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ASI 1 ‐ Prof. James Voogt ‐ Part 2
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Urban Temperatures and Urban Heat Islands
• James Voogt
• Associate Professor &President International Association for Urban Climate
• Western University, London ON Canada
Part 2: Urban Heat Islands
• Beginnings – heat island types
• Conceptual basis – Lowry approach.
• Physical basis for UHIs: Relating UHIs to temperature changes and the energy balance
• UHIs in the future
ASI 1 ‐ Prof. James Voogt ‐ Part 2
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Boundary Layer Heat Island (BLUHI)
Heat Island Types
Canopy Layer Heat Island (CLUHI)
Surface Heat Island (SUHI)Modified after Oke (1997)
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SURFACE(SUHI)
‘True’ 3-DT°
- complete surface
Bird’s-eye 2-D T°- aircraft,
satellite
Zero-plane T°- model output
Ground T°- road
SUBSTRATE
Fixed- tower, sodar
Traverse- aircraft,
tetroon
Traverse- automobile
UBL(BLUHI)
UCL(CLUHI)
AIR
Standard- grass
Non-standard- roof, roadside
Fixed- screen
Types Sub-types
Depends on definition of ‘surface’
Depends on observation methods
After Oke (1995)
Urban Heat Islands
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Finding Urban Effects: Lowry Conceptual Model
Mi t x = Ci t x + Li t x + Hi t x
M - measured value of a weather element (e.g. temperature)C - background (“flat-plane”) climateL - departure from C due to topographyH - departure from C due to human effects (including urban
effects)
Subscripts:i - weather type t - time periodx - station location (see ‘Zones’ next slide)
Lowry (1977)
u – urban area
r – rural or natural area*
e – a rural or natural area surrounding theurban area that is influenced by urban effects
*rural areas are impacted by human activities such as agriculture; natural areas have none (i.e. Hitx = 0)
Consider temperature measurementsin these zones.
Defining Zones in the Lowry Model
Lowry (1977)
u
r
e
u e
r
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Utility of the Lowry Framework
a) shows that measurements (e.g. temperature) in a city have contributions from multiple influences.
b) demonstrates that a reference location outside the urban area may not be fully free of human influences
c) provides a framework for experimental design and control related to identifying urban effects
A difficulty is that the framework has many assumptions that are difficult to fully satisfy
What is the Urban Effect?
• We want to isolate H for an urban site
Conceptually: Mi 0 x = Ci 0 x + Li 0 x + 0, soMi t x - Mi 0 x = Hi t x
But… pre-urban measurements are typically not available and C may change over time.
• An alternative: numerical model for the same site run without the urban area
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Urban – “Rural” Differences
Mitu - Mite = (Citu - Cite)+ (Litu - Lite)+ (Hitu - Hite)
Is Mitu - Mite evidence of urban effects?
Issues:What is area e and can it be determined a priori ?Is area r a good representation of pre-urban conditions?Note that area e may be large from some climate variables
Lowry (1977)
?
The Lowry model and UHI assessment
• A UHI is an urban effect – the Lowry model provides a conceptual basis for identifying urban effects that is important to making UHI measurements (e.g. siting instruments)
• Lowry model is useful for many other urban effects and is applicable to modeling approaches as well as observations
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Physical Basis for Heat Islands
• Urban heat islands are created by differences in urban and rural energy balances.
• Consider the physical basis of the main UHI types
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0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Traverse Distance (km)
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Tr (癈
)
Agricultural Mixed Rural Warehouse
Fraser River
Residential
Comm./Res.
Lt. Indust. Downtown
Park
SN + 2 hrsSSSS + 4 hrsSS + 9 hrsNOAA-11
~6°
~8°
~9°
~7°
Land use areas with large amounts of visible impervious surfaces appear hot during the day (Warehouse, Lt industrial)
Large diurnal temperature range.
At night large and positive SUHI, maximum at end of night.
Surface Urban Heat Island
Traverse
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Diurnal Evolution of Urban Surface Temperature
Basel Switzerland Sperrstrasse street canyon:
0700 Jul 11 2002 – 1100 Jul 12 2002
Surface Temperature Changes
• Temperature change can be related to the surface energy balance
• By day we have
• C is heat capacity of a very thin layer of depth z
∗
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Surfaces - Troof >> Twalls > Tfloor > Tinterior SUHI - large positive: Ts urban > Ts rural
L, L
L K
K
L, L
L
L, L
QH
QH
QG
QH QGQHQG
QG
L
Troof
Twall 2Twall 1
Tfloor
Tinterior
RoofsSurfaces - unobstructed, dark, dry, insulated if winds weak, strong heating roofs very hot
CanyonsSurfaces - walls & floor part shaded, large area, dry, sheltered, good conduction good heat storage warm not hot walls & floor unless open & sunlit
SUHI: daytime surface heat exchanges
Oke et al. Urban Climates forthcoming, Cambridge University Press
L, LL, L
L
L, L
L L
Tinterior
Troof
Tfloor
Twall 1 Twall 2
QH
QG
QHQG QH QG
RoofsSurfaces - large sky view, dry, insulated if winds weak strong radiative cooling very cold
CanyonsSurfaces - dry, small sky view, near calm, good conduction weak radiative and convective drain, heat from storage and interior warm walls & floor
Surfaces - Tinterior > Twalls > Tfloor >> Troof SUHI - positive: Ts urban > Ts rural
SUHI: nighttime surface heat exchanges
Oke et al. Urban Climates forthcoming, Cambridge University Press
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Urban & Rural Surface Temperature Changes
2 K0
SUHI(K)
SR SS
SN
0
T/t (K h
‐1)
Time of day
Roof
Rural
Canyon
Urban
H/W ≈ 1
Night time SUHI: Important controls
• SVF s: sky view factor
• : thermal admittance
• Largest SUHI occur with
small SVF, small rural , large urban
Oke et al. (1991)
Δμu‐r
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SUHI Temporal Variability
Imhoff et al. (2010)
F – Forest, G – Grassland, D – Desert, M – Mediterranean Forest
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Canopy Layer Heat Islands
• Canopy Layer: UHI is a maximum at night, under calm and clear conditions (max 12°C, annual average 1-2°C). May be small or even negative during the day.
Data from Oke in Aguado and Burt (2004)
Oke (1982)
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• Unlike SUHI afternoon CLUHI is negative
• By sunset it is growing fast
• Maximum at end of night
• Rural has cooled 16° but city core by only 6°.
• Clearly CLUHI is due to thermal inertia - difficulty in warming and cooling
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Traverse Distance (km)
5
10
15
20
25
Ta
ir (癈
)
Agricultural
TunnelMixed rural
Warehouse
Residential
Comm./Res.
Lt. Industrial
Downtown
Park
SN + 2 hrsSSSS + 4 hrsSS + 9 hrs
~-1°
~5°
~9°
~10°
Canopy Layer UHI: Spatial Structure
Vancouver BC Canada Clear August (summer) day.
Voogt and Oke (unpublished)
Differences in urban & rural cooling underly the CLUHI
Sunset Sunrise
12 18 24 06 12TIME (h)
Hea
tin
g/C
oo
ling
R
ate
Air
Tem
per
atu
re
2°C
Rural
Urban(a)
TU‐R
Oke (1982, 2011)
Important differences in the early morning and near sunset
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CLUHI temporal intensity
Sunset Sunrise
12 18 24 06 12TIME (h)
HE
AT
IS
LA
ND
IN
TE
NS
ITY
AIR
TE
MP
ER
AT
UR
E
2°C Rural
Urban
Tu-r = CLUHI
(a)
(b)
Oke (1982, 2011)
Temperature Change in a Layer1 ∗ 1
∗
Simplified situation: large, flat, homogeneous surfaceNo net horizontal transfers.No latent heat release.By day, when atmosphere well mixed, divQ*z ≈ 0
Divergence(div)
Convergence= ‐div
Oke (1987)
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Temperature Change in a Volume
1 ∗
e.g. Stull (1988; 2015)
for both radiation and sensible heat flux consider the volumetric divergence
Air - Ta roof > Ta canyon CLUHI - small: Ta urban ~ Ta rural
L, L
L K
K
L, L
L
L, L
QH
QH
QG
QH QGQHQG
QG
L
Troof
Twall 2Twall 1
Tfloor
Tinterior
RoofsAir - contact & convective cooling hot layer strong convection that feeds BLUHI
CanyonsAir - warm surfaces heat air but not more than rural (less evaporation more storage) thus small or negative CLUHI unless sunlit & exposed
CLUHI: daytime heat exchanges
Oke et al. Urban Climates; forthcoming, Cambridge University Press
Morning: divQHV in urban canyon is weaker than for rural
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L, LL, L
L
L, L
L L
Tinterior
Troof
Tfloor
Twall 1 Twall 2
QH
QG
QHQG QH QG
RoofsAir - contact & convective cooling cold layer, occasional katabatic slumps into canyons
CanyonsAir - warm surfaces convect & radiate to air & other surfaces hence slow cooling CLUHI, & weak plumes feed BLUHI
Air - Ta roof < Ta canyon CLUHI - large, positive: Ta urban > Ta rural
CLUHI: heat exchanges at night
Oke et al. Urban Climates; forthcoming, Cambridge University Press
Volume Processes: Night – Clear and Calm
Urban
• Weak ‐divQ*y, radiation from canyon walls; stronger divQ*z (but not as strong as in rural area due to sky view factor obstruction)
• Weak –divQHy: heat from canyon walls
• Net result: radiative cooling that is weaker than for the rural case
Rural
• Strong radiative divergence div Q*z under stable night time conditions
• Weak sensible heat flux convergence ‐divQHz from above
• Net result, strong radiative cooling
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H/WSky view factor, s Canyon aspect ratio, H/W
Max
imu
m U
rban
Hea
t Is
lan
d (
K)
Oke (1981), and H/W Oke (1987)
Maximum UHI vs Surface Controls
Seasonal Variation of Rural Soil Thermal Admittance
Runnalls and Oke (2000)UHIUCL Pot = UHIUCL Obs / [u -½ (1 - kn2)]
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0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9TIME OF DAY
2
4
6
8
10
MO
NT
H
0.6
0.8
0.9
Temporal Evolution of Canopy Layer Heat Island
Note:• Daily pattern• Seasonal pattern with daylength• Seasonal effects of prevailing weather and rural surface conditions
Plotted by T.R. Oke with data from Klysik and Fortuniak
Łódź, Poland1997-1999
When is the canopy layer heat island best developed?
Normalized time of day
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Sun Rise
Sun Set
Nor
mal
ized
hea
t isl
and
inte
nsity
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Runnalls and Oke (2000)
Heat island intensities for Vancouver from 1991-1994
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Weather Controls on the CLUHI
Cloud cover relationn = fraction of cloud cover k = coefficient based on cloud typek larger for thick low clouds
Combined Effects: “Weather Factor w” w = u
‐0.5 (1 – kn2)
w how much will UHI be reduced from its maximum potential value; 0 w 1.
Wind speed: Tu-r = u-0.5
calm windyu
CL
UH
I
overcast clear
CL
UH
I
(Runnalls and Oke 2000)
Cloud CoverTu‐r = Tu‐r (1‐ k n2)
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Surface UHI and 3-D City structure
Voogt and Oke (2003)0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Traverse Distance (km)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Tem
per
atu
re (癈
)
TairTsfc (3-D corr)
AgriculturalMixed RuralWarehouseResidential
Res./Comm.Lt. Indust.DowntownPark
water
Night: 0530 LDT; Sunset + 9 hrs
Day: 1530 LDT; Solar Noon + 2 hrs
Tsfc (nadir)
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Modified after Oke (1997)
Boundary Layer Heat Island
UBL Heat Islands
• Increased absorption of K by air pollutants.
• Anthropogenic Heat (QF) ‐ heat production by space heating, particularly stacks.
• Increased QH from below (heat flux from roof tops and canopy layer).
• Increased QH from above (increased roughness leads to increased turbulent entrainment)
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Oke (1982)
Boundary Layer Urban Heat Islands
Day
Night
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Control of Urban Form on the Heat IslandUrban FormCharacteristic
Impact on Heat Island
Surface geometry Low SVF promotes high night time CLUHI. Shading reducesdaytime SUHI and CLUHI.
Surface reflectance High reflectance reduces all daytime HI, with some effectscontinuing to the nighttime HI
Surface thermalproperties
Materials that are good “storers” of heat will contribute to nighttime CLUHI, BLUHI and potentially to negative daytime coolislands. Some materials that are well insulated (e.g. roofs)may contribute to daytime SUHI and BLUHI due to their hightemperatures.
Greenspace Reduces all daytime heat island and possibly night time heatisland depending on the exact nature of the vegetation used(e.g. trees vs grass).
Irrigated areas Strong reduction of daytime SUHI, CLUHI with some transferto BLUHI
Based on Oke (1982)
Heatwaves and Cities
The urban heat island can magnify heat wave effects
Russian Heat Wave: 70,000 deathsEuropean Heat Wave: 55,000 deaths
Heat is the deadliest of weather hazards (US Data)
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Future Changes to UHI
• With large scale climate change, CLUHIs both increase and decrease
McCarthy et al. (2010)
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Factors Affecting Heat Islands
Oke (pers. comm.)
UHI
Synoptic Weather(Limits UHI)
• wind & cloud•stability
City Form • materials (fabric) • structure• cover
City Function • energy use• water use• pollution
City Size• fetch distance•density of use
Geographic Location • climate• topography• rural surrounds
Time• day
• season
Mitigation Measures
“manageable”
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Summary
• Lowry conceptual model is useful for thinking about how to measure and interpret urban heat islands and all urban measurements.
• Urban actions to address heat islands should recognize the different types and their specific processes.
• Physical basis of the urban heat island is rooted in energy balance differences that differentially affect urban and rural heating and cooling rates at the surface and in the UCL or UBL air volume.
• Cities of the future are likely to be hotter but the UHI may not necessarily be larger depending on how rural cooling rates are affected.
End, Thank you
James VoogtDepartment of Geography
Western University, London ON Canada N6A 5C2
Tel: 519-661-2111 x85018 Email: [email protected]:
http://www.geography.uwo.ca/people/faculty/voogt_james.html