so they're not in violation of that statutory

command.

MR. MILKEY: That is correct, Your Honor;

but they have said that they have put off making a

judgment based on impermissible grounds. While EPA's

explanation is difficult even to follow, one overarching

point shines through and that is the agency does not

agree with taking a regulatory approach regardless of

how it might otherwise come out.

CHIEF JUSTICE ROBERTS: Let's say the first

day this law is passed, there are a lot of air

pollutants that come out of motor vehicles. I mean, is

EPA immediately in violation of this statute if they

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don't issue emissions regulations for every one those

air pollutants on day one?

MR. MILKEY: No, Your Honor. EPA has a lot

of room to move based both on the endangerment standard

itself and on background principles of administrative

law.

CHIEF JUSTICE ROBERTS: And presumably the

principle that they want to deal with what they regard

as the more serious threats sooner. They want to deal

with lead first and then they want to deal with other

stuff. I mean, what is the -- when did they -- I

guess -- move into an abuse of discretion in not

exercising a judgment with respect to a particular

pollutant?

MR. MILKEY: The answer to that, Your Honor,

is that when they do not rely on any of those grounds,

they do not rely on lack of information, they did not

rely on background principles of administrative law.

What though said here is -- and -- that they did not, in

fact, contest the seriousness of the problem. But note,

in two back to back sentences on page A-82 of the third

petition they say: We must address the, issue but we

disagree with the regulatory approach.

The very section in which they explained why

they weren't going to regulate is entitled "Different

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Policy Approach." Rejecting mandatory motor vehicle

regulation as a bad idea is simply not a policy choice

that Congress left to EPA.

JUSTICE GINSBURG: But if you are right and

then it went back and the EPA then said, well, an

obvious reason also is constraint on our own resources,

we have the authority to say what comes first, Congress

-- we couldn't possibly do everything that Congress has

authorized us to do; so it's our decision, even though

we have the authority to do this, we think that we

should spend our resources on other things.

Suppose they said that? You said they

didn't say it this time around, but how far will you get

if all that's going to happen is it goes back and then

EPA says our resources are constrained and we're not

going to spend the money?

MR. MILKEY: Your Honor, while background

administrative law principles provide EPA at least some

room to move, we think it's important that EPA say that.

If they -- it's a very different opinion if they say, we

are not going to regular here because we just don't want

to spend the resources on this problem and we want to

look elsewhere.

If they want to say that, they can say that

and then, if at all, there'd be a narrow arbitrary and

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capricious challenge on that. But the point is here

they relied on the impermissible consideration that they

simply disagreed with the policy behind the statute.

CHIEF JUSTICE ROBERTS: That's not all they

said. I'm looking at A-85 and they said establishing

emissions now would require EPA to make scientific and

technical judgments without the benefit of studies that

are being developed to reduce the uncertainty in the

area. That's different than saying they disagree with

the regulatory approach.

MR. MILKEY: It is and it isn't, Your Honor,

because that statement will alleges be true. There will

always be scientific uncertainty. Agencies will always

have an understandable interest in seeing more

information. They never --

CHIEF JUSTICE ROBERTS: There's a difference

between the scientific status of the harm from lead

emissions from vehicles that -- when you have lead in

the gasoline, to the status, the status of scientific

knowledge with respect to the impact on global warming

today? Those are two very different levels of

uncertainty.

MR. MILKEY: Your Honor, when EPA regulated

lead back in the ethyl days, as the Court court itself

took note, there were huge amounts of uncertainty at

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that time. And EPA has a lot of discretion in

evaluating that, that uncertainty.

And if the EPA determined that the level of

uncertainty was such that it was not reasonable to

anticipate endangerment, that is perfectly appropriate.

It would also be appropriate if the agency determined

that there was so much uncertainty that they couldn't

even form a judgment on that. That would be applying

the endangerment statute at the same time it put off.

But the point is they did not say any of that. They

instead relied on impermissible grounds.

JUSTICE SCALIA: Mr. Milkey, I had -- my

problem is precisely on the impermissible grounds. To

be sure, carbon dioxide is a pollutant, and it can be an

air pollutant. If we fill this room with carbon

dioxide, it could be an air pollutant that endangers

health. But I always thought an air pollutant was

something different from a stratospheric pollutant, and

your claim here is not that the pollution of what we

normally call "air" is endangering health. That isn't,

that isn't -- your assertion is that after the pollutant

leaves the air and goes up into the stratosphere it is

contributing to global warming.

MR. MILKEY: Respectfully, Your Honor, it is

not the stratosphere. It's the troposphere.

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JUSTICE SCALIA: Troposphere, whatever. I

told you before I'm not a scientist.

(Laughter.)

JUSTICE SCALIA: That's why I don't want to

have to deal with global warming, to tell you the truth.

MR. MILKEY: Under the express words of the

statute -- and this is 302(g) -- for something to be an

air pollutant it has to be emitted into the ambient air

or otherwise entered there.

JUSTICE SCALIA: Yes, and I agree with that.

It is when it comes out an air pollutant. But is it an

air pollutant that endangers health? I think it has to

endanger health by reason of polluting the air, and this

does not endanger health by reason of polluting the air

at all.

MR. MILKEY: Your Honor, respectfully, I

disagree, and there is nothing in the act that actually

requires the harm to occur in the ambient air. In fact,

some of the harm here does occur there.

JUSTICE SCALIA: Well, it talks about air

pollution all the time. That's what the, that's what

the thing is about, air pollution. It's not about

global warming and it's not about the troposphere.

MR. MILKEY: Your Honor, we are not saying,

first of all that global warming is air pollution, any

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more than we're saying that asthma is air pollution.

They're both effects. I would point you to the example

of acid rain, where the pollutant there, sulfur dioxide,

the problem is it causes its harm after it leaves the

air, after it gets washed out. Air pollutants do not

need to cause harm in the ambient air.

Your Honor, I would add that our

interpretation satisfies common sense because, while EPA

has plenary authority over substances that motor

vehicles emit, those substances are regulated only if

EPA determines that they cause endangerment. By

defining the term "air pollutant" comprehensively,

Congress has not prejudged what may cause endangerment,

but it has allowed other pollutants to be regulated as

their harms become appreciated. It is EPA's

interpretation that fails the common sense test. They

have suggested that the term "air pollutant agent"

creates an independent test so important that it may

prevent some harmful compounds from being regulated

without providing any hint of what the term means or how

it applies in this case. And they cannot explain any

number of anomalies such as the fact that methane is

already a regulated air pollutant, yet they claim they

can't look at its climate effects.

Your Honor, if there are no more questions

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I'd like to reserve my time.

CHIEF JUSTICE ROBERTS: Thank you,

Mr. Milkey.

Mr. Garre.

ORAL ARGUMENT OF GREGORY G. GARRE,

ON BEHALF OF RESPONDENTS

MR. GARRE: Thank you. Mr. Chief Justice,

and may it please the Court.

After carefully considering the issue the

nation's expert agency in environmental matters

concluded that Congress has not authorized it to embark

on the regulation of greenhouse gas emissions to address

global climate change. And that even if it has, now is

not the time to exercise such authority, in light of the

substantial scientific uncertainty surrounding global

climate change and the ongoing studies designed to

address those uncertainties. Plaintiffs have provide no

reason to override that quintessential administrative

judgment.

JUSTICE GINSBURG: Mr. Garre, doesn't the

EPA's decision on the first, "we don't have any

authority," doesn't that infect its subsequent decision,

"well, even if we did, we wouldn't exercise it." But

they've already decided they don't have authority.

MR. GARRE: Your Honor, I don't think that

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it does. In the sense, I think EPA made clear in its

decisional document that it considered as an alternative

matter, that if it, even assuming it did have the

authority, that it wouldn't be appropriate to exercise

it at this time.

And importantly, too, I mean, just to be

clear on this, EPA has never made an endangerment

finding with respect to global climate change. That was

true in 1998 and 1999 when the agency had a different

position on authority to regulate. Even then the

agency's position was clear. Even assuming we have the

authority, now is not the time to exercise it. So I

don't think --

JUSTICE GINSBURG: -- I take it that on that

question, is there authority, the EPA has come out one

way, but at least it is debatable because as you just

said, the predecessors of the current people said we do

have the authority.

MR. GARRE: Well, to that degree, Your

Honor, this Court has made clear, for example, in the

Brand X case that even where agencies change positions,

where they've provided reasonable grounds for a new

interpretation, that interpretation is entitled to

Chevron deference. We think that that is true in this

case.

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JUSTICE BREYER: On this particular issue,

the opinion as I read it, of the EPA, consists of 32

pages. Twenty of those pages, 22 in fact, deal with

whether they have statutory authority. And of the 10

that deal with the issue we're talking about now, five

of them give as their reason that they think that the

President has a different policy. Of the remaining

five, two more consider international aspects of the

problem and how you have to get other countries to

cooperate; and then the conclusion of that part says in

light of these considerations, we decide not to exercise

our power.

Now their claim with respect to that, is

that at least three of the four considerations are not

proper things for the agency to take into account:

namely whether the President wants to do something

different, whether we're running foreign policy

properly, whether cooperation with other countries are

relevant to this particular issue.

So what they've asked us to do is send it

back so they can get the right reasons. Now -- if they

want not to do it. What's your response to that?

MR. GARRE: Justice Breyer, I don't think

that it depends on how many pages that the agency

devoted to the --

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JUSTICE BREYER: The reason it depended on

that is whether or not these other, improper

considerations might have influenced the ultimate

decision not to go ahead.

MR. GARRE: I think it depends on the

reasons that the agency gave. And one of the reasons

that the agency gave was the substantial scientific

uncertainty surrounding the issue of global climate

change. Petitioners acknowledge that that was an

appropriate consideration for the agency. So even if

you think the other considerations were inappropriate,

and we certainly do not, but even if you think they are,

the agency gave an appropriate reason. And that reasons

JUSTICE BREYER: When I write an opinion --

when I write an opinion, sometimes I write the words:

"We decide this matter in light of the following three

factors taken together." And I guess a lawyer who said,

"one of those factors alone the Court has held justified

the result all by itself" -- in saying the Court has

held that, I guess that wouldn't be so. That would be a

bad lawyer, wouldn't it?

MR. GARRE: But Your Honor --

JUSTICE BREYER: If they write that all of

these considerations justify our result, again, one of

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them by themselves, it sounds, they think would not have

been sufficient.

MR. GARRE: I -- I don't think that that is

a fair reading of the EPA decisional document, Your

Honor. Certainly, the agency didn't go out of its way

to say, "and reading these considerations together and

not any of them individually." And with respect to the

scientific uncertainty, Your Honor, you also have to

take into account that the EPA had before it and pointed

to the report of the National Research Council on global

climate change.

JUSTICE STEVENS: I find it interesting that

the scientists whose worked on that report said there

were a good many omissions that would have indicated

that there wasn't nearly the uncertainty that the agency

described.

MR. GARRE: Your Honor, if you are referring

to the amicus brief, Your Honor, there are -- assuming

there are amicus briefs on the other side. The Ballunas

amicus brief -- I think it is fair for the Court to look

at, to look at the document that the agency had before

it. That -- that document produced by the National

Research -- Research Council, that's the research arm of

the National Academy of Sciences. And it's one of the

gold standards of research.

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JUSTICE STEVENS: But in their selective

quotations, they left out parts that indicated there was

far less uncertainty than the agency purported to find.

MR. GARRE: Well, Your Honor, I think one

thing that we ought to be able to agree on is there is

that there is uncertainty surrounding the phenomenon of

global climate change. I think the debate is on which

areas are more uncertain than the others. But certainly

I think the agency was entitled to conclude,

particularly if you take into account the deference this

Court should give to that kind of determination, that

the scientific uncertainty surrounding the issue of

global climate change, surrounding issues of the extent

of natural variability in climate, surrounding the

issues of impact of climate feedbacks like ocean

circulation, and low cloud cover, are permissible

considerations for the agency to take into -- -

JUSTICE STEVENS: Is there uncertainty on

the basic proposition that these greenhouse gases

contribute to global warming.

MR. GARRE: Your Honor, the report says that

it is likely that there is a -- a connection, but that

it cannot unequivocally be established. I think that --

if I could use that to go back to the standing question,

Your Honor, which is the fundamental question of whether

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they've showed not just a connection between greenhouse

gas emissions in toto and the phenomenon of global

climate change, but the particular class of greenhouse

gas emissions at issue in this case. Six percent of

global greenhouse gas emissions, at most. That assumes

you put all U.S. vehicles off the road or that they are

all zero emission cars. So you're talking about

emissions --

CHIEF JUSTICE ROBERTS: -- it is not a

mathematical question, right? I mean, you would -- it's

that you would -- what is the number? What's enough?

10 percent? 15 percent? Presumably, there's more to it

than the percentage of emissions attributable to be this

particular --

MR. GARRE: I think that's true, Your Honor.

But what petitioners here to show, they bear the burden

in order to establish standing under this case, is that

regulation of the class of greenhouse gases at issue in

this case will make a difference to them.

JUSTICE BREYER: Suppose it is not

greenhouse gas. Suppose it was Agent Orange. Suppose

there a car is coming down the street and it sprays out

Agent Orange. And I come into the Court and I say, you

know, I think that Agent Orange is going to kill me with

cancer. And the reply is, well, we have some scientists

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here who say your chance of dying of cancer from Agent

Orange is only 1 in 30. Maybe 1 in 50. Maybe 1 in a

thousand. Maybe 1 in 10,000. And therefore, you have

no standing to require the EPA to regulate this

pollutant, Agent Orange, which is in a green cloud all

over the city.

Now, would you say that the person who's

made that claim has no standing?

MR. GARRE: Your Honor, I think that that is

a fundamentally different case, for the simple reason

that global climate change is a global phenomenon. I

mean one --

JUSTICE BREYER: I was only addressing,

using that to -- to address your problem that the

chances are too small that, in fact, any one individual

will be affected by the 7 percent or 6 percent of the

material that comes out of the truck -- the CO2.

MR. GARRE: The -- the individual in that

case, Your Honor, like the plaintiffs here, would have

to show specific facts demonstrating injury,

redressibility and traceability. Now in this case --

JUSTICE KENNEDY: Your problem, I think, you

take the position, the proposition that the greater the

harm the greater the risk, the smaller the probability

has to be before it is reasonable to act, and necessary

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to act.

MR. GARRE: Your Honor, this Court's

standing cases make clear that you have to show that

granting the relief requested is likely to redress the

alleged harms. And again, looking at the --

JUSTICE SOUTER: They are saying it is

likely to do so, even though we cannot give you a point

for point percentage correlation between reduction of

gas and coastline loss. You're saying, it seems to me,

that they have somehow got to pinpoint this

mathematically --

MR. GARRE: I don't -- we're not saying

that.

JUSTICE SOUTER: -- before, before there is

redressibility.

MR. GARRE: We're not saying that, Your

Honor. We're saying that they have, they certainly have

to do more than they have done here. And they're

granted their standing --

JUSTICE SOUTER: Tell me what it is that

they need, be more specific about what they need to do.

MR. GARRE: Well, I will be more specific.

And if I could also just point to what they grounded

their case on here. They grounded their case on here,

in the declarations, on the notion if the United States

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regulates greenhouse gas emissions of vehicles, then

other countries will follow suit with respect to the

emissions of vehicles and other greenhouse gas

emissions. That's clear from the McCracken declaration

on page 239, paragraph 32 of the JA, as well as the

Walsh declaration.

JUSTICE SCALIA: I think it can be argued

that the Assistant Attorney General hasn't argued that

here.

MR. GARRE: Well --

JUSTICE SCALIA: He has said that 6 percent

is enough.

MR. GARRE: That, that's true, Your Honor,

but I still think you have to look at the basis that

they've relied upon on standing. And they haven't shown

specific facts which should provide any comfort to this

Court that regulation of less than 6 percent or fewer

greenhouse emissions worldwide will have any effect on

their alleged injuries.

JUSTICE SOUTER: Why is there -- why is

there reason to assume that it will have no effect?

MR. GARRE: Well --

JUSTICE SOUTER: That seems to be the

assumption you're making. You are saying unless they

can pinpoint the correlation between reduction of gas

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and effect, let's say in coastline loss, they have not

shown either causation or a sufficient likelihood of

redressibility.

MR. GARRE: Your Honor --

JUSTICE SOUTER: But why do they have to

show a precise correlation as opposed simply to

establishing what I think is not really contested, that

there is a correlation between greenhouse gases and the

kind of loss that they're talking about; and it is

reasonable to suppose that some reduction in the gases

will result in some reduction in future loss.

Why is that insufficient?

MR. GARRE: Justice Souter, one fundamental

reason is that we don't know what the rest of the world

is going to do, whether or not --

JUSTICE SOUTER: Let's assume the rest --

let's assume that the rest of the world does nothing. I

don't think that's a very reasonable assumption, but

let's make that assumption. So that the only thing

we're talking is the 6 percent. If the 6 percent can be

reduced -- I think the suggestion was over a reasonable

period of time, by two and a half percent of the 6,

there is, I suppose, reason to expect that there will

be, maybe not two and a half percent less coastline

lost, but some degree of less coastline lost because

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there is a correlation between the gas and the loss of

the coastline. Why is that an unreasonable assumption

to make in order to show causation and redressibility,

bearing in mind that redressibility is a question of

more or less, not a question of either/or.

They don't have to show that it will stop

global warming. Their point is that will reduce the

degree of global warming and likely reduce the degree of

loss, if it is only by two and a half percent. What's

wrong with that?

MR. GARRE: Justice Souter, their burden is

to show that if the Court grants their requested relief

it will redress their injuries. I'm not aware --

JUSTICE SOUTER: Not redress their injury in

the sense that it will prevent any global warming or

stop global warming and stop coastal erosion; their

argument is a different one. It will reduce the degree

of global warming and reduce the degree of coastal loss.

MR. GARRE: I think --

JUSTICE SOUTER: That's their argument. Not

all or nothing. But a part. That's what they're trying

to show.

MR. GARRE: And that's fine, Justice Souter,

I grant you that. But they still have to show that

there is reason that it is likely to believe, that the

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reduction in that tiny fraction of United States

emissions, putting aside the 99 percent or the 95

percent in the rest of the world and what they do, and

the evidence that shows that greenhouse gas emissions in

those countries are increasing, they have to show the

regulation of that tiny fraction would have an affect on

their alleged injuries, not to completely redress them,

Your Honor. We don't say that --

JUSTICE SOUTER: Don't they have to show

that it is reasonable to suppose it will have an effect?

MR. GARRE: They have to show that it is

likely, Your Honor. And they haven't even tried to make

that showing. The one thing that they've --

JUSTICE SOUTER: Why is that showing -- and

I agree with, by the way, with the Chief's suggestion a

moment ago, life is not, or physics are not so simple as

to assume that there's going to be a be a direct two and

a half percent reduction of coastline for a two and a

half percent reduction from the 6 percent.

But isn't it intuitively reasonable to

suppose that with some reduction of the greenhouse

gases, there will be some reduction of the ensuing

damage or the ensuing climate change which causes the

damage? Isn't that fair?

MR. GARRE: I don't think that it is fair,

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Your Honor. I don't want to pretend to be an expert on

global climate change. But the one thing I can say is

from the materials I looked at is that this an

extraordinarily complex area of science. I'm not aware

of any studies available that would suggest that the

regulation of that minuscule fraction of greenhouse gas

emissions would have any effect whatsoever on the

global -- -

JUSTICE SOUTER: But do you have any --

JUSTICE BREYER: Suppose others cooperate?

Suppose, for example, they regulate this and before you

know it, they start to sequester carbon with the power

plants, and before you know it, they decide ethanol

might be a good idea, and before you know it, they

decide any one of 15 things, each of which has an

impact, and lo and behold, Cape Cod is saved. Now why

is it unreasonable? Why is it unreasonable to go to an

agency and say now you do your part, which is 6 percent,

and now we're going to go to a different agency like

NHTSA and we're going to ask them too, and we're going

to go to your electricity regulation program, and coal.

And there are like not a million things that have to be

done, maybe there are only seven. But by the time we

get those seven things done, we'll make a big

difference. Now what is it in the law that says that

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somehow a person cannot go to an agency and say we want

you to do your part? Would you be up here saying the

same thing if we're trying to regulate child

pornography, and it turns out that anyone with a

computer can get pornography elsewhere? I don't think

so.

MR. GARRE: Your Honor, what I would point

you to is your decision in Lujan versus Defenders of

Wildlife, Justice Kennedy's opinion in ASARCO versus

Kadish, where the Court made clear that you cannot

establish standing based on predictions of the actions

of independent actors not before it. That's true about

other agencies that aren't here today. That's true

about other countries whom this Court does not have

jurisdiction over.

JUSTICE BREYER: So they couldn't have gone

in and asked for ozone regulations, because that

requires other countries? Or what about dumping heavy

metals in the sea, and as the sea gets polluted because

of what other countries do, but EPA tried to regulate

that. Acid rain they tried to regulate. You're

saying there is no standing to ask for any of that.

MR. GARRE: Well, first of all, Congress has

specifically addressed two of the areas that you

mentioned, Your Honor, and we're not saying that

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categorically --

CHIEF JUSTICE ROBERTS: Just because there's

no standing to challenge an agency's decision doesn't

mean the agency can't regulate that particular area,

right?

MR. GARRE: That's exactly right, Your

Honor. That's exactly right.

JUSTICE BREYER: But you are saying if

Congress passes a statute and they put the words CO2

right in this statute under ambient air, and they say

anybody can go and sue if the EPA doesn't do it, you're

saying Congress lacks the constitutional authority to do

that, because it's Article III we're talking about?

MR. GARRE: Well, Your Honor, we're saying

two things. First, every plaintiff has the obligation

to establish that he has Article III standing under this

Constitution. And secondly, there are members of this

Court, for example, Justice Kennedy in his concurring

opinion in Defenders of Wildlife, who did suggest that

perhaps if Congress specifically addresses an issue,

that could inform the standing analysis. For example --

CHIEF JUSTICE ROBERTS: They can't

compromise the requirements of Article III.

MR. GARRE: It cannot, Your Honor. Congress

could make findings with respect to causation or other

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issues that this Court would have to give deference to

and seriously consider, but you're right. It would not

override the requirements of Article III. And there may

be some global phenomenon that create more difficult

challenges to establish standing but --

JUSTICE STEVENS: As I understand the

government's position, you're not merely questioning

standing but you also take the position you do not have

the authority to do what the plaintiff asks you to do;

is that correct?

MR. GARRE: That's true, Your Honor, moving

to the merits, that's true. And with respect to that,

the agency engaged in the same type of analysis that

this Court laid out in the Brown and Williamson case.

JUSTICE STEVENS: May I ask you on that

question, if we turn to the statute, to Section 201,

there's reference to "shall regulate" if in the judgment

of the administrator there is a for real danger and so

forth. In your view, is there a duty to make a

judgment?

MR. GARRE: Your Honor, our view is that

agencies have inherent discretion to determine when to

make that judgment.

JUSTICE STEVENS: Could they have a

discretion never to make the judgment?

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MR. GARRE: I think that gets to the

question of whether there is, what judicial review is

available. We have assumed in this case that there's

some measure of judicial review. So I think at some

point you got to the point where the agency either has

provided no reasons whatsoever, or there is no sound

basis for the agency not to take that step. Then

assuming that there is a role for the courts here, a

court could come in and say that that was inappropriate.

JUSTICE STEVENS: But as I read your brief,

you didn't really confront the question, s I understand

it, of whether or not there was a duty to make a

judgment at all. And I'm interested in what your

position on that is.

MR. GARRE: Well, again, I think it goes to

the question -- we think the statute does not put a

deadline on when the agency has to have, and that

therefore --

JUSTICE STEVENS: To me, just reading the

text of the statute is a little ambiguous. I'm not

entirely clear, but it seems to me that just reading

that statute, I got the impression that Congress thought

that the administrator had a duty to make a judgment

when there was enough evidence out there that people

were concerned about it and so forth, that there would

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be a duty there, but you think not?

MR. GARRE: That's not the agency's

interpretation. In fact in its decisional document

under the section no mandatory duty, the agency explains

why that's not its interpretation and we think that

that's a reasonable interpretation. Congress knows how

to constrain the exercise of discretion. We point in

footnotes 18 and 19 of our brief of many examples where

Congress has laid out deadlines or other constraints on

the exercise of discretion, and those aren't present in

Section 203.

JUSTICE STEVENS: But you would agree that

if they did make a judgment, then you would have

authority to regulate?

MR. GARRE: That's right. And then I think

it's a point the D.C. Circuit made in the Ethyl

Corporation case at footnote 37, that precisely because

the statute imposes a duty to act once that endangerment

finding is made, the agency has discretion to determine

when to make the endangerment finding.

JUSTICE KENNEDY: In Norton versus Utah

Wilderness Alliance, having to do with the regulation of

off-road vehicles, we indicated that one measure was

whether or not the agency has unreasonably delayed its

action.

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MR. GARRE: That's a separate sort of

action, Your Honor. There are cases where people have

said that this is unreasonable delay. That's not the

claim that the petitioners in this case brought.

CHIEF JUSTICE ROBERTS: Let me understand

your answer to Justice Stevens' question. If EPA made

the judgment under the statute, you think they would

have had the authority?

MR. GARRE: Under the statute --

CHIEF JUSTICE ROBERTS: I thought you had a

Brown and Williamson argument that EPA was precluded.

MR. GARRE: No, I was assuming -- in

answering Justice Stevens' questions, that we were down

in the exercise of discretion part. But you're right,

Your Honor, the threshold position of the agency on this

is that it lacks the authority to --

JUSTICE SCALIA: Can I ask about that? I

found persuasive Solicitor General Garre's point that in

the acid rain context, it isn't air pollution that harms

health, but rather it is the effect of the pollutant

after it leaves the air and produces the acid rain. Is

there anything wrong with that response? It seems to

me --

MR. GARRE: I think there is, Your Honor.

The way that the agency looked at this is to look at the

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question of whether Congress intended it to regulate

greenhouse gas emissions to address global climate

change, and it looked to the factors that this Court

laid out in Brown and Williamson. The statute as a

whole is specific legislation addressing global climate

change, and it concluded that the agency had not

authorized it to embark on that regulatory --

JUSTICE SCALIA: You concede that it's an

air pollutant that affects health?

MR. GARRE: No. The agency -- what the

agency found, Your Honor, was that because global

climate change is not air pollution within the meaning

of the statute -- which is to say that Congress did not

authorize it to regulate it as air pollution.

JUSTICE SCALIA: Then why isn't it air

pollution within the meaning of the statute, although

whatever it is that causes acid rain is?

MR. GARRE: I think, Your Honor, that the

key to the agency was that Congress did not give it

regulatory authority over this. And I think on the

question of whether or not greenhouse gas emissions

qualify --

JUSTICE SCALIA: But you can't give me any

text in this statute itself. It isn't the phrase "air

pollution" or any other phrase?

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MR. GARRE: The agency pointed to the term

"air pollution agent" in the statute, and concluded that

because global climate change was not air pollution that

Congress intended to address --

JUSTICE SCALIA: And that gets us back to

acid rain.

MR. GARRE: And with respect to acid rain,

it's a good example insofar as Congress has enacted a

whole separate title of the Clean Air Act to address

acid rain.

The other thing I want to mention on the

interpretive question is, in the Brown and Williamson

case, this Court assumed at the outset of its analysis

that nicotine would be within the general terms of the

definition of drug in the Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act,

and that cigarettes would fall within the general term

of drug --

JUSTICE SCALIA: So that's the position

you're taking, that it is within the general term?

MR. GARRE: I think it's largely the

position that the agency took, Your Honor, insofar as it

reasoned that, look, we've looked at everything. We

conclude that Congress doesn't intend us to regulate

global climate change as air pollution. And so

therefore, we're not going to say that greenhouse gases

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are air pollution agents.

JUSTICE GINSBURG: Which is why there's a

significant difference between the agency saying that

for 60 years, and I think this Court stressed that in

its opinion, and Congress reacting to that, what the

agency's position was. And here where it's a newly

minted position, because the agency's position not too

long ago was that they did have the authority.

MR. GARRE: Well, Justice Ginsburg, it was

30 years before the agency reached the conclusion in

1998 that carbon dioxide was an air pollutant. And

again, even when it reached that conclusion, it made

clear that it didn't think that the agency would

exercise its authority to regulate it.

JUSTICE GINSBURG: That's a different

question. I'm just focusing on, did it have authority

to deal with this issue?

MR. GARRE: And I think -- I mean, I grant

you that there are differences between Brown and

Williamson and this case, but the fundamental conclusion

that the agency reached is the same. Which was, to

borrow the phrase from the Whitman case, Congress did

not intend to hide elephants in mouse holes. Here we

are talking about an issue of the magnitude of

regulating global climate change and greenhouse gas

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emissions, which are fundamentally an important part of

the nation's economy. Nearly 85 percent of the economy

is a direct or indirect source of greenhouse gas

emissions.

And when we look at when Congress did

mention carbon dioxide in the statute, which is in the

1990 amendments, Section 103(g), that was the first time

that Congress mentioned CO2. And when it did that, it

went out of its way to say that it was giving

non-regulatory authority to the agency, and moreover,

that nothing in this section shall provide any basis for

any air pollution control requirements. That's a

strange thing for Congress to say if it believed that

the agency already had this far-reaching authority to

regulate greenhouse gas emissions.

There are other aspects of the statute that

we think lead to the same conclusion in Brown &

Williamson. There's a fundamental inconsistency, the

agency concluded, between attempting to regulate

greenhouse gas emissions under the national air ambient

quality system, and that inconsistency is similar to the

inconsistency that the Court pointed out in the Brown

and Williamson case.

JUSTICE BREYER: I'd like you to address

that. You said there was a lot of legislation in

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Congress that would have been pretty inconsistent with

serious regulation by the FDA. And in this case, I

don't think Congress is opposing the notion. I don't

know anybody there who's in favor of global warming.

And it seems to me they haven't passed laws that is

actually, that would be significantly interfered with by

the EPA trying to do its best to deal with this problem.

Or am I wrong?

MR. GARRE: I think you're wrong in the

following respect, Your Honor.

JUSTICE BREYER: What articles would be --

MR. GARRE: Congress has passed at least six

separate statutes to specifically address the issue of

global warming, and all of them share two common

features. One, we want you to research this issue and

learn more about it. And two, we want you to work on an

international framework for addressing global climate

change. The agency reasonably concluded that unilateral

U.S. regulation of greenhouse gases --

JUSTICE BREYER: Is there anything in the

statute that prevents them from consulting with other

nations or prevents the government from doing that when

they determine how best to work out whatever standards

or other forms of regulation they want?

MR. GARRE: There's nothing in the Clean Air

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Act, if that's the stature you're referring to, but I --

JUSTICE SCALIA: I presume the problem that

they have in mind is that we have nothing to give in

international negotiations. If we have done everything

we can to reduce CO2, you know, what deal do we make

with foreign nations? What incentive do they have to go

along with us?

MR. GARRE: That's right, Your Honor. We've

got a unique collective action problem, and yet, the

reaction experience of the agency in dealing with the

issue of stratospheric ozone depletion rate had

precisely that situation, where the U.S. initially took

steps. The stratospheric ozone depletion worsened, and

it was only after international agreement was reached in

the Montreal Protocol that a global solution to the

problem was reached.

JUSTICE BREYER: Do you think they have a

good reason, yes or no? Because I'm not an expert in

foreign affairs. The EPA probably is more than I am.

But do you think that if they do rest their decision on

their analysis of foreign affairs, that that is a proper

basis for an agency like the EPA to refuse to regulate?

MR. GARRE: I think it's a proper basis

within its inherent discretion, Your Honor, for at least

two reasons. One, the agency is a part of the executive

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branch and it had unique experience with the issue of

stratospheric ozone depletion. And two, Congress has

made clear, for example in the Global Climate Protection

Act of 1987, that the EPA has a role in at least

reporting to Congress on international cooperation and

efforts in that realm.

JUSTICE SOUTER: But Congress has not

directed, don't regulate domestically for purposes of

global warming.

MR. GARRE: That's true, Your Honor, but --

JUSTICE SOUTER: The problem that I have

with your reference to this very -- these various pieces

of legislation that suggest that Congress has a

different modus operandi in mind is that Congress

certainly is aware that EPA has authority over

pollutants, and it has never interfered with it.

MR. GARRE: Well, Your Honor, again, I think

in looking at all the sources the agency looked to, the

conclusion is, that the agency responsibly and prudently

reached, is that Congress has not authorized it to

embark on this regulatory endeavor. And I think the

closest statute that comes to --

JUSTICE SOUTER: But isn't that a

misstatement? Isn't the conclusion that they're trying

to draw that Congress doesn't want them to exercise the

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authority they have for this purpose? And isn't that

something quite different? And doesn't that raise the

question whether that is a legitimate concern for them

under the statute that does give them the authority?

MR. GARRE: May I answer the question? No,

Your Honor. I think the agency's conclusion was

Congress had not authorized it to undertake the

regulation of greenhouse gas emissions to address global

climate change and that, even if it had, that authority

should not be exercised.

Thank you very much.

CHIEF JUSTICE ROBERTS: Thank you,

Mr. Garre.

Mr. Milkey, you have 3 minutes remaining.

REBUTTAL ARGUMENT OF JAMES R. MILKEY

ON BEHALF OF THE PETITIONERS

JUSTICE SCALIA: Mr. Milkey, do you want us

to send this case back to the EPA to ask them whether if

only the last two pages of their opinion were given as a

reason that would suffice? Would that make you happy?

MR. MILKEY: It would not make us happy,

Your Honor.

JUSTICE SCALIA: I didn't think so.

(Laughter.)

MR. MILKEY: Your Honor, if I can address

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the global aspect of the problem, the fact that the

solution to the whole problem --

JUSTICE BREYER: What is your answer to

Justice Scalia? Because I thought you said before that

you thought it was appropriate for us to send this case

back so that they could redetermine in light of proper

considerations whether they wanted to exercise their

authority.

MR. MILKEY: That is exactly --

JUSTICE BREYER: Am I wrong about that?

MR. MILKEY: Your Honor, that is exactly

what we want. I understood Justice Scalia to be saying

JUSTICE SCALIA: That's what I was asking,

yes. And you think it will go back to them and they

will say, oh my goodness, the scientific uncertainty is

not enough by itself? You really expect that to happen?

MR. MILKEY: Respectfully, Your Honor, I

think EPA will have a hard time saying that there is

insufficient -- I mean, too much scientific uncertainty.

The very sentence --

JUSTICE SCALIA: They said it already.

MR. MILKEY: No, Your Honor.

JUSTICE SCALIA: The only question is

whether that alone is enough.

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MR. MILKEY: Respectfully, Your Honor, they

did not say that. They did not anywhere say why the

existing uncertainty mattered. To the contrary, they

emphasized the need to act in the face of current

uncertainty, but never explained why that principle

applies to a nonregulatory approach but not to a

regulatory one.

CHIEF JUSTICE ROBERTS: What they said was

until more is understood about causes, extent and

significance of climate change and the potential options

for addressing it, we believe it's inappropriate to

regulate these emissions.

MR. MILKEY: Your Honor.

CHIEF JUSTICE ROBERTS: That strikes me as

saying they think there is too much uncertainty for them

to act.

MR. MILKEY: Your Honor, they did not say

there is too much uncertainty for them to form a

judgment, which is the key issue. They said they

preferred more certainty, but because of the nature of

the endangerment standard, which emphasizes the

important of regulating in the face of uncertainty, they

have to at least explain why the uncertainty matters.

And that is -- what they did here is particularly

troubling in the fact that they ignored all of the

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indications pointing toward endangerment. They looked

at what we don't know without ever looking at what we do

know.

JUSTICE ALITO: If the EPA concludes that

regulating an air pollutant would endanger public health

and welfare, can it decline to regulate?

MR. MILKEY: Not under section 202, Your

Honor.

JUSTICE ALITO: It has to regulate even if

it concludes that regulation would make things worse?

MR. MILKEY: Would make things worse?

JUSTICE ALITO: Yes.

MR. MILKEY: I'm sorry, I didn't understand

that.

No.

MR. MILKEY: No, Your Honor. If they

thought there would be more endangerment that way they

would not have to regulate.

JUSTICE ALITO: Then why can't they -- what

is wrong with their view that for the United States to

proceed unilaterally would make things worse and

therefore they're going to decline to regular for that

reason?

MR. MILKEY: Your Honor, first of all, I

don't believe they actually said that, and there is

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nothing in the statute that even hints that they can

take foreign policy considerations into account. To the

contrary, the statute is very specific in other sections

about when they're supposed to look at foreign emissions

JUSTICE ALITO: Isn't the definition of

public welfare extremely broad?

MR. MILKEY: Your Honor, it is certainly

extremely broad, and it does include climate.

Thank you, Your Honor.

CHIEF JUSTICE ROBERTS: Thank you, counsel.

The case is submitted.

(Whereupon, at 11:02 a.m., the case in the

above-entitled matter was submitted.)

56





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14:5 15:8,1715:19

proposition 30:19 32:23

Protection 1:7

3:5 51:3Protocol 50:15provide 20:18

25:17 34:1648:11

provided 15:526:22 42:6

provides 17:4,19providing 24:20provision 8:9

13:24

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18:11 55:556:7

purported 30:3purpose 52:1purposes 51:8put 9:11 18:16

22:9 31:6 40:942:16

putting 37:2

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11:1 14:815:14 26:1530:24,25 31:1036:4,5 41:1642:2,11,1644:6 45:1,2146:12 47:16

52:3,5 53:24questioning

41:7questions 24:25

44:13quickly 3:11

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44:19,21 45:1746:6,7,10

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42:19,21real 8:21 41:18really 15:24

16:9 35:742:11 53:17

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23:13,14 25:1827:6 28:1,1332:10 34:2135:14,23 36:2550:18 52:2055:23

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37:10,20 43:6reasonably

18:11 49:18reasoned 46:22reasons 27:21

28:6,6,13 42:650:25

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REBUTTAL 2:8 52:15

recognized 15:7record 7:1 10:21

11:20

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reduce 7:8 12:1012:19,21 21:836:7,8,17,18

50:5reduced 6:23

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reference 41:1751:12

referred 16:918:2

referring 29:1750:1

refusal 7:25refuse 50:22regard 19:8regardless 12:11

18:20regular 20:21

55:22regularly 6:19regulate 7:18

9:16 16:2519:25 26:1032:4 38:11

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37:6 38:6,2143:22 49:2,1949:24 52:855:10

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52:14remediable 6:21reply 31:25report 29:10,13

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reserve 25:1resources 20:6

20:11,15,22respect 7:15

12:14 19:1321:20 26:827:13 29:734:2 40:2541:12 46:749:10

respectfully 22:24 23:1653:18 54:1

Respondents 1:20 2:7 25:6

response 27:2244:22

responsibilities 15:2

responsibility 16:22

responsibly 51:19

rest 4:2 35:14,1635:17 37:3

50:20restricted 17:21result 28:20,25

35:11results 8:22review 42:2,4reviewable 3:16Ridge 16:7





right 6:5,7,1411:12 12:520:4 27:2131:10 40:5,6,740:10 41:2

43:15 44:1450:8

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13:9rises 13:6rising 10:17risk 32:24road 7:9 31:6roads 7:7ROBERTS 3:3

7:22 8:11 9:1410:1,7 12:3,1213:16,23 14:118:7,22 19:721:4,16 25:231:9 40:2,2244:5,10 52:1254:8,14 56:11

role 42:8 51:4room 19:4 20:19

22:15rulemaking 4:7

7:17ruling 4:2 5:24running 27:17

S s 2:1 3:1 42:11satisfies 24:8satisfy 12:22save 11:24 13:1saved 38:16saying 17:4 21:9

23:24 24:128:20 33:6,933:12,16,1734:24 39:2,2239:25 40:8,1240:14 47:353:12,19 54:15

says 20:15 27:10

30:21 38:25scale 8:20Scalia 4:20 5:3

5:13,22 6:3,116:20 7:4,6

12:23 14:1715:22 17:6,1222:12 23:1,423:10,20 34:734:11 44:1745:8,15,2346:5,18 50:252:17,23 53:453:12,14,22,24

scheme 3:24science 4:5 38:4

Sciences 29:24scientific 21:6

21:13,17,1925:15 28:729:8 30:1253:16,20

scientist 13:323:2

scientists 29:1331:25

scrap 16:1sea 4:25 39:19

39:19seas 4:16,16

10:17secondly 40:17section 3:25

7:19 17:1918:3 19:2441:16 43:4,1148:7,11 55:7

sections 56:3seeing 21:14

selective 30:1send 27:20

52:18 53:5sense 3:24 8:7

9:23 14:516:16 24:8,1626:1 36:15

sentence 53:21

sentences 19:21separate 44:1

46:9 49:13sequester 38:12serious 19:9

49:2seriously 41:2seriousness

19:20set 4:5seven 5:17 38:23

38:24share 49:14shines 18:19short 17:11show 4:22 8:12

9:3,5,23 10:2111:2 31:1632:20 33:335:6 36:3,6,1236:22,24 37:537:9,11

showed 4:10 9:931:1

showing 14:437:13,14

shown 4:25 6:259:22 10:1511:9,19 15:1934:15 35:2

shows 37:4side 29:19significance

54:10significant 10:6

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11:8simple 32:10

37:16simply 4:6 9:4

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situation 50:12six 31:4 49:12sizeable 11:6slope 13:8small 8:20 10:12

11:17,22,2413:6 14:1715:13,15 32:15

smaller 32:24Solicitor 1:18

44:18solution 50:15

53:2somewhat 14:2sooner 19:9sorry 55:13

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17:5 48:3sources 5:25

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sovereign 10:1613:13 14:615:7

sovereignty 16:25

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specifically 39:24 40:2049:13

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standards 4:618:9 29:2549:23

standing 3:114:10,20 6:5,126:13 8:15 9:2,39:24 10:8,913:17,20 14:1114:12,19,24

15:5,18,21,2516:10 17:5,717:10 30:2431:17 32:4,833:3,19 34:1539:11,22 40:340:16,21 41:541:8

start 38:12starts 9:15state 13:11

14:12,21 15:717:8,9,15

statement 8:2421:12

states 1:1,135:19 10:1611:12 14:416:20,25 33:2537:1 55:20

stature 50:1status 21:17,19

21:19

statute 4:1118:25 21:322:9 23:7 40:940:10 41:1642:16,20,2243:18 44:7,945:4,13,16,2446:2 48:6,16





49:21 51:2252:4 56:1,3

statutes 49:13statutory 3:13

4:2 18:13 27:4

stay 5:11stayed 7:20step 42:7steps 50:13Stevens 29:12

30:1,18 41:641:15,24 42:1042:19 43:1244:6,13

stop 36:6,16,16straight 12:24

13:5straightforward

15:21strange 48:13stratosphere

22:22,25stratospheric

16:12 22:1850:11,13 51:2

street 31:22stressed 47:4strikes 9:18

54:14strongest 13:17

14:9students 16:5,6

16:20studies 21:7

25:16 38:5stuff 19:11subject 4:19submitted 56:12

56:14

subsequent 25:22

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3:22 17:2424:9,10

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suddenly 5:6sue 40:11suffering 10:23suffice 52:20sufficient 13:22

29:2 35:2suggest 38:5

40:19 51:13suggested 24:17suggestion

35:21 37:15suit 9:22 13:24

34:2sulfur 24:3support 13:17suppose 14:10

15:14 20:1231:20,21,2135:10,23 37:1037:21 38:10,11

supposed 56:4Supreme 1:1,13

15:6sure 15:22 22:14surprised 13:3surrounding

25:15 28:830:6,12,13,14

system 48:21

T T 2:1,1take 5:11 6:15

6:17 16:15,1726:14 27:1529:9 30:10,1732:23 41:842:7 56:2

taken 28:18

takes 11:21talked 9:15talking 6:4

16:10 27:531:7 35:9,2040:13 47:24

talks 23:20taxpayer 10:8,9

technical 21:7technology 9:16

9:17tell 23:5 33:20temperatures

4:15Tennessee 15:10term 24:12,17

24:20 46:1,1646:19

terms 8:18 11:815:5 46:14

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test 4:2 24:16,18text 42:20 45:24

Thank 5:22 25:225:7 52:11,1256:10,11

thing 23:22 30:535:19 37:1338:2 39:346:11 48:13

things 20:1127:15 38:15,2238:24 40:1555:10,11,21

think 7:8 8:6 9:814:4,24 15:1615:20,22 20:1020:19 23:1225:25 26:1,1326:24 27:6,2328:5,11,1229:1,3,20 30:430:7,9,2331:15,24 32:932:22 34:7,1435:7,18,21

36:19 37:2539:5 42:1,4,1542:16 43:1,543:15 44:7,2445:18,20 46:2047:4,13,1848:17 49:3,950:17,20,23

51:17,21 52:652:23 53:15,1954:15

third 19:21thought 4:20

16:24 17:222:17 42:2244:10 53:4,555:17

thousand 32:3thousands 13:13threat 10:22threats 19:9three 27:14

28:17threshold 15:19

44:15time 5:8,11

11:21 20:1322:1,9 23:2125:1,14 26:526:12 35:2238:23 48:753:19

tiny 37:1,6title 46:9today 3:4 21:21

39:13told 23:2total 5:18 11:10

11:11toto 31:2traceability 11:1

11:2 32:21traceable 10:23traditional 15:8transported

16:3tried 37:12

39:20,21troposphere

22:25 23:1,23troubling 54:25truck 32:17true 13:8 21:12

26:9,24 31:1534:13 39:12,13

41:11,12 51:10truth 23:5trying 36:21

39:3 49:751:24

turn 3:11 4:96:19 11:2117:18 41:16

turned 7:17turns 3:13 39:4Twenty 27:3two 3:15 12:25

19:21 21:2127:8 35:22,2436:9 37:17,1839:24 40:15

49:14,16 50:2551:2 52:19

two-and-a-half 11:20 12:2513:1

type 41:13types 17:21

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9:8uncertain 30:8uncertainties

25:17uncertainty

21:8,13,22,2522:2,4,7 25:1528:8 29:8,1530:3,6,12,1853:16,20 54:354:5,15,18,2254:23

uncontested 4:12 9:9 14:25understand 6:11

6:20 17:6 41:642:11 44:555:13

understandable 21:14





understood 18:553:12 54:9

undertake 52:7unequivocally

30:23

unilateral 49:18unilaterally

55:21unique 50:9

51:1United 1:1,13

5:19 11:1233:25 37:155:20

unreasonable 36:2 38:17,17

44:3unreasonably

43:24use 30:24Utah 43:21U.S 5:25 11:5

12:18 31:649:19 50:12

V v 1:5variability

30:14variety 4:10various 51:12vehicle 6:19

20:1vehicles 7:13

11:11 17:2018:24 21:1824:10 31:634:1,3 43:23

versus 3:4 15:10

15:11 39:8,943:21

visit 4:6

W Walsh 34:6want 4:6 10:24

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wanted 53:7wants 27:16warming 5:15

8:25 9:3 21:20

22:23 23:5,2323:25 30:2036:7,8,15,1636:18 49:4,1451:9

washed 24:5Washington 1:9

1:19 16:7wasn't 13:24

29:15waste 16:3waters 4:15way 26:16 29:5

37:15 44:2548:9 55:17

Wednesday 1:10

welfare 3:19,2355:6 56:7

went 20:5 48:9weren't 19:25West 15:3we'll 3:3 38:24

we're 4:19 6:410:20 11:23

we've 46:22 50:8whatsoever 38:7

42:6Whitman 47:22wide 4:10

widely 10:12Wilderness

43:22Wildlife 39:9

40:19Williamson

41:14 44:1145:4 46:1247:20 48:18,23

win 8:17,17words 7:24 23:6

28:16 40:9work 49:16,23worked 29:13works 13:2world 4:17 8:21

35:14,17 37:3worldwide

34:18worse 5:2 15:1

55:10,11,21worsened 50:13wouldn't 6:16

25:23 26:428:21,22

write 28:15,1628:16,24

wrong 36:1044:22 49:8,953:10 55:20

X x 1:2,8 26:21

Y

year 5:7 7:4

zero 31:7

0 05-1120 1:5 3:4

1

1 10:2,5 32:2,2,232:3

10 10:20 27:431:12

10,000 32:310:02 1:14 3:2103(g) 18:3 48:711:02 56:131202 3:2515 31:12 38:1518 43:819 43:81907 15:91987 51:41990 48:71998 26:9 47:111999 26:9

2 2 13:820 6:1 11:4,7200 10:16 15:6

15:202006 1:10201 41:16202 55:7202(a)(1) 17:19

18:92020 13:14203 43:112100 5:722 27:3239 34:5

25 2:729 1:10

4 40 7:1,9

5 5 10:20

50 13:10 32:252 2:10

6 6 5:20,22 6:15

6:22 11:5,6,1032:16 34:11,1735:20,20,2237:19 38:18

60 47:4

7 7 32:16

8 85 48:2

9 95 37:299 37:2

us supreme court: 05-1120

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