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URBANIZATION: A STUDY IN SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY

Ipsita Chakraborty1

ABSTRACT

Urbanization, defined as the increase in the number of cities and urban population, is not only a

demographic movement but also includes, social, economic and psychological changes. Apart

from the advantages, urbanization brings with it a unique set of disadvantages too. The present

paper focuses on how urbanization is hurting human values. Urbanization is affecting mental

health through the influence of increased factors such as identity and anonymity, technical life-

process, reduced social support, weak emotional attachment, alienation and competitive rush.

Thus, the paper highlights the points under which urbanization is acting as snag agent, if judged

or considered from the viewpoints of ethics and values.

Keywords: Urbanization, Social, Economic, Psychological, Alienation, Ethics and Values.

1 Contractual Assistant Professor, Philosophy Department, Bilasipara College, Dhubri, Assam

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URBANIZATION: IT’S NATURE

Urban growth is defined as the rate at which the population of an urban area increases. This

result from urbanization which is the movement of people from rural areas to urban areas. Urban

growth may lead to an increase in economic development of a country. Urban growth is also

referred as the expansion of a metropolitan or suburban area into the surrounding environment.

It can be considered as an indicator of the state of a country’s economic condition as the effect of

urban growth directly impacts the country’s economic development. The more the urban area

grows, the more employment it generates and in this way economic growth also takes place.

However, it is important to acknowledge that the criteria for defining what is urban may vary

from country to country, which cautions us against a strict comparison of urbanization cross-

nationally.

GEOGRAPHICAL, PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SOCIAL ASPECTS OF URBANIZATION

From the geographical point of view, urbanization is treated as a result of economic development

as it affects the settlement through the spatial structure of the economy. The spatial structure of

the economy and the settlement patterns determine the character of land use in particular

physical environments. The urbanization process gives rise to a new, urbanized environment,

involving both settlement forms and an altered physical environment. Geographers can make a

contribution in urbanization research by focusing on three groups of questions: (1) an analysis of

the spatially expressed factors of urbanization to gain an understanding of the mechanism by

which an urbanized environment is created; (2) study of settlement and the physical environment

as they change in the course of urbanization; (3) investigation of the impact of urbanization on

man in terms of mobility, employment, education, etc.

From the psychological point of view, an urbanized psychology is highly preferable for the

development of a country. But this over urbanized mentality is somehow parting our society

from our historic roots and emotional attachment. More people are living in urban and suburban

areas for various reasons.

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Impact of urbanization is associated with an increase in mental disorders. The reason is that

movement of people to urban area needs more facilities to be made available and infrastructure

to grow. This does not happen in alignment with the increase of population. Hence, lack of

adequate infrastructure increases the risk of poverty and exposure to environmental adversities.

Further this also decreases social support2 as the nuclear families increase in number. Poor

people experience environmental and psychological adversity that increases their vulnerability to

mental disorders.

Social aspect refers to the transformation of culture, behavior, social institutions, and social

structure over time. In looking at all of these social aspects, we may come to know how they

differ in terms of technology, economy, inequality, and gender roles. In short, we have seen

some of the ways in which societies change over time. Another way of saying this is that we may

know some of the ways in which societies change as they become more urbanized. To

understand the social aspects of urbanization, we need to begin to understand what it means for a

society to become more urbanized.

First, as urbanized societies evolve, they become much larger and more heterogeneous. This

means that people are more different from each other than when societies were much smaller,

and it also means that they ordinarily cannot know each other nearly as well. Larger, more

modern societies thus typically have weaker social bonds and a weaker sense of community than

small societies and more of an emphasis on the needs of the individual.

For instance, if we can begin to appreciate the differences between smaller and larger societies

when we contrast a small college of 1,200 students with a large university of 40,000 students.

Perhaps you had this contrast in mind when you were applying to college and had a preference

for either a small or a large institution. In a small college, classes might average no more than 20

students; these students get to know each other well and to have a lot of interaction with the

professor. In a large university, classes might hold 600 students or more, and everything is more

impersonal. Large universities do have many advantages, but they probably do not have as strong

a sense of community as is found at small colleges

2 Cavoukian, Ann. The Theft of Identity. Ontario: Office of Privacy Commissioner, 1996.

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As societies become more modern, they begin to differ from no modern societies in several

ways. In particular, they become larger and more heterogeneous, they lose their traditional ways

of thinking, and they gain in individual freedom and autonomy.

IDENTITY AND ANONYMITY IN URBANIZATION: A PHILOSOPHICAL ANALYSIS

Anonymity, is derived from the Greek word ἀνωνυμία, anonymia, meaning "without a name" or

"namelessness". In colloquial use, "anonymous" is used to describe situations where the acting

person's name is unknown. Some writers have argued that namelessness, though technically

correct, does not capture what is more centrally at stake in contexts of anonymity. The important

idea here is that a person be non-identifiable, unreachable, or untraceable. Anonymity is seen as

a technique, or a way of realizing, certain other values, such as privacy, or liberty.

An important example for anonymity being not only protected, but enforced by law is probably

the vote in free elections. In many other situations (like conversation between strangers, buying

some product or service in a shop), anonymity is traditionally accepted as natural. There are also

various situations in which a person might choose to withhold their identity. Acts of charity have

been performed anonymously when benefactors do not wish to be acknowledged. A person who

feels threatened might attempt to mitigate that threat through anonymity. A witness to a crime

might seek to avoid retribution, for example, by anonymously calling a crime tip line. Criminals

might proceed anonymously to conceal their participation in a crime.

Now if we talk about totalitarian regime all barriers between private life and public life seem to

be broken down. Mail is opened, the police may knock at the door at any hour of the day or

night, and family members are encouraged to denounce one another, and so on. There is nothing

new about such practices, they existed in the would-be theocratic societies of earlier times-Spain

during the Inquisition or Florence under Saonarola.

The concept of Totalitarianism was first developed in the 1920s by the Weimar German jurist,

and later Nazi academic, Carl Schmitt, and Italian fascists. Schmitt used the term, Totalstate, in

his influential work on the legal basis of an all-powerful state, The Concept of the

Political (1927). The concept became prominent in Western political discourse as a concept that

highlights similarities between Fascist states and the Soviet Union. Totalitarianism is a political

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system in which the state recognizes no limits to its authority and strives to regulate every aspect

of public and private life wherever feasible. A distinctive feature of totalitarian governments is

an elaborate ideology, a set of ideas that gives meaning and direction to the whole society3.

No doubt Totalitarianism is the most extreme form of authoritarianism, but there are some

complex problems in a democratic society too. Urbanized democratic societies are highly

advanced in terms of technologies and this advancement is hurting values through identity and

anonymity. Nameless is helping to maintain privacy which is necessary in some conditions like4

-

1) To facilitate the flow of information and communication on public issues (this is the "if you

kill the messenger you won't hear the bad news" rationale.) Some examples:

hot lines for reporting problems and violations, news media sources, various

communication channels for whistle blowers

unsigned or pseudonymous political communications

the use of pen names and the nom-de-plume (e.g., George Sands or the black-listed

Hollywood writers)

2) To obtain personal information for research in which persons are assumed not to want to give

publicly attributable answers or data. For example:

studies of sexual and criminal behavior and other social research

informational audits

medical research

3) To encourage attention to the content of a message or behavior rather than to the nominal

characteristics of the messenger which may detract from that. For example:

persons with a well known public reputation writing in a different area may want to avoid

being "type cast"

3 Clarke, Roger. "Information Technology and Dataveillance." Communications of the ACM 31, (1988): 29-45. 4 Curry, Michael. Digital Places: Living With Geographic Information Technologies. London: Routledge, 1998.

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for dramatic reasons to fit cultural images of what a stage name should be or to enhance

presumed marketability, as with film stars changing ethnic minority names to short

Anglicized names

4) To encourage reporting, information seeking, communicating, sharing and self-help for

conditions that are stigmatizing and/or which can put the person at a strategic disadvantage or are

simply very personal. Some examples:

self-help requests and discussion and support groups for alcohol, drug, and family abuse,

sexual identity, mental and physical illness

tests for AIDS and other socially transmitted sexual diseases, pregnancy

communicating about personal problems and issues with technologically distanced (and

presumably safer)

5) To obtain a resource or encourage a condition using means that involve illegality or are

morally impugnable, but in which the goal sought is seen as the lesser evil. For example:

amnesty programs for the return of contraband (guns, stolen goods)

"no questions asked" needle exchange programs

6) To protect donors of a resource or those taking action seen as necessary but unpopular from

subsequent obligations, demands, labeling, entanglements or retribution. Some examples:

anonymous gift giving to charitable organizations in which donors are protected from

additional demands or advertising their wealth

sperm and egg donors, birth parents giving a child up for adoption

hiding the identity of judges of competitions and in courts to protect them from

inappropriate influence

hangmen in England wore hoods, in part to protect them from retaliation but perhaps also

to enhance the drama

identification numbers rather than names worn by police

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7) To protect strategic economic interests, whether as a buyer or a seller. For example a

developer may be quietly purchasing small parcels of land under an assumed name or names, in

preparation for a coming development

8) To protect one's time, space and person from unwanted intrusions. For example:

unlisted phone numbers

opposition to caller-ID unless there is a blocking option

women using a neutral or male name or an initial rather than a first name in phone and

other directories; or wearing a veil or clothes that conceal feminine distinctiveness

post office box addresses identified only by number

mail forwarding services

providing only minimal information on warranty cards

giving a fake name, or refusing to give one's name when seeking commercial information

celebrities who, at the times they don't want to be recognized, use assumed names and the

cliché of wearing dark glasses

9) To increase the likelihood that judgements will be carried out according to designated

standards and not personal characteristics deemed to be irrelevant. For example:

Having musicians competing for orchestra positions perform behind a screen so that

judges cannot see them. (Where the proof is in the consumption as with listening to music

or in a pie-eating or wine-tasting contest, this may be a good idea. For many complicated

personnel decisions where reputation is a central factor beyond some immediate

demonstration of dexterity, it is impossible).

the blind reviewing of articles for scholarly journals or grading student exams

reviewing college applications with names and gender deleted

10) To protect reputation and assets. The "theft of identity" and sending of inauthentic messages

has emerged as a significant by-product of the expansion of electronically mediated (as against

face-to-face) interactions.

11) To avoid persecution.

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12) To enhance rituals, games, play and celebrations. Letting loose, pretending and playing new

roles are seen as factors in mental and social health. Part of the fun and suspense of the game is

not knowing who. For example:

Halloween masks, masked balls, costume parties, role reversal rituals in traditional

societies reflect this.

the preparations around surprise parties and some of the actual guests (though in this case

there may be a move from anonymity or a deceptive id to actual identification at the

gathering)

some board and computer games involve lack of clarity as to identity (either or both the

real identity of the players and hidden identity in the game), on line role-playing and

fantasy in which service providers offer a limited number of pseudonyms

13) To encourage experimentation and risk taking without facing large consequences, risk of

failure or embarrassment since one's identity is protected. This is a kind of cost-free test drive of

alternative identities, behavior and reading material (the anti-chill justification). For example:

pretending to be of a different gender, ethnicity, sexual preference, political persuasion

etc. in on-line communication

14) To protect personhood or "it's none of your business". What is central here is not some

instrumental goal as with most of the above, but simply the autonomy of the person. This can be

an aspect of manners and involves an expectation of anonymity as part of respect for the dignity

of the person and recognition of the fact that the revelation of personal information is tied to

intimacy.5

15) Traditional expectations ,this is a bit different than the above because the custom that is

honored does not appear to have emerged from a reasoned policy decision, but rather is an

artifact of the way a technology developed or the way group life evolved. This then becomes

associated with expectations about what is normal or natural, and hence expected and preferred.

5 Ferrell, Jeffery . Crimes of Style: Urban Graffiti . Boston: Northeastern Univ. Press, 1996.

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The telephone is a good example. When Caller-id was announced there was significant public

resistance because people were accustomed to being able to make a phone call without having to

reveal their phone number (and all that could be associated with). However that was not the case

historically where all calls had to go through an operator.

As the paper is about how ethical over technical and urbanized lives are at some point hurting the

human values and in this context this paper is supporting both identity and anonymity but it is

mention worthy that anonymity can be problematic too under the given conditions. The

conditions mentioned below are evidence why the present paper is supporting identity rather than

anonymity-

1) To aide in accountability. Saints and those with strongly internalized moral codes respect the

rules regardless of whether or not they are watched (or potentially locatable). But for others who

can resist anything but temptation, especially if under cover of anonymity, this is less likely.

Because individuals generally want to avoid negative sanctions and want others to think well of

them, normative behavior is more likely when people are identifiable. One extreme form is the

anti-mask laws of some states. The numbers on police badges are intended to hold police

accountable while creating a buffer in their personal life from irate citizens. In contrast are the

names worn by airlines clerks and on the legitimacy-confirming badges of door-to-door

solicitors. The current emphasis on identifying and tracking absent fathers with children

supported by welfare is another example of accountability.

2) To judge reputation. In contrast to the small homogeneous group without strangers, mass

impersonal societies rely on name and the records and recommendations it can be associated

with, to determine personal qualities. In small communities where membership itself is a form of

vouching, these are taken for granted.

3) To pay dues or receive just deserts. Reciprocity is among the most fundamental of social

forms and it requires being able to locate those we interact with. An identity peg makes it

possible to have guarantees (such as collateral for a loan), to extract payments (of whatever sort)

and to distribute justice and rewards, although this need not always involve literal identity.

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4) To aide efficiency and improve service. The modern ethos and competitive environments view

knowledge as power and generate seemingly insatiable organizational appetites for personal

information to serve organizational ends and in their words "to better serve the customer".

5) To determine bureaucratic eligibility -to vote, drive a car, fix the sink, cut hair, do surgery,

work with children, collect benefits, enter or exit (whether national borders, bars or adult

cinemas). Administrative needs in a complex division of labor require differentiation and

complex norm enforcement, which in turn may depend on personal characteristics linked to

name and place. A characteristic of modern society is ever increased differentiation and the

proliferation of fine-grained categories for treating persons and of requirements for being able to

perform various roles. This is believed to involve both efficiency and justice. These require

unique identities, although not necessarily actual name. But the latter is seen to enhance validity

beyond being an organizational marker (or in some cases skewer). Compare for example the

evolution of the contemporary wallet with its space for multiple cards, with the paucity of

identification documents required in the 19th century and earlier, simpler carrying devices.

6) To guarantee interactions that are distanced or mediated by time and space. This is the case

with ordering by credit card or paying with a check rather than cash (of course various types of

impersonal vouchers such as a postal mail order offer alternatives). However even in the latter

case an address is frequently needed to deliver goods or to handle complaints and disputes. It

used to be that one could simply call and make a restaurant reservation (often even using as a

nom-de-guerre the name of a famous scholar or author). Then restaurants began asking for phone

numbers and now some even require a credit card number to hold the place. Such identity

becomes an alternative to the generalized trust more characteristic of small communities.

7) To aide research. Research may benefit from links to other types of personal data.

Longitudinal research may require tracking unique individuals although identity can be masked

with statistical techniques.

8) To protect health and consumers. Health and consumer protection may require identifying

individuals with particular predispositions or experiences such as exposure to a substance

discovered to be toxic or purchasers of a product later found to have a safety defect. Concern

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over genetic predispositions to illness may be one reason why records are kept (if often

confidential) of sperm and egg donors or birth parents giving a child up for adoption. The need to

identify persons in death (as with the DNA samples required of those in the military) which are

to be used only for that purpose, or to obtain personal information helpful in a medical

emergency are other examples.

9) To aide in relationship building. The currency of friendship and intimacy is a reciprocal,

gradual revealing of personal information that starts with name and location. Here information is

a resource like a down payment and perhaps a series of balloon payments over time, but it also

has a symbolic meaning beyond its specific content.

10) To aide in social orientation. It used to be said at baseball stadiums, "You can't tell the

players without a program" (although we have seen a move from numbers to names on jerseys).

More broadly social orientation to strangers and social regulation are aided by the clues about

other aspects of identity presumed to be revealed by name and location (e.g., ethnicity, religion,

life style).

Again talking about anonymous social networking, it is mention worthy that social media may

have brought millions of people together, but it has torn many others apart. Once, bullies taunted

their victims in the playground; today they use smart phones to do so from afar. Media reports of

“Facebook suicides” caused by cyber bullying are all too common. Character assassination on

Twitter is rife, as are malicious e-mails, texts and other forms of e-torment. A recent review of

the academic literature on cyber bullying suggests—conservatively—that at least a quarter of

school-age children are involved as either victim or perpetrator.6

A new generation of smartphone apps is unlikely to help. With names like Whisper, Secret, Wut,

Yik Yak, Confide and Sneeky, they enable users to send anonymous messages, images or both to

“friends” who also use the apps. Some of the messages “self-destruct” after delivery; some live

on. But at their heart is anonymity. If you are bullied via Facebook, Twitter or text, you can

usually identify your attacker. As a victim of an anonymous messaging app you cannot. Thus

6 Foucault, Michel. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. New York: Vintage, 1977.

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this paper reflects that anonymity frees people “from traditionally constraining pressures of

society, conscience, morality and ethics to behave in a normative manner7.”

ORIGINS AND EVOLUTION OF CITIES IN THE PREINDUSTRIAL PERIOD

Cities in ancient times:

The emergence of settlements was the result of the first social division of labor, i.e. the allocation

of the first farmers. Later, the separation of crafts and their concentration in certain settlements

took place - the first cities arose (the so-called second social division of labor). The emergence of

the cities was the result of third social division of labor, i.e. the separation of the exchange of

goods from crafts8.

Pre-industrial city became the center of an agricultural area and concentrated trade and crafts.

The foundation of the city from the earliest times until the industrial revolution consists of:

1. Crafts,

2. Trade,

3. Defensive function,

4. Administrative functions.

The oldest towns originated in the 5th to 2nd millennium BC in the Middle East (Mesopotamia,

Iran and Egypt),

Urban civilization gradually expanded into other areas of the Mediterranean (Greece, Rome, the

"Roman" new towns that were created as military camps / e.g. Cologne, Strasbourg, Vienna,

Budapest, Barcelona, Marseille, Paris, London).

7 Gandy, Oscar. 1993. The Panoptic Sort. Colorado: Westview Press, 1993. 8 Goffman, Erving. Asylums: Essays on the Social Situation of the Mental Patient. New York: Anchor, 1961.

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Basic characteristics of preindustrial city:

Cities in the middle Ages:

After the collapse of the Western Roman Empire the Rhineland followed the ancient tradition -

the "idea" of a city spread further into eastern, northeastern and southeastern Europe.

From the 3rd century, due to Migration Period, the structure of population in cities was altered -

the rich part of the population was suppressed, primarily artisans and traders remain.

Breakthrough in the evolution of the city is significant in 8th-9th century when princes and

bishops begin to establish their castles and monasteries. Royal and ecclesiastical seats then often

become the core of the settlement, around which the city life evolves. Each period of the Middle

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Ages was associated with a particular architectural style, which was also connected with

a function or meaning of the cities9:

1. Romanesque,

2. Gothic style

3. Renaissance,

4. Baroque.

Cities of the industrial era:

In the modern era the nature of economic activity is qualitatively changing - agriculture is more

mechanized and released labor force is heading to the cities. In the 18th-19th century a new town

function is created - the industrial production.

Industrial development would not be possible without significant social and economic changes,

which we call the Industrial Revolution.

With the industrial revolution a large number of people is beginning to be employed in large-

scale production in cities (at the beginning manufactures, later factories), and significant

population movements from rural to urban areas occurs7.

The localization factor for urban development or industrial period is mineral fuel

(coal).Therefore, most of these cities develop in mining areas.

Industrial development retrospectively influenced the development of other urban functions:

1. Trade;

2. Finance;

3. Administration;

4. Education and culture.

9 Lyon, David, The Electronic Eye: The Rise of the Surveillance Society. Cambridge, England: Polity Press, 1994.

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A very important factor then becomes transportation, because sufficient water resources were

required in addition to the fuel. For this reason, the settlement also develops around rivers and in

the lowlands.

Due to population growth in cities and urban sprawl the original medieval fortifications (walls)

are vanishing and in its place industrial buildings or warehouses are built.

Formerly farming villages near the city merge with large cities and become their suburbs.

The main feature of urban-industrial period is:

In 1800 in the whole world there were about 750 cities over 5 thousand inhabitants, 200 cities

over 20 thousand inhabitants and 45 cities over 100 thousand inhabitants and no city had more

than 1 mil. inhabitants;

1. In 1950, in the same categories there were 27600, 5500, 880 and 50 cities.

Urban phenomenon affected all regions of the world:

1. Old network of medieval towns, but also new cities in the coalfields and around railways,

2. The area where cities were absent (North America, Australia). In Asia and Africa among

the indigenous towns new colonial cities were created (e.g. Shanghai, Hanoi, New Delhi,

most cities in sub-Saharan Africa).

Areal expansion of cities into surrounding communities, with the growth of cities differentiation

of urban design occurs, which subsequently leads to social differentiation.

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Basic characteristics of cities in industrial period:

Cities of the postindustrial era:

In the postindustrial era, the economic transformation is reflected in the transition from an

economy based on secondary sector (manufacturing) to an economy based on the tertiary sector

(services).

The national and global capital (which reflects, among other things demand a new standard of

living = emphasis on mental work, reducing working time, leisure, individualization, informatics

development) is extending.

Changes in production technology and modern way of buying goods puts greater demands as far

as area is concerned.

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New productions (e.g. car assembly) and superstores are built on previously undeveloped areas

close to the city limits. The condition is a good communication network allowing easy and

especially fast access8.

Urbanization of postindustrial period affects still larger areas. Cities are expanding into rural

areas and are changing the economic and cultural character of the village.

Basic characteristics of the postindustrial period:

THE FUTURE OF URBANIZATION

Due to urbanization it is assumed that the future of society will constitute increased economic

activity and more advanced technology and many more important factors. As the present paper is

highlighting the condition where the significance of human values are reducing and if this

craziness towards technology increases this way then soon we we will become machine (already

becoming). This will reduce attachment and bonding. Thus from the above highlighted points it

has been shown how urbanization has negative impacts and this reduction of human values is

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becoming a serious problem. Therefore, this paper is all about how urbanization can be seen as a

negative effect from the above perspectives.