urbanization and global environmental change and its...

Paper Number: 99 May 2010

Urbanization and Global Environmental Change (UGEC)

in Hong Kong: Preliminary Survey and Implications for Mainland China

Li Yangfan

Nanjing University Yangfan Li is a Ph.D. and Lecturer at the School of the Environment, Nanjing University, China, where he works on urban ecosystem and environmental policy with a topical focus on urbanization and global environmental change. He was a visiting scholar at LEWI from Jan.6 to Feb. 4, 2010. The authors welcome comments from readers. Contact details: E-mail: [email protected]

David C. Lam Institute for East-West Studies (LEWI) Hong Kong Baptist University (HKBU)

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LEWI Working Paper Series

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Urbanization and Global Environmental Change (UGEC) in Hong Kong: Preliminary Survey and Implications for Mainland China

Li Yangfan

Nanjing University Abstract

How to conserve non built-up landscapes (wetlands, country park woodlands and etc.) and realize urban-regional sustainability is a challenge with the rapid urbanization of Hong Kong and China’s coastal areas. A survey of Hong Kong will be helpful in understanding future trends and the concentration of urbanization, socio-economic drivers, key environmental changes and their effects, in particular vulnerability to increased Global Environmental Change (GEC) in urban areas. On the basis of field environmental and geographical survey, the paper attempts to identify some critical issues, e.g. sea reclamation, wetlands conservation and harmonious urbanization, presents a framework for public-oriented governance, showing that advancing eco-governance of public participation, public transport and public green space across local and regional levels of government and relevant stakeholders are crucial to formulate ecological, low-carbon and green policies towards harmonious urbanization. Keywords: urbanization, environmental change, reclamation, wetland, public participation 1 Introduction

Urban areas are hot spots that drive environmental change at multiple scales. Just

as land change occurs as cities are built and must support the demands of urban

populations, cities also drive other types of environmental change (Grimm et al. 2008).

The irreversible transition to urbanization has, since 2008, led to more than half of the

world’s population (approximately 3.3 billion people) living in urban areas; it is

projected that 60% of the population will be living in urban areas by 2030 (Fig.1) (UN,

2007; Sanchez-Rodriguez et al. 2008). Furthermore, 90% of the world’s future

population is expected to be occupying in urban areas, mainly in developing countries.


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Fig.1 Urban, rural and total population in the world (United Nations, 2007)

Within global environmental change (GEC) research, cities are now considered

to be important sites of origin for numerous environmental issues including the

greenhouse effect, air and water pollution (Li et al. 2008). In this context, urban

development policies and strategies should not only take the positive effects of

urbanization into consideration, but also the potential and ability of mitigating the

negative impact of environment change on cities (Fig.2).

Fig.2 Urban areas: Crisis and Solutions (Seto, 2008)


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Hong Kong is a special administrative region of the People's Republic of China.

Situated on China's south coast and enclosed by the Pearl River Delta and South

China Sea, it is renowned for its expansive skyline and deep natural harbour (Wong,

2009a). With a land mass of 1,108 km2 and a population of seven million, Hong Kong

is one of the most densely populated areas in the world (Jim, 2008b). Simultaneously,

Hong Kong has 76.3% non built-up area, including grasslands, woodlands, shrublands

and wetlands (Planning Department, 2009).

The urban expansion of Hong Kong since the early days has been beset by the

shortage of easily developable land. The city thus has adopted a high-density mode of

development which extends from the core all the way to the periphery. The resulting

phenomenal concentration of buildings, roads and population has disadvantages (Jim,

2008b). Although Hong Kong is regarded as one of the world's great cities, out of the

total land, about three-quarters is non-urban. Scenically, Hong Kong has a great deal

to offer - a landscape rising from sandy beaches and rocky foreshores to heights of

almost 1,000 meters, woodlands and mountain ranges covered by open grassland and

a variety of scenic vistas is rarely, if ever, matched in so small a territorial unit.

What about UGEC in Hong Kong? How does Hong Kong resolve the

relationship between urban expansion and environmental conservation, especially in

such densely populated urban areas? What does Hong Kong’s example have to offer

in building the eco-city and low-carbon city for mainland china, and the rest of the

world? The paper would focus on three aspects: 1) sea reclamation, 2) conservation of

non built-up areas, and 3) harmonious urbanization and environmental sustainability

in future urban development.

2 Urbanization and Global Environmental Change in HK 2.1 Broad Land Usage

As much of Hong Kong's terrain is hilly to mountainous with steep slopes, less

than 25% of the territory's land mass is developed, and about 40% of the remaining


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land area is reserved as country parks and nature reserve (Table 1). Most of the

territory's urban development happens on the Kowloon Peninsula, along the northern

edge of Hong Kong Island and in scattered settlements throughout the New Territories.

Table 1 Broad Land Usage Distribution in Hong Kong (End of 2008)1

Approximate area (sq.km) Class 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Residential

Private residential (i) 25 25 25 25 25 Public residential (ii) 17 17 16 16 16 Rural settlement (iii) 35 36 34 34 34

Commercial Commercial/Business and office 3 3 3 3 4

Industrial Industrial land 7 7 7 7 7 Industrial estates 3 3 3 3 3 Warehouse and storage (iv) 15 15 14 14 15

Institution/Open Space Government, institution and community facilities 23 23 24 24 24 Open space (v) 21 22 22 23 24

Transportation Roads 38 38 39 41 41 Railways 2 3 3 3 3 Airport 13 13 13 13 13

Other Urban or Built-up Land Cemeteries and crematoriums 7 7 7 7 7 Utilities 6 6 7 7 7 Vacant development land/Construction in progress

29 26 20 19 17

Others 18 20 21 20 21 Agriculture

Agricultural land 56 55 51 51 52 Fish ponds/Gei wais 17 18 17 16 16

Woodland/Shrubland/Grassland/Wetland Woodland 268 257 245 247 241 Shrubland 214 220 228 237 238 Grassland 249 251 266 255 258 Mangrove and swamp (vi) 5 5 5 5 5

Barren Land Badland 5 5 5 5 5 Quarries 2 2 2 2 1 Rocky shore 2 2 2 2 2

Water Bodies Reservoirs 24 24 24 24 24 Streams and nullahs 3 5 5 5 5

Total 1107 1108 1108 1108 1108 Remarks: The above land usage figures as at end 2008 have been updated with satellite images dated November 2008, in-house survey information up to end 2008 and other relevant information from various Government departments.

1 Data Source: Planning Statistics, Information Services, Planning Department (HK SAR) Website, http://www.pland.gov.hk/pland_en/info_serv/statistic/landu.html

http://www.pland.gov.hk/pland_en/info_serv/statistic/landu.html�


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2.2 Sea Reclamation

In Hong Kong, the earliest reclamation dates back to the mid-1800s (Glaser et al.,

1991). Almost 6% (67.4 km2) of the current land area is reclaimed land (Fig.3). Fig.3 Sea reclamation areas in Hong Kong (grey color)2

Major areas of existing reclamation in Hong Kong include Kai Tak Runway

Extension, Plover Cove Main Dam, Sha Tin New Town, Tuen Mun New Town,

Container Terminal No. 6, Container Terminal No. 7, Tin Shui Wai, West Kowloon

Reclamation, Tsuen Kwan O, Container Terminal No. 8, Chek Lap Kok Airport,

Tung Chung New Town, Central and Wanchai Reclamation, SENT Landfill, and

North Lantau Expressway (Fig.4).

Hong Kong's new airport is located to the north of Lantau Island at Chek Lap

Kok (CLK). Covering an area of 1,248 hectares – three quarters of which have been

reclaimed, the remaining quarter comprised the land area of CLK and Lam Chau

Islands - the new airport has been branded the "largest construction site on earth"

(Fig.4). Such massive infra-structural projects entail significant environmental impact

in both the construction and operation phases, includeing noise, air quality and water

quality impacts, marine ecology and terrestrial ecology.3

2 Civil Engineering and Development Department (CEDD), Hong Kong SAR, The Geology of Hong Kong (Interactive On-line).http:/ /www.cedd.gov.hk/eng/about/ organisation/org_geo_ pln_map.htm 3 WWF (World Wide Fund for Nature Hong Kong). 1996. Environment Impacts of the New Hong

Hong Kong Island

The New Territories

Kowloon

http://www.cedd.gov.hk/eng/about/organisation/org_geo_pln_map.htm�


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Hong Kong International Airport (Photo: Yangfan Li, 2010)

The Central Reclamation Phase III (CRPIII) Project (Photo: Yangfan Li, 2010)

Penny’s bay (CEDD, 2007)4 Victoria Harbour (Photo: Yangfan Li, 2006) Fig.4 Major areas of existing reclamation in Hong Kong

The Central Reclamation Phase III (CRPIII) Project is the final phase of planned

waterfront reclamation in the Central District of Hong Kong Island. The CRIII Project

has evolved significantly since its original conception over a decade ago. In 1997,

while the Project design was nearing completion, the “Protection of the Harbour

Ordinance” was enacted. As a result, a critical review of the scope of the project was

conducted to formulate a scheme that would achieve the objectives of the Harbour

Ordinance and provide sufficient land to serve the long-term needs of Hong Kong.

The resulting scheme, referred to as the “Minimum Reclamation Option”,

significantly changed the original reclamation configuration, most notably reducing Kong Airport, Factsheet No.26. http://www.wwf.org.hk/eng/pdf/references/factsheets/factsheet26.PDF 4 CEDD. 2007. Penny’s Bay Infrastructure Development (1999-2005). http://www.cedd.gov.hk/eng/publications/pb_booklet.pdf

http://www.wwf.org.hk/eng/pdf/references/factsheets/factsheet26.PDF�

http://www.cedd.gov.hk/eng/publications/pb_booklet.pdf�


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the reclamation from 32 to 18 hectares, with the majority of the transport

infrastructure to be located underground. The Project has incorporated reclamation

methods and mitigation measures that avoid or reduce environmental impacts during

construction. In the long-term, the ultimate design will provide an unprecedented

opportunity to create a waterfront that complements Hong Kong’s famous skyline

whilst making the best use of the reclaimed land, for both strategic infrastructure and

recreational open spaces, serving the community and tourists alike (Fig.4). 5

2.3 Non Built-up Areas Conservation 2.3.1 Country Park6

To conserve and, where appropriate, open up the countryside for the greater

enjoyment of the population, the Country Parks Ordinance was enacted in 1976 to

provide a legal framework for the designation, development and management of

Country Parks and Special Areas (Fig.5). Country Parks are designated for the

purposes of nature conservation, countryside recreation and outdoor education.

Special Areas are created mainly for the purpose of nature conservation.

The country parks and special areas cover a total area of 433.94 km² (Table 2).

The country parks comprise scenic hills, woodlands, reservoirs and the coastline in all

parts of Hong Kong. The parks include Tai Mo Shan, Pat Sin Leng mountain range,

Ma On Shan, Lion Rock, Sai Kung Peninsula, forest plantations at Shing Mun and Tai

Lam, Shek Lei Pui Reservoir group and Lantau Island. Several islands such as Ping

Chau in Mirs Bay are included, and Hong Kong Island itself has five Country Parks.

5 CEDD. 2010. Central Reclamation Phase III. http://www.criii-cedd.com/index.htm 6 Provided by Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Department (AFCD), Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region.

http://www.criii-cedd.com/index.htm�


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Fig.5 Country parks and special areas distribution in Hong Kong Table 2 Country Parks in Hong Kong Country Park Date of Designation Area in Hectares

1 Shing Mun 城門 24.6.1977 1400

2 Kam Shan 金山 24.6.1977 337

3 Lion Rock 獅子山 24.6.1977 557

4 Aberdeen 香港仔 28.10.1977 423

5 Tai Tam 大潭 28.10.1977 1315

6 Sai Kung East 西貢東 3.2.1978 4477

7 Sai Kung West 西貢西 3.2.1978 3000

8 Plover Cove 船灣 7.4.1978 4594

9 Lantau South 南大嶼 20.4.1978 5640

10 Lantau North 北大嶼 18.8.1978 2200

11 Pat Sin Leng 八仙嶺 18.8.1978 3125

12 Tai Lam 大欖 23.2.1979 (5330)

(replacement) (取代舊圖) 7.4.1995 5370

13 Tai Mo Shan 大帽山 23.2.1979 1440

14 Lam Tsuen 林村 23.2.1979 1520

15 Ma On Shan 馬鞍山 27.4.1979 (2880)


16 Kiu Tsui 橋咀 1.6.1979 100

17 Plover Cove (Extension)

船灣(擴建部分) 1.6.1979 630


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18 Shek O 石澳 21.9.1979 (710)


19 Pok Fu Lam 薄扶林 21.9.1979 270

20 Tai Tam (Quarry Bay Ext.)

大潭(鰂魚涌擴建

部分) 21.9.1979 270

21 Clear Water Bay 清水灣 28.9.1979 615

22 Sai Kung West (Wan Tsai Ext.)

西貢西(灣仔擴建

部分) 14.6.1996 123

23 Lung Fu Shan 龍虎山 18.12.1998 47

24 Lantau North (Extension)

北大嶼(擴建部分) 7.11.2008 2360

Total: 43394

2.3.2 Costal Landscape and Wetlands

Hong Kong boasts a variety of landscapes and habitat types. This diversity

reflects the climate and Hong Kong’s geographical position between tropical and

temperate climatic regions (Owen and Shaw, 2007). The long, irregular and

curvaceous coastline provides a natural geological gallery, featuring spectacular

landforms and rock formations with many bays, rivers and beaches shaped by waves

and weathering. (See Fig.6)

The Hong Kong National Geopark officially opened on 3 November 2009. It was

set up with the aim to protect the valuable geological relics, landscapes, ecological

environment and cultural heritage of Hong Kong. The Hong Kong National Geopark

covers about 50km2 land area of Hong Kong. It consists of two regions with eight

Geo-areas, each having its own unique geological attractions.

Rocky coast, Hong Kong National Geopark (Photo: Yangfan Li, 2010)

Fig.6 Typical coastline in Hong Kong National Geopark


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The coastal wetlands around the Mai Po Marshes and Inner Deep Bay in the

northwestern corner of Hong Kong have been known as a habitat for migratory birds

and native species. In 1995, 1,500 hectares of wetlands around Mai Po and Inner

Deep Bay were formally designated a Wetland of International Importance under the

Ramsar Convention (Fig.7).

Location of Mai Po Nature Reserve (Owen and Shaw, 2007)

Map of habitat (2001) 7 and the biodiversity management zone 8for Mai Po Nature Reserve

Tidal flat, Mai Po Nature Reserve (Owen and Shaw, 2007)

Mai Po Nature Reserve (Photo: Yangfan Li, 2010)

Fig.7 Coastal wetlands around the Mai Po Marshes and Inner Deep Bay

7 WWF. 2001. Ramsar Site Management Plan. http://www.wwf.org.hk/images/maipo/ramsar_site/maipo-habitat-map.jpg 8 WWF. 2010. Mai Po Management Plan. http://www.wwf.org.hk/images/maipo/new_MP_map.jpg

http://www.wwf.org.hk/images/maipo/ramsar_site/maipo-habitat-map.jpg�

http://www.wwf.org.hk/images/maipo/new_MP_map.jpg�


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3 Hong Kong’s Public-oriented Governance: A Balance between Urbanization and the Environment 3.1 Public Participation

In the mid 1990s, there was growing public concern for reclamation. The

communities in Hong Kong started to query whether it was the right way forward.

Despite Hong Kong's reputation of being intensely urbanized, the territory has made

much effort to promote a green environment, and the growing public concern

prompted the severe restriction of further land reclamation from the Victoria Harbor.

To provide a platform for public involvement in the planning and design of the future

waterfront, the Harbour-front Enhancement Committee, an advisory body, was

established in 2004 to advise the Government on planning, land use and development

along the existing and new harbour-front of the Victoria Harbour. The Committee

comprises professionals, concern groups, business sector, academics and Government

officials to foster more balanced discussions on harbour-front issues. So far, the

Committee has made a number of achievements including formulation of a set of

Harbour Planning Principles and a set of Harbour Planning Guidelines to guide the

planning, preservation, development and management of the Victoria Harbour and its

harbour-front areas. It also provides input for the review of reclamation projects,

promotes public engagement and identifies enhancement opportunities.

Public awareness for the environment is growing as Hong Kong suffers from

increasing pollution compounded by its geography and tall buildings. However, a

more encouraging public participation finding was that 88% of the respondents

believed that both the government and citizens should be responsible for

environmental protection. This is in contrast to similar studies on the Mainland which

have shown that residents there largely believed responsibility for protecting the

environment rest with the government (Wong, 2009b).


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3.2 Public Transport

Hong Kong has a highly developed and sophisticated transport network,

encompassing both public and private transport. Over 90% of the daily journeys are

made on public transport, the highest rate in the world (Fig. 8) (Lam and Bell, 2003).

Fig. 8 MTR system map in Hong Kong 9

The entire Hong Kong SAR acts as a network of primary, secondary and tertiary

Multiple Intensive Land Use (MILU) zones linked by relatively cheap and speedy

public transport. The MILU forms of Hong Kong have been developed as an efficient

design response within a small city-state to population growth and shortages of

buildable land (Lau et al., 2003). Making the MILU tool available will help local

governments design, implement and refine policies to find cost-effective climate

policy solutions and drive economic development in green sectors.

9 MTR, 2010. Train Services System Map. http://www.mtr.com.hk/jplanner/images/maps/routemap.pdf

http://www.mtr.com.hk/jplanner/images/maps/routemap.pdf�


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3.3 Public Green Space

As a cosmopolitan city, Hong Kong regularly imbibe knowledge and practices

from around the world, and often in the process modifications, adjustments,

adaptations and improvements are introduced to fit unique local circumstances and

needs. In the realm of urban greening, Hong Kong is more tightly packed than most

other cities in the world, hence the amount and quality of planting spaces tend to be

seriously constrained (Jim, 2008b). A healthy city and a healthy citizenry demand a

healthy supply of green spaces for active and passive recreational pursuits (Fig. 9).

Urban parks play a pivotal role in fulfilling this innate and fundamental need. The

high-density living environment lacking in private indoor and outdoor spaces would

accentuate such demands. Parks therefore offer relief to an otherwise confined if not

sequestered urban population, and contribute significantly to fostering physical and

mental health (Jim, 2008a).

Fig.9 Urban green parks in Hong Kong (Photo: Yangfan Li, 2010)

A recent research-led green roof initiative at the University of Hong Kong has

stimulated interest in the community. The government has responded by including

green roof installation in its official development policy. In the local context, it is

envisaged that if many more roofs are greened over, the collective cooling effect

could bring significant environmental benefits to the city by ameliorating the urban

heat island effect, reducing energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions at


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power plants, increasing carbon sequestration, dampening air pollution especially the

occurrence of smog days, reducing the discharge and quality of stormwater discharge.

The lack of green spaces at the ground level could be partly compensated by green

roofs. Such extensive benefits could also be translated into dollars to enhance

understanding and acceptance of green roofs (Jim, 2008a).

4 Major Implications and Conclusions

Projecting city growth in Hong Kong, mainland China and worldwide, we will

ask how rapid urban growth can be planned, managed and developed sustainably. As

cities are being forced to address some of the most dramatic environmental challenges,

including urban sprawl, environmental quality degradation, ecological destruction,

climate change…, can they lead the way in finding sustainable solutions? Maybe

ancient Chinese wisdom could offer us some hints as to the solution (Fig.10). • 仁：Love, Public-oriented • 義：Responsible, Public-oriented • 禮：Controlled behavior • 智：Wise use • 信：Confidence

Fig. 10 Park Essay of C.K. Choi Building (Institute of Asian Research), University of British Columbia, Canada (Photo: Yangfan Li, 2009)


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Hong Kong legislators passed the Protection of the Harbour Ordinance in 1996

in an effort to protect the increasingly threatened Victoria Harbour against

encroaching urban development. Draining wetlands for urban land use, for example,

is a form of habitat destruction. In more and more parts of the world, new reclamation

projects are restricted or no longer allowed as a result of environmental protection

laws.

In line with Hong Kong’s international obligations to conserve the diversity and

promote the wise use of wetland areas, the government is to prevent the loss of

important wetland resources, to minimize detrimental impact on wetlands from

adjacent urban development, and to compensate for losses incurred as a result of

unavoidable development projects.

A review of Hong Kong’s practices suggests a need for local governments to

create a sound public participation base to support decision-making and action at

regional and national levels. This includes developing harmonized stakeholder-

analysis methods for local government use, collaboration between trans-boundary

organizations to generate regional development policies, and developing a strong

process and network for public participation. Policy options for increasing

transportation system eco-efficiency include: (1) increased public transportation (e.g.

highly efficient rail systems or Bus Rapid Transit, BRT), (2) Increased density and

land-use efficiency (e.g. mixed-use development (Lau et al., 2003), and (3) Smart

growth policies (integrating land-use and public transportation planning). We could

study greening landscape design ideas, concepts, practices, management, and their

contributions to urban environmental quality, quality of life, and various ecosystem

services. . Examples include the intensive green roof project on a new building which

provides an opportunity to implement the first sky woodland and serve to illustrate the

wide range of environmental, ecological, amenity and economic benefits to a city.

Cities represent a challenge and an opportunity for climate change policies. As

the hub of economic activity, cities generate the bulk of GHG emissions and are thus

important to mitigation strategies (Corfee-Morlot et al., 2009). GEC is not only an


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environmental problem; it is a major challenge for the development of Hong Kong

and mainland China. City governments and urban stakeholders has to, therefore, be involved

in the design and delivery of eco-, low-carbon policies based on urban ecological governance (Li

et al., 2005). Further, by empowering local governments, national policies could leverage existing

local experiments, such as a world class Pearl River Delta (PRD) Metropolis, accelerate green

policy responses, foster sustainability mobilization and engage local stakeholders (Wong, 2009a;

BFRC, 2010).


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Acknowledgements I would like to extend my gratitude to the following organizations and persons for their invaluable help, support, information and advice that were instrumental in realizing the working paper project: David C. Lam Institute for East-West Studies (LEWI), Hong Kong Baptist University (HKBU) and Prof. Emilie Yueh-yu Yeh, Miss. Hidy Ng, Miss. Alice Lu, and Miss. Lydia Kwok for providing a grant and assistance to support the research and publication of the paper; Prof. Kenneth K.K. Wong, Prof. R. Bernhart Owen, Prof. Si Ming Li, Mr. Ka Wai Lung, Ms. Tracey Y. L. Yiu and Miss. Suk Yan Heung, Geography Department, HKBU; Dr. Shan Shan Chung, Dr. Shengchun Wu and Mr. Hongsheng Wang, Croucher Institute for Environmental Sciences, Department of Biology, HKBU; Prof. Kin Che Lam, Prof. Yongqin David Chen, Dr. Kai-Yi Zhou and Ms. Chunling Liu, Department of Geography and Resource Management, The Chinese University of Hong Kong; Prof. C. Y. Jim, Department of Geography, The University of Hong Kong; Ms. Teresa Chu, Mr. Philip Chang and 卓玉明,, Planning Department, Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region; Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Department, Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region and 鄧玉瓊, Civil Engineering and Development Department, Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region and 劉曉欣; Environmental Protection Department, Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region; Harbour-front Enhancement Committee and 黃隆業; and The National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) grants 40901081, and the Soft Science Project of the Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development of China (2009-R2-40)


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