URBANIZATION AND URBAN ENVIRONMENT QUALITY IN JAKARTA1

Hafid Setiadi2 and Rudy P. Tambunan3

Department of Geography Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Science

University of Indonesia Since 1970’s, Jakarta has changing dramatically in terms of its population size. Then, the physical structure of Jakarta is undergoing great evolution from concentric to multiple nucleus model under an unplanned development with many fringe areas being invaded by urban activities. This paper attempts an evaluation of the rapid urbanization and its impact to the quality of urban environment in Jakarta. Special focus has been put on the spatial pattern of land use changes in the fourteen catchment areas (DAS) for the last 30 years. The result shows that the environmental quality of Jakarta has declined severely which is indicated by the drop-off of the proportion of both wetland and green areas from beyond 80% in 1970 compared to 30% in 2000. The greatest declining has found on three areas with the average rate of land conversion is 2,97% per annum. They are DAS Buaran and DAS Cakung in the east of Jakarta and DAS Sekretaris in the west. However, there are vary different in the spatial pattern of urban penetration. Commercial activities have pressured in the central of Jakarta, residential activities in both southern and western parts, while industrial activities in the northern part. Key words : urbanization, urban environment, land use changes, the quality of cacthment area

1. Introduction Jakarta is located in the coastal lowland ecosystem that has specific characteristics, such as existence of submerged land, wetland, meander, flood plain, oxbow lake, retention basin, and delta. Those natural landscape forms resulted from some endogenic and exogenic forces through a very long time period (thousand years). Based on the Topographical Map, scale 1:50.000, published on 1901, it was acknowledged that until 1900 the physical environment of Jakarta was dominated by natural landscape. At that time, the total proportion of wetland and green area was more than 65% while the total built up area was only 3.42%. Jakarta has some benefits due to its morphological characteristics. The city is situated in spacious land which make it possible to grow spreadly. Many rivers which flow throughout Jakarta lowland enable people who live there to fill their basic need for water and transportation. On the other hand, because of the rivers, Jakarta also face some crucial problems such as the big flood. This phenomenon had been hindered the initial Jakarta’s physical development until the Dutch Colonial government adjusted the urban physical development in the form of topographical environment. However, unplanned metropolitan growth was an urban phenomenon already observed in Dutch colonial times until the mid 1940s (Spreitzhofer, 2003). Today, Jakarta is known as the biggest urban agglomeration in South East Asian. At global scale, Jakarta is regarded to be the world's eleventh largest city or one of twenty-one in the world (Hogan and Houston, 2002). That agglomeration processes is incorporated with the rapidly growing urban population concentrated on only two provinces of West Java and Jakarta in the mid-1980’s (Hugo et al, 1987). Since that time, some development policies and program has conducted control the population pressure in Jakarta region. One of them is Jakarta’s Master Plan 1965-1985 that has an explicit goal of the new approach to prevent further uncontrolled suburbanization. It is very important

1 Presented on 1st Joint Seminar UI-UKM, “Current Research in Natural and Mathematical Sciences: Collaboration Opportunities at UI and UKM, Depok 19-20th June 2007 2 Lecturer and Coordinator of Regional Development Research Group, Departement of Geography University of Indonesia 3 Head of Postgraduate Program on Urban Studies, University of Indonesia

because there many evidences that shows a strong relationship between urbanization and environmental degradation, especially in developing countries.

2. Methodology Outline of the theoretical thought is supported by some research statements, such as Hoeh David C. (1984), reminded the urban ecosystem planner to consider the principal of the natural system capacity in supporting settlement activities and the impact of natural capacity limitation toward disturbances caused by human interference. Those principals are further developed as a critical and “fragile” zone concepts. Another perspective presented by I Made Sandy described an available land and unavailable land concepts in land use planning. Then, Northam (1975) mentioned about the implication of “a leap frog” urban physical development process. Meanwhile, Douglas (1981) mentioned that the city is a cultural landscape developed on its natural landscape for a short time that caused certain changes on material and energy flows. For those reasons, the urban planners should to readjust the urban cultural landscape according to its nature. Roestam (1996) in his article about the strategic policy analysis through integrated management approaches described the existence of the natural balance law, the flood primary caused factor, and the basic concept of river management.

One of main assumptions in this study is land use transformation from rural land into urban land (built-up area) will affect stream pattern of surface run-off. In order to get a better understanding about the spatial pattern of land use transformation, this study use spatial-temporal approach based on land use data in 1970, 1980, 1990 and 2000. Land use graphic data processing is processed through the Geographical Information System (GIS), ArcView, and ArcInfo Softwares. Methods of analysis used in this study are the cross-tab and superimposed analysis. 3. Results and Discussions

Since 1970’s, Jakarta has changing dramatically in terms of its population size. In 1975, population density at the core city was about 263 people per hectare, while in the fringe areas were only about 40 people per hectare. Entering to 1980’s, many people moved out from the inner-city areas to the fringe areas which raised the average population density in the southern suburbans from 72 to 190 people per hectare. On the other hand, the population in the core started to decline steadily. While there was a negative growth at the core city, the western and the eastern suburban regions faced an increasing population boom in the period 1990-2000. In these regions, the population density raised rapidly from 105 to 151 people per hectare (the western) and from 88 to 129 people per hectare (the eastern). There were several focal points with spectacular population annual growth (see Map 1). They are

Kalideres (5,87% per annum), Ciracas (4,68% p.a), Jagakarsa (4,16% p.a), Kelapa Gading (3,76% p.a), Cakung (3,54% p.a), Cilincing (3,35% p.a), Cipayung (2,93% p.a), Kembangan (2,74% p.a),

Kalideres (5.87%)

Ciracas (4.68%)

Jagakarsa (4.16%)

Kelapa Gading (3.76%)

Cipayung (2.93%)

Cilincing (3.35%)

Cakung (3.54%)

Pasar Rebo (2.48%)

Kembangan (2.74%)

Duren Sawit (1.88%)

Pesanggrahan (1.83%)

Mampang Parapatan (1.00%)

Map 1. The centers of Population Growth 1990-2000 in Jakarta

Pasar Rebo (2,48% p.a), Duren Sawit (1,88% p.a), Pesanggrahan (1,83% p.a), and Mampang Prapatan (1,00% p.a). Due to the population changes in more than 30 years, the physical structure of Jakarta has transformed from concentric to multiple nucleus model. Many agrarian land in fringe areas being invaded by urban housing and industrial units. Regarding to Mc Gee (1995), this structural transformation is regarded as a characteristic feature of Southeast Asia's mega-urbanization. Undoubtedly, the increasing urban landuse resulted in massive building activities provides a negative impact on environment quality. Based on the insight of the interaction between physical development and environment, this paper attempts an evaluation of the rapid urbanization and its impact to the quality of urban environment in Jakarta. Special focus has been put on the spatial pattern of land use changes in catchment areas for the last 30 years. In the lowland of Jakarta, there are fourteen catchament areas which spreads at more than 148.000 hectares (see Table 1). The biggest is Ci Liwung with 38.715 hectares (26%) followed by Angke with 27.338 hectares. Whereas, the smallest one is Jatikramat with only 1.784 hectares. Tambunan (2006) showed that the headwaters of almost all rivers which flow through Jakarta are situated at several locations in plane topographic region such as Pejaten, Cilangkap, Ragunan, Jatiwaringin, Bintaro, Cinere, dan Cimanggis. This region is built in such a morphology unit that known as “Jakarta alluvial fan”. Some of rivers which set up in this region are Ci Pinang, Kali Mampang, Kali Cakung, Kali Buaran, dan Kali Sunter. The upper course of another rivers such as Kali Pesanggrahan and Kali Krukut are founded in the southern of rough topographic region. While, the biggest river of Ci Liwung , berhulu di wilayah perbukitan Bogor. In the lowland, all of those rivers develop some specific natural landscape such as flood plains, coastal swamps, and water bodies which are regarded as a group as “wetland area”. Together with green area which consist of urban forest and agrarian land, the wetland area plays an impotant role in river system management epsecially in terms of surface run-off scheming. In line with that, the changing of both wetland area and green area can be used as an indicator for understanding and explaining environmental quality of catchment area. Regarding to historical data, in the period of 1970-2000, it can be said that the quality of cathment area in Jakarta is declined drastically. In 2000, the total proportion of wetland and green land has dropped off until below of 30% compared to 80% in 1970 (see Diagram 1). The most shrinkage happened in “booming property era” of 1980’s when there was a huge expansion of housing, industrial, and commercial land development both in inner-city and fringe areas.

No Cathment Area Area (Hectars) % 1 Angke 27,338.01 18.38 2 Buaran 2,052.78 1.38 3 Cakung 3,404.76 2.29 4 Cakung Timur 10,036.90 6.75 5 Cengkareng 11,674.28 7.85 6 Ci Liwung 38,715.88 26.02 7 Ci Pinang 5,534.11 3.72 8 Grogol 4,492.71 3.02 9 Jatikramat 1,784.84 1.20 10 Krukut 11,337.48 7.62 11 Mampang 3,485.89 2.34 12 Pesanggrahan 12,182.44 8.19 13 Sekretaris 2,064.77 1.39 14 Sunter 14,672.92 9.86

Total 148,777.77 100.00 Table 1. List of cathment area in Jakarta

Based on Diagram 2, the most decline of cathment area quality was founded in three areas, they are Buaran, Cakung, dan Sekretaris. The cathment area of Buaran and Cakung are situated in the eastern of Jakarta. Their upper courses is located at Jatiwaringin then flows throughout upper middle class residential areas in Duren Sawit and Kelapa Gading and go to the north entering an industrial park in Cakung. Even as, Sekretaris begins from Bintaro in the south-west Jakarta and streams to high class residential and commercial areas in Kebayoran Lama, Kelapa Dua, Kebun Jeruk and Tanjung Duren. The above description provides a good confirmation that housing, industrial, and commercial sprawling to the western and eastern Jakarta give a significant contribution to depletion of cathment areas. In addition, Diagram 3 provides a more detailed explanation. For 30 years, Cakung has got the biggest pressure in terms of urbanization that caused mainly by industrial expansion. Actually, based on its morphologic features, this area can be classifed as a flood plain which very suitable for paddy field and water retention. But, in 1970’s, industrial agglomeration was developed in the north side of this area especially at several location close to the main road of Jalan Bekasi Raya. In line with government policy in attracking foreign investements, industrial penetration worked more intensive and occupied the former wetland. Just in 10 years (1970-1980), the proportion of industrial land has fourfould from 6% to almost 24%. Then, in past two decades, industrial land has taken up more than 46% area. Beside industrial expansion, housing development also contributed a big pressure on environment quality in Cakung. In the same period, the residential land has increased extremely from 6% 1970 compared to beyond of 38% in 2000. As a result, the total proportion of wetland dan green area has severely decreased from 90% (1970) to only 12% (2000) with average of land conversion rate was 2,9% per annum. Different with Cakung, the declining of environment quality in Buaran was caused by a massive developmemt of housing that mainly situated in upper and middle courses of cathment area. Nowadays, there are many middle-high residential areas such as in Pondok Gede, Jatiwaringan, Pondok Kelapa, Pondok Bambu, Duren Sawit, and Klender. Initally, almost of them were developed in 1980 either by public or private developer. A massive housing development was also found in Pejaten, Ragunan, and Kemang close to the upstream of Kali Mampang (see Map 2). For past three decades, the average rate of land conversion in both areas was very high. They were 2,8% per annum in Buaran and 2,6% per annum in Mampang. And how about the impact of urban commercial expansion to the environmental quality? In the same period, in comparison to the housing and industrial expansion, commercial land develpoment provided more little contribution to the environmental depletion of cathment areas in Jakarta. The cathment area which received the biggest pressure by commercial development was Krukut. The prime bussiness and commercial area of Jakarta as known as “Golden Triangle” (Sudirman-Thamrin-Kuningan) is located in this area. The rapid development of commercial land in this area has appeared

Diagram 1. Land use change in Jakarta 1970 -2000 Diagram 2. Wetland and green land degradation

since 1970’s and run more progresive till up now. Entering to 1990’s, Ci Liwung, Grogol, and Sekretaris also initally taken a big pressure of commercial development. However, Sekretaris experienced the highest rate of land conversion (3,2% per annum), while Krukut, Grogol, and Ci Liwung experienced land conversion rate respectively as 2,4%, 2,1%, dan 1,4% per annum.

4. Conclusion The greatest declining has found on three areas with the average rate of land conversion is 2,97% per annum. They are DAS Buaran and DAS Cakung in the east of Jakarta and DAS Sekretaris in the west. However, there are vary different in the spatial pattern of urban penetration. Commercial activities have pressured environmental quality in the central of Jakarta, residential activities in both southern and western parts, while industrial activities in the northern part.

Housing pressures

Housing pressures

Commercial pressures

Industrial pressures

Map 2. Spatial variation of urban pressures in Jakarta

1970

1990 2000

1980

Diagram 3. Land use transformation in cathment area

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