upper paleolithic microblade industries in north china and their relationships with northeast asia...

Upper Paleolithic Microblade Industries in North China and Their Relationships withNortheast Asia and North AmericaAuthor(s): Chen Chun and Wang Xiang-QianSource: Arctic Anthropology, Vol. 26, No. 2 (1989), pp. 127-156Published by: University of Wisconsin PressStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40316188 .

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UPPER PALEOLITHIC MICROBLADE INDUSTRIES IN NORTH CHINA AND THEIR RELATIONSHIPS

WITH NORTHEAST ASIA AND NORTH AMERICA

CHEN CHUN and WANG XIANG-QIAN

Abstract: Microblade industries of North China have been studied in detail only during the past 30 years, although they were known since the early decades of this century. Two important sites, Xiachuan (24,000-14,000 B.P.) and Xueguan (13,550 B.P.), are described here as well as artifacts from these and related microblade sites. These sites represent two stages of microblade technology; conical and wedge-shaped cores typify the first stage, while the second is characterized by an elaboration of wedge-shaped cores and a decline of conical ones. Micro- core preparation is emphasized as an avenue for comparing Paleolithic industries found in North China, Japan, Northeast Asia, and northwestern North America. A review of the known industries from these regions suggests that they derived from a common cultural heritage, but that (a) Japanese industries seem to correspond techno-typologically to early and middle stages of the North China sequence, (b) the Dyuktai industries of Northeast Asia equate with the middle stage of the North China sequence, and (c) the American Paleo- Arctic tradition may have derived from the Dyuktai industries.

INTRODUCTION

One of the convincing lines of archaeological evidence with which to trace the links between the Old and the New World is the microblade remains that are found on both continents. Since the hypothesis of prehistoric cultural contact between these two regions was advanced by N. C. Nelson (1937) and P. Teilhard de Chardin (1939), a growing number of microblade finds have been reported in Asia and North America. The evidence leads us to believe that from the late Pleistocene to the early Holocene, a broad area, including present North China, Outer Mongolia, Korea, and Japan, provided suitable habitats for hunting and gathering groups. Many groups may have moved northward to the New World or southward to Tibet while following migrating animals. Both Soviet and American scholars have tried to establish the antecedents and the age of these remains, but debate continues and many problems remain unsolved. One of the main reasons for this is that data on microblades from the hinterland of Asia-North China have been inaccessible to these scholars due to language barriers and limited academic exchange .

In this paper, we wish to provide Western scholars with information about several important microblade discoveries in North China of the last decade, and then to briefly review and comment on microblade discoveries and research in Asia and North America.

Microblade remains have been discovered since the second decade of this century in three provinces of northeast China: Jilin, Liaoning, and Heilongjiang. Their occurrence extends westward through Inner Mongolia to Xinjiang. The overwhelming majority of these remains were associated with pottery, polished stone tools, and even bronze items. Members of the Sino-Swedish Expedition, under the leadership of Sven Hedin in 1927-1935, identified a total of 327 sites containing mainly microblade remains (Maringer 1950). For a long period of time, these unique cultural materials were regarded as representative of Neolithic industries beyond the Great Wall region in North China and were dubbed the "microlithic culture." Chinese archaeologists working in the 1950s lacked valuable chronological data. They were also influenced by assumptions held by foreign scholars, and consequently subscribed to the view that the microlithic tradition originated in the Lake Baikal area.

Chen Chun, Department of Anthropology, McGill University, 855 Sherbrooke West, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3A 2T7

Wang Xiang-Qian, Provincial Institute of Archaeology, Shanxi, Taiyuan, Peoples Republic of China

ARCTIC ANTHROPOLOGY, Vol. 26, No. 2, pp. 127-156, 1989



128 Arctic Anthropology 26:2

Pei Wen-zhong (1954) was the first Chinese archaeologist to propose three stages of microlithic development in North China. The three unilinear stages were defined as Long-jiang (Lung-Chiang), Lin-xi (Lin-Shi), and Chi-feng, which basically correspond to the early, middle, and late periods of the Neolithic. Peifs model was later rejected in light of new discoveries and because of its technological bias. Only in the last few decades has it been possible to accurately define the microblade zone and its cultural sequence in broad regions, especially along the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River. Most Chinese archaeologists now believe that microblade technology derived directly from the Upper Paleolithic in North China and that it was well developed by the end of that period.

During the 1970s, several important discoveries were made at Middle and Late Paleolithic sites in North China, which led Jia Lan-po to hypothesize that at least two major, parallel traditions had persisted from the Lower Paleolithic to the Neolithic. One is called the Large Triangular Point and Chopper-Chopping Tool tradition, or the Large Tool tradition for short, that evolved into polished stone industries of the Neolithic. The other is the End Scraper and Burin tradition, or the Small Tool tradition, that evolved into the microlithic tradition of the Neolithic (Jia et al. 1972; Jia and Wei 1976).

This unilinear approach in studying cultural development seems heavily based on technology as well. Although it is commonly accepted that at least two large and distinctive Paleolithic technologies coexisted in North China, it is hard to imagine that these groups developed side by side for more than one million years with little exchange or contact. As yet, archaeological discoveries in this region are still too spotty to permit conclusions about such a complicated issue. Based on his research on cultural development, Jia made several key observations regarding these two major traditions. As regards the Small Tool tradition, Jia pointed out that stone tool assemblages reveal a trend toward reduction of tool size from early to late. In addition, stone tools such as points, end scrapers, perforators, burins, and projectile points, the most numerous artifacts in microblade industries, characterize the Small Tool tradition but are not found in the Large Tool tradition.

The discovery of the Shiyu site in 1963 at Shuoxian County, Shanxi Province, led Chinese archaeologists to suggest that the industry found at this site might represent the antecedent of the microblade tradition (Fig. 1). The lithic inventory includes bipolar and flaked cores, scrapers of various forms, end scrapers, burins, one small

axe-like stone knife, and one arrowhead. One rather interesting artifact is a fan- shaped or wedge-shaped core, which shows a bifacially worked edge and a fluted surface (Jia et al. 1972). Technologically, this wedge-shaped core was probably an accidental product resulting from bipolar percussion rather than from purposeful indirect or pressure techniques. The absence of microblades is also of significance. Animal bone samples were radiocarbon dated at 28,94511370 B.P. More information is needed about the Shiyu site before we can properly interpret it.

In analyzing archaeological remains at the Xujiayao site, dated by a uranium series method to 100,000 years ago (Chen et al. 1982), Jia (Jia and Wei 1976) calls attention to the techno-typological similarities of tool inventories between Xujiayao and Shiyu. He mentions that "if some advanced tools such as a wedge-shaped core, a small axe-like knife, and an arrowhead are excluded from the Shiyu culture, the rest of the tool kits show little difference from the tool inventory of the Xujiayao site." The main types of stone tools from Xujiayao include side scrapers, end scrapers, points, burins, perforators, stone balls, and related implements. A discovery at Xujiayao that Jia thought of great significance were a protoprismatic cores which were quite small. Long and narrow flakes were removed from the perimeter of the platform, which consists of natural surfaces or flake scars. Some platforms show traces of preparation. Jia presumed that these protoprismatic cores might have had a cultural affinity with cylindrical and conical cores in later microblade traditions. It should be remembered, however, that a purely morphological comparison of two artifacts to trace their affinity may be inadequate. What is needed is more precise information to explain the origins and differences between conical and wedge-shaped cores in microblade manufacture .

One thing that should be mentioned here is the terminological difference in Chinese and Western literature. For a long time, there was no clear-cut distinction between microblade remains and microliths in Chinese typological classification. Chinese archaeologists defined any assemblage containing microblade remains and small tools such as end scrapers, arrowheads, burins, perforators, and others as microlithic and regarded them as a homogeneous cultural entity. An Zhi-min (1978) was the first to clarify the definition of microlith in the Chinese literature. An argued that the term microlith be restricted to such artifacts as microblades, microblade cores, and tools made on microblades. Therefore, An's definition of microlith in Chinese is basically equivalent to



Chen and Wang: Microblade Industries in North China 129

microblade remains in Western terminology, rather than merely "small tool," its literal meaning.

Although the direct archaeological evidence at present does not firmly delineate the origin and a developmental process of microblade technology, several important discoveries over the last decades have provided evidence to suggest the antiquity of the microblade tradition in North China. These discoveries shed new light on the issue of the cultural relationship between Asia and North America.

Xiachuan and Xueguan are two important Upper Paleolithic microblade sites discovered in North China (Wang et al. 1978; Wang et al. 1982). In this paper, we first introduce these two industries, and then present a brief review of microblade cultures in surrounding areas in terms of techno-typological comparison and chronological placement.

XIACHUAN SITE The Xiachuan site was discovered in 1970.

Two major excavations have been conducted there, one by the Institute of Archaeology of Shanxi Province in 1973-1975, and the second by a joint team composed of the Institute of Archaeology of Shanxi Province and the Institute of Archaeology, Academy of Social Science of China, in 1976-1978.

The site, located on the eastern part of the Zhongtiao Mountains, southern Shanxi Province (3S°23t-35°30lN, lllo59!-112°15fE), was named after Xiachuan, a small village where the strata are relatively well preserved and lithic remains are abundant. In 1973, when the first excavation began, an extensive survey was carried out in the surrounding regions. Sixteen localities were noted in an area of about 20 x 30 km, covering three counties, that yielded similar cultural materials. These localities range in elevation from 900 m to 2100 m above sea level. The Xiachuan basin, where the village of Xiachuan is located, is about 4.5 km long from north to south and 2 km wide from east to west and is surrounded by mountains. The outcrops of bedrock at Xiachuan are either silicarenite , dating to the Sinian period, or limestone, dating to the Cambrian or the Ordovician period. The oldest deposit in this area is a crimson clay sediment, dating to the late period of the Late Pliocene.

The deposits of the Late Pleistocene are well preserved, measuring a maximum of about 30 m in thickness at some localities. They resemble loess sediment and occur at high geomorphological positions, usually consti- tuting the second terrace about 30 m above the riverbed. Deposits belonging to the Holocene are alluvial, grayish-brown, sandy clay and gravelly, sandy layers. They constitute the first terrace.

The following is a detailed description of the stratigraphic sequence at the Xiachuan basin. This sequence consists of five sedi- mentary horizons from top to bottom.

1. Grayish-brown sandy clay (upper cultural layer), 1-1.5 m thick, containing large quantities of microblade remains and diverse small tools, small amounts of large tools, charcoal, and fragmentary pieces of animal bones.

2. Brownish sandy clay, 1.3 m thick, without cultural remains.

3. Reddish sandy clay mixed with small amounts of gravels (lower cultural layer), 5-10 m thick; large chipped stone tools and charcoal are found in this level.

4. Grayish-yellow and grayish-black clay 5 m thick, containing small iron-bearing nodules about 0.5-1 cm thick in diameter.

5. Gravel, a maximum of 20 m thick; the diameters of these pebbles range from 1 to 20 cm (Fig. 2).

The grayish brown sandy clay (upper cultural layer), which covers the Upper Pleistocene deposit, has been severely eroded, resulting in a gently sloping appearance. Stone artifacts occur in large numbers throughout Layer 1. Microblade remains and other stone tools discussed in this paper were all derived from this layer. Cultural remains from the lower cultural layer (Layer 3) are not described here.

Table 1 lists the classification of stone tools selected among the artifacts unearthed from the first excavation. Some surface collections and debitage are omitted.

The raw materials of the industry include black and white chert, agate, chalcedony, obsidian, quartzite, and sandstone. Stone tools may be generally divided into large and small ones (including microblade remains). Large tools, such as choppers, are made of sandstone and quartzite and are primarily retouched by hard hammer percussion. Small tools and microblade remains are probably made by soft hammer percussion, pressure flaking, or indirect percussion. Raw materials such as sandstone and quartzite are both obtainable in situ, but chert was trans- ported from a chert quarry several dozen kilometers away.

LITHIC INVENTORY

The majority of the lithic inventory are microblades and microblade cores, plus small tools such as diverse end scrapers, burins, small arrowheads, projectile points, perforators, and backed knives. Microblade remains and end scrapers are two major types and make up a high percentage in the component. The following is a description of the stone assemblage of Xiachuan.




Figure 1. Distribution Map of the Upper Paleolithic and the Microblade Sites in North China. (1) Xujiayao, (2) Shiyu, (3) Xiachuan, (4) Xueguan, (5) Hutouliang, (6) Yingen, (7) Ang-ang-xi, (8) Chikuochingtse.

Figure 2. Stratigraphic Profile of the Xiachuan Basin.




TABLE 1. XIACHUAN SITE STONE TOOLS.

Flake Cores

This sort of core is medium-sized, bears small flake scars, and has one or more platforms. Flakes removed from these cores were probably used to produce small tools such as end scrapers, burins, and backed knives (Fig. 3).

No. spO1968 and sp00498 are two cores with single platforms. Cleavage planes were used as natural platforms for flake reduction. No. sp02010 is a multiplatform core.

Blade Cores

These have elongate bodies, trimmed platforms, and fluted blade facets (Fig. 4).

Microblade Cores

Six types of microblade cores were distinguished on the basis of morphological and technological differences. Blanks or preforms were usually made on small chert chunks and flakes. The diversity of their

shapes suggests that they were specially designed for distinctive hafting or clamping techniques in microblade reduction.

(1) W/edge-Shaped Cores These kinds of cores are

mainly made on flakes. They have a unifacially or bifacially worked keel edge, one platform, and a fluted surface. Two subtypes are identified, broad- bodied and narrow-bodied cores, which may reflect two ways to detach microblades of different lengths or may reflect different types of clamping vises (Fig. 5).

Nos. sp00572 and spO13O2 are two broad -bodied cores. They seem identical in appearance, but show slight differences in platform preparation. The former has a bevelled platform that is retouched transversely and then trimmed longitudinally. The latter has a cleavage platform, trimmed only at the end of the working surface to adjust the edge angle.

No. sp00493 is a narrow- bodied core. Its platform is a bevelled facet trimmed from front to back (keel edge).

Wedge-shaped cores at Xiachuan are of relatively small size, have rough preform

preparation, and have only two patterns of platform technique. We are still not sure whether these cores reflect the early stage of wedge-shaped core technology or are merely the result of raw materials.

(2) Conical Cores These are the most common microblade

cores (Fig. 5). Most specimens are almost identical to Nos. spO1654 and sp00583, which indicate an initial stage of microblade detachment. They are made on small chunks, with fluted scars covering only a small part of the body, and show little trimming on their platforms. No. spO2142 is one of the most delicate specimens so far discovered. It has a platform trimmed from various angles. One flake scar at the distal end indicates that a futile attempt may have been made to rejuvenate a new platform before the core was discarded. No. sp01022 has a short body and an untrimmed cleavage platform. Microblade scars cover the perimeter of the body.

It should be mentioned that microblade cores classified in this category are not

Type Number Total %

Microcores 219 16.2 conical 100 semiconical 51 boat-shaped 19 wedge-shaped 15 cylindrical 10 funnel-shaped 24

Microblades 186 186 13.8 Projectile points 76 76 5.6 Perforators 22 22 1.6 Arrowheads 13 13 1.0 Burins 17 17 1.3 Backed knives 22 22 1.6 End scrapers 392 392 29.1 Core end scrapers 217 217 16.1 Point-end scrapers 2 2 0.1 Denticulates 9 9 0.7 Scrapers 153 11.4

straight 59 concave 44 convex 50

Large point 1 1 o.l Adze-like tools 7 7 0.5 Choppers 5 5 0.4 Large scraper 1 l o.l Mortars 4 4 0.3 Hammers 2 2 0.1




always typically conical in shape because of their initial stage of utilization.

(3) Cylindrical Cores This kind of core bears a resemblance to

the conical core, but has two platforms on each end due to alternate microblade detachment (see Fig. 5, No. sp00881). One of the platforms appears to have been rejuvenated, owing to the failure of the original one.

(4) Semiconical Cores This kind of core looks like half of a

conical core, but it is totally different in preform preparation (Fig. 5). No affinities can be traced between these two kinds of cores. The main characteristic of semiconical cores is that microblade detachment is focused on a wide, flat facet in front of the body; they usually have a bevelled platform which is trimmed or unt rimmed. One or both sides are trimmed transversely to control the width of the body; the back of the body is shaped by a cleavage plane or flake scars. Semiconical cores are categorized as a special type of microblade core because of their unique shape and technology. They are also called tabular cores in some Western literature (Morían 1970).

(5) Boat-Shaped Cores In much of the literature, this kind of

core is classified in the category of wedge- shaped cores, or it is used as an alternative name for wedge-shaped cores. Many distinctive attributes, however, lead us to place them into a separate category (Fig. 6).

This kind of core has a much wider body and platform than does the wedge-shaped core. Most platforms are cleavage planes (Nos. spO1329, sp00431 and spO2153) or single flake surfaces (No. sp01170). The body of cores are mainly prepared from platform to distal end and lack an intentionally worked keel edge. These attributes imply a funda- mentally different technique from that of wedge-shaped cores, which basically corresponds to the Horoka technique defined by Morían (1967) in his examination of microblade industries in Hokkaido.

(6) Funnel-Shaped Cores This kind of microblade core has a

somewhat crude appearance at Xiachuan (Fig. 6). Funnel-shaped cores have a discoid platform and a short body. Some scholars believe that they might be conical cores in their initial stage of microblade production. On the basis of our comparative observation of preforms of these two kinds of cores, we believe that they are two different types.

No. sp01221 has a trimmed platform and irregular fluted scars around the body. The platform of No. sp01104 is a single, untrimmed flake plane.

Taking advantage of the large quantities of specimens in different processing stages, we are able to analyze and classify these six major types of microblade cores on the basis of procedures of preform formation and microblade reduction. This permits us to avoid the shortcomings of coining a new typological term based merely on a few examples. Accord- ing to our preliminary observations, most types of microblade cores so far discovered in Northeast Asia and North America may be put into these six categories.

Scrapers

Scrapers constitute a large typological category containing many diverse forms at Xiachuan (Fig. 7). They can generally be subdivided into the following types:

(1) Multiple-edged scrapers which usually have more than two cutting edges. No. sp00819 has one concave and two straight cutting edges.

(2) Double-sided scrapers which have two cutting edges or are retouched along two sides. No. spO1728 was made on a long flake and retouched alternately along both of the long edges. One thick edge bears traces of steep retouch.

(3) Convergent scrapers which usually have two retouched edges that converge. No. sp00966 is a triangular flake retouched along both edges and trimmed alternately near the tip.

(4) Discoid scrapers such as No. spO1353 which is a carefully worked circular scraper. It looks like a turtle shell-shaped scraper or a big thumbnail end scraper.

(5) Simple convex scrapers such as No. sp02059 which was retouched on the dorsal surface along the thin and convex edge of the flake.

(6) Simple convex scrapers with bifacial retouch such as No. sp00972 which is a tongue-shaped flake bifacially retouched along one edge.

(7) End scrapers which are made of small flakes and blades and trimmed along both side edges (Fig. 8). They constitute the main tool type in the assemblage. Nos. sp00557, spO1234, and spO1324 are three short-bodied end scrapers. Nos. sp02078 and sp01404 are long-bodied ones. The differences in their lengths might be the result of different stages of use rather than different types. Some of these samples are fan-shaped or have a narrow base, suggesting that they might be used for hafting.

(8) Core end scrapers or keel scrapers are made of small chunks or thick flakes. Edge retouch resembles the fluted surface of microblade cores. The bevelled cutting edge extends laterally and is suitable for scraping




Figure 3. Flake Cores at Xiachuan. (1) spO1968, (2) sp02010, (3) sp00498.

Figure 4. Blade Cores at Xiachuan. (1) sp02054, (2) sp00886, (3) sp02053.




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activities by the right hand. They bear some resemblance to keel-shaped scrapers of the European Paleolithic (Fig. 8).

(9) Thumbnail scrapers are commonly made of small thin flakes or blades, trimmed around the distal end. The platforms of these flakes are usually intact (Fig. 8).

Points

In Chinese Paleolithic terminology, point refers to both flake and core tools that have two retouched, converging edges and do not connote a projectile function (Fig. 9). In North American terminology, some would probably be classified as knives or scrapers.

The quantity of points is second only to that of scrapers at Xiachuan. The Xiachuan points appear to be technologically crude. Most of them are made on chunks or flakes that are unifacially retouched. The occurrence of bifacial points is one of the more spectacular attributes of the Xiachuan culture, although there are few in the assemblage. These bifacial points show a symmetrical contour and delicate soft hammer percussion, demonstrating that the bifacial technique became an important element in the development of Upper Paleolithic culture in North China.

Nos. sp00301, sp00370, and sp00856 are three bifacial points. No. sp00856 is a carefully worked, leaf-shaped point and may represent the antecedent of projectile points common in microblade assemblages of later periods .

No. sp01304 is a point retouched alternately along both edges. Nos. sp00968, sp01071, and spO1748 are three unifacially retouched points made on chunks, flakes, and blades, respectively.

Arrowheads

The crude appearance of these arrowheads led researchers to assume that they might be representative of an early stage of arrowhead manufacture (Fig. 10). They have asymmetrical contours and rounded or pointed bases and, thus, they show diagnostic differences from their counterparts in the Neolithic period, which are usually more symmetrical and have carefully trimmed contours and concave, flat bases or stems. Nos. sp02081, sp00398, and sp00853 are three specimens with rounded bases.

Perforators

These tools are usually made on small flakes and blades (Fig. 10). They have sharp and unifacially retouched points or tips. Nos. spO1691, sp00367, and sp00895 have a long stem, and are trimmed along both

edges to shape a tip. Nos. spO1741 and sp00938 have thick and short stems and broad bases suitable for holding by hand.

Burins

These tools are usually made on long flakes or blades and are untrimmed or trimmed along the edges (Fig. 10). Nos. sp00944 and spO2247 are single burins. Their preforms were carefully retouched, and then one tiny spall was taken off obliquely from one end to shape a cutting edge. No. sp00445 is a multiple burin. Three spalls were removed from it. Nos. spO1695 and sp01160 are dihedral burins with a symmetrical and asymmetrical cutting edge, respectively.

Backed Knives

This kind of tool has thus far rarely been seen in Paleolithic industries in China (Fig. 10). Sharp, natural edges are kept intact for cutting, but thick edges are abruptly trimmed. No. sp00465 is a rectangular backed knife with a straight cutting edge. No. sp01019 is a triangular one with a convex or pointed cutting edge.

In addition to the small tools discussed above, several large stone tools were found, such as one alternately retouched point, seven adze-like tools, one large side scraper, five choppers, and four stone mortars .

CHRONOLOGY

There are a total of 11 radiocarbon dates from Xiachuan and related sites.1 Eight of these, ranging between 13, 9001300 and 23,900±1000, might represent the chronology of the Xiachuan industry (Institute of Archaeology 1983). Because the samples dated were collected from different localities rather than from a sequential profile of cultural deposits, it is impossible to trace cultural or technological change or development at Xiachuan. Very few mammalian faunal remains were collected, owing to poor organic preservation. Those found were bone and tooth fragments identified as Bovinae and Ovis.

XUEGUAN SITE

The Xueguan site is situated on the left bank of the Xingshui River, a tributary of the Yellow River, about 1 km to the west of

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Xueguan Village, Puxian County, Shanxi Province (36°27!19"N, 110°59t12t!E; Fig. 1). This area lies in the Luliang Mountains, more than 1500 m above sea level. Archaeological survey and test excavations were carried out in 1977, based on the discovery of a few flakes during the 1964 field survey. An excavation was conducted in 1980, leading to the discovery of a microblade assemblage that yielded 4777 artifacts and many mammalian bones.

Geological research indicates that four terraces may be identified along the right bank of the Xingshui River. The first and second terraces are comprised of alluvial sediments located about 4-6 and 10-13 m above the riverbed, respectively, and are dated to the Holocene (owing to the presence of Neolithic artifacts). Terrace III, about 20 m thick, has grayish -yellow loess on the top and gravel at the bottom and overlies Triassic sandy shale. It is dated to the late Pleistocene. Terrace IV, about 100 m thick, consists of two sedimentai components, a reddish loess on the top and gravel underneath. It is dated to the middle Pleistocene on the basis of the depositional fabric. Cultural materials are found in a colluvial loess-like deposit on the left bank that is about 14.8 m thick. This deposit basically corresponds to the third terrace on the right bank. The stratigraphy of the site is described from top to bottom as follows (Fig. 11):

1. Surface soil, about 0.2 m thick; 2. Grayish-yellow loess, about 5.9 m

thick, with thin gravel sandwiched in layers; stone artifacts and mammalian bones are embedded in the upper part of the layer;

3. Reddish-brown and yellowish soil, about 1.2 m thick; separated by an uncon- formity from;

4. Sandy, Triassic purple shale bedrock.

LITHIC INVENTORY

The raw materials at Xueguan are chert, quartzite, hornfels, and diabase that were all obtainable from the gravel layers of terraces III and IV. Most stone tools were made of small flakes. The lithic inventory is listed in Table 2.

Stone Cores

Stone cores assigned to the irregular category were used to produce flakes. Single, double, and multiple platforms may be identified. Cores averaged about 40 x 30 x 20 mm in size. The flakes used to make tools were mainly removed from these cores.

Microblade Cores

Microblade cores were classified into four types: wedge-shaped, conical, semiconical,

Figure 11. Stratigraphic Profile at Xueguan.




TABLE 2. XUEGUAN SITE STONE TOOLS.

and boat-shaped. Wedge-shaped and boat- shaped cores are two popular types.

(1) Wedge-shaped cores They are made on chert flakes and chunks

and bifacially worked to form a keel edge (Fig. 12). All specimens are broad-bodied. Two techniques of platform preparation may be identified. The first is transverse retouch to form a bevelled plane that is then longitudinally trimmed to adjust the edge angle. The second technique is to create a flat plane that was trimmed longitudinally to adjust the edge angle. Some specimens have double fluted facets on both ends.

Nos. jp80033, jp80008, jp79012, and jp80034 have steep bevelled platforms. Their fluted surfaces extend laterally. No. jp80215 has a flat platform trimmed around the edges.

The wedge-shaped cores in Figure 13 show a slightly different appearance from those in Figure 12. They are small and usually bear a sharp edge angle and flat platform with longitudinal retouch.

(2) Conical Cores There were only a few conical cores found

at Xueguan, and they appear quite crude or primitive in contrast to their counterparts at Xiachuan (Fig. 13). Nos. jp80031, jp80314, and jp80172 have untrimmed cleavage platforms, which seem so atypical as to suggest that the conical technique was not well known or mastered by Xueguan occupants .

(3) Semiconical Cores These cores are also small in

number but are sophisticated in preform preparation and microblade detachment (Fig. 13). jp80305 is an exhausted specimen which shows a thin body with a bevelled and untrimmed platform. The back surface is a cleavage plane. No. jp80187 was made on a small flake and also has a broad but untrimmed platform .

(4) Boat-Shaped Cores Most of these cores are small

except No. jp80013. They are characterized by broad and untrimmed platforms which closely resemble those on specimens found at Xiachuan. Some specimens have double fluted surfaces on both ends (Fig. 14).

Scrapers

There are several diverse types, based on their retouch patterns (Fig. 15) .

(1) Transverse straight scrapers. No. jp79098 is retouched along the edge opposite the platform.

(2) Convex scrapers. No. jp79095 is bifacially retouched along one edge. No. jp79094 is a semilunar or crescent scraper with unifacial retouch.

(3) Double-sided scrapers. No. jp79090 is retouched along parallel edges.

End Scrapers

These specimens were usually made of small flakes and blades (Fig. 15). Four subtypes may be distinguished. However, the possibility that these subtypes might represent different stages of tool use cannot be ruled out.

(1) End scrapers with long bodies. Nos. jp80108, jp79107, and jp80056 are three typical specimens.

(2) End scrapers with short bodies. Nos. jp80047 and jp80110 belong to this category.

(3) Thumbnail scrapers. Nos. jp80136, jp80132, and jp80122 are three typical examples. They were trimmed around the edges to form a circular contour.

(4) Core end scrapers or keel scrapers. No. jp79033 was made on a thick flake and resembles similar artifacts at Xiachuan.

Type Number Total %

Microcores 86 20.1 wedge-shaped 19 boat-shaped 52 semiconical 10 conical 5

Microblades 110 110 25.8 Scrapers 43 10.1

straight 16 crescent 6 convex 12 multiple 9

End scrapers 146 146 34.2 Points 29 29 6.3 Backed knives 2 2 0.5 Burins 8 8 1.9 Adze-like tool 1 1 0.2 Hammer 1 l 0.2




Points

Many specimens are carefully produced (Fig. 16). They are divided into two types according to their morphology. The first is that of projectile-like points of relatively large size, with a symmetrical contour and careful retouch. Nos. jp80115 and jp80159 were mainly retouched from the ventral to the dorsal surface. No. jp80158 is a beautiful specimen with careful unifacial retouch.

The second type consists of small specimens with diverse shapes (Fig. 17). Nos. jp80121 and jp79006 are two crooked points made on irregular flakes. Nos. jp80165, jp79005, and jp80186 are specimens with a sharp point or tip.

Backed Knives

Only two samples have been found (Fig. 17). To date, this tool is known only from the sites of Xiachuan and Xueguan in the Chinese Paleolithic. No. jp80009 was made on a long flake with a sharp natural edge opposing a thick edge with trimming flake scars.

Burins

These specimens were usually carefully prepared or shaped before burin spalls were taken off (Fig. 17). Nos. jp79009 and jp80151 may be classified as single and multiple burins, respectively.

CHRONOLOGY

A single radiocarbon date was obtained from samples of animal bone, providing an age of 13,5501150 B.P. Mammalian bones associated with the cultural materials are wild horse (Equus cf. przewalskyi) , wild ass (Equus hemionus), antelope (Gazella sp.), cattle (Bos sp.), deer (Cervus sp.), and ostrich (Struthio sp.). According to faunal evidence, Terrace III is dated to the late period of the Late Pleistocene which is basically identical to the radiocarbon dating result.

DISCUSSION

In addition to Xiachuan and Xueguan, another large multicomponent microblade site, Hutouliang, is briefly introduced here for the sake of comparison, although a detailed analysis is still in progress. Extensive archaeological field surveys and excavations were conducted from 1972 to 1974 along the

middle course of the Shanggan River, Yangyuan County, Hebei Province, about 80 km west of Beijing. Nine localities were identified along 10 km of the left bank of the river (40o08f32"-40°10f47"N, 114°22!32"- 114°29!32"E; Gai and Wei, 1977). A large quantity of stone artifacts, including abundant microblade remains, and late Pleistocene fauna were excavated from the sandy loess and gravel deposits on the second terrace, about 20-30 m above the riverbed.

More than 40,000 stone artifacts were unearthed from these localities, including 236 microblade cores, all of wedge-shaped form, more than 300 microblades, 33 chopper and chopping tools, 42 projectile points, 121 end scrapers, 37 burins, 31 side scrapers, and 13 hammerstones and anvils (Fig. 18). In addition, 13 perforated ornaments made from ostrich egg shell, bird bone, and small stones were also found.

Locality 73101 yielded large amounts of debitage, burned animal bones, and broken ostrich shells in association with three hearths, indicating that this was a habitation camp and workshop. Locality 65040 contained only 10 stone tools and no debitage, suggesting a lookout site for animal hunting. Locality 65039 yielded mainly projectile points and scrapers, suggesting a butchering and meat processing site. Locality 72117 had a large quantity of cores, blanks, and stone chips, probably indicating a chipping station or workshop.

Faunal remains associated with the occupa- tions include frog (Rana sp.), ostrich (Strathi- olithus), field vole (Microtus brandtioides) , Mongolian ground squirrel (Citellus citellus mongolicus), Chinese zokor (Myospalax fon- tanieri), hamster (Cricetulus varians), wolf (Canis lupus), wild horse (Equus przewalskyi), wild ass (Equus hemionus), deer (Cervus sp.), cattle (Bos sp.), three kinds of antelope (Procapra picticaudata, Gazella subqutturosa, tSpiroceros sp.), and wild boar (Sus scrofa). In addition, two species of extinct Pleistocene mammals, woolly rhi- noceros (Coelodonta antiquitatis) and namadicus (Palaeoloxodon namadicus), were uncovered from the same terrace near Locali- ties 73101 and 73102, providing another indication of the age of the cultural materials. A single radiocarbon date of 11,0001100 B.P. was obtained (Tang and Gai 1986). No information on the type of sample dated or its context was provided by the authors.

Gai Pei (Gai 1984; Tang and Gai 1986) identified four wedge-shaped core techniques at Hutouliang, based on his comparative studies with wedge-shaped core technology in Hokkaido, Japan. The techniques are called Yangyuan, Hetao, Hutouliang, and Sanggan techniques respectively. A brief description is provided below.




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I THE YANGYUAN TECHNIQUE

Natural chunks or thick flakes were unifacially worked to prepare a more or less D-shaped preform. A series of blows were directed from lateral edges to shape a flat platform, then longitudinal blows were de- livered from front to back or a tablet was removed and stopped at a notch which was transversely prepared on the upper edge of the platform, thus creating an effective platform. It does not seem plausible, as Gai suggests, that the function of a notch is used to control the extension of tablets. We think the function of the notch might be related to a clamping technique or fixing vise used in microblade reduction. Yangyuan cores are believed by Gai to correspond to the Togeshita cores in Hokkaido, Japan.

II THE HETAO TECHNIQUE

This technique employs bifaces as core preforms. The platform is prepared by the removal of several ski-like spalls to shape a smooth plane passing through the entire lateral edge. Then microblades were detached from one end of the cores without any further platform rejuvenation. This technique is equivalent to the Yubetsu technique in Hokkaido .

ÍÍÍ THE HUTOULIANG TECHNIQUE

By this technique, wedge-shaped cores were unifacially prepared to make D-shaped preforms in cross-section. The platform was trimmed by transverse blows from one side and was usually bevelled. Rejuvenation of platforms was a successive process carried out in the course of microblade reduction.

IV THE SANGGAN TECHNIQUE

Core preforms were bifacially worked to form biconvex shapes (like a biface). Small spalls were taken off the tip of the blank to form a narrow platform. Microblades were removed from the front of the platform. Successive rejuvenation of the platform was carried out during microblade reduction. This technique is basically identical to the Oshoroko technique in Hokkaido.

Microblade remains, especially wedge- shaped cores, have a vast distribution from the Arctic Circle to Tibet and eastern Siberia to northwestern North America. It is becoming more difficult and inadequate to use morphological attributes alone as universal criteria with which to establish affinities among* microblade assemblages in these areas.

In fact, the wedge-shaped cores found in these areas are far from identical from a techno-typological perspective. In many cases, they are similar in appearance but result from different techniques. One thorny issue is that the microblade assemblages usually comprise a series of cultural facies and stages, and were sub- jected to different cultural influences and contacts. Archaeologists will never be able to distinguish between such facies and stages if they only focus on general and morphological categories of wedge-shaped cores .

Although wedge-shaped cores all have somewhat identical shape, they are technologically diverse, especially in the manner of platform preparation that, in turn, had a direct relationship to microblade production. This key element is usually ignored by researchers, who often sketch only the side views and fluted facets of the specimens and neglect to mention their platform attributes.

The other thorny problem is that each wedge-shaped core only represents a specific stage in a dynamic process of microblade manufacture. In fact, each core's appearance changed throughout the course of microblade reduction. In some cases, its appearance when exhausted may be totally different from that of its preform. Fortunately, microblade cores from Xiachuan, Xueguan, and Hutouliang provide us with sufficient data to study them technologically and to reconstruct their production processes. In order to present a comprehensive discussion, we will also use some microblade cores from the Neolithic period for comparison.

According to the radiocarbon dating results, the age of the Xiachuan industry is relatively early in comparison with other microblade industries identified thus far in China. If we take for granted that its age, between 24,000 and 14,000 B.P., represents the early period of microblade development in North China, some techno-typological attributes may be defined.

(1) Wedge-shaped cores are less frequent than other microblade cores, such as conical, boat-shaped, and even semiconical cores. Conical and boat-shaped cores are the most common among microblade technology.

(2) Generally, the size of wedge-shaped cores is relatively small in contrast to some other cores from Xueguan and Hutouliang. Raw materials might not be the primary determinant of size since some lithic materials from Xueguan and Hutouliang, such as quartzite and rhyolite, are difficult to work.

(3) Preform and platform preparation of wedge-shaped cores was basically simple. Three patterns of platform preparation have been identified (Fig. 19) :




Pattern 1. Broad-bodied core with a bevelled platform (from side to side) that are retouched transversely and then trimmed longitudinally to adjust the edge angle.

Pattern 2. Broad-bodied core with a plane platform, untrimmed (cleavage or flake scar) or trimmed longitudinally to adjust the edge angle.

Pattern 3. Narrow-bodied core with a bevelled platform (from front to back) trimmed longitudinally.

(4) Although the bifacial technique appeared in this period, most specimens were unifacially worked with the exception of a few bifacial points. Some points are thick in cross-section and have an asymmetrical contour, reflecting a rather simple technology.

(5) Various types of microblade cores, especially the wedge-shaped and conical ones, co-occur in the same assemblage.

On the basis of Patterns 1 and 2 of wedge- shaped core platforms at Xiachuan, we may define a Xiachuan technique or Xiachuan core type:

Small chunks or flakes were prepared unifacially or bifacially to form a keel edge. Natural planes (cleavage or flake scar) or transversely flattened surfaces were used as platforms and then trimmed from the front to adjust the edge angle. Microblades were removed from one end only. The Xiachuan technique is similar to the

Hutouliang technique, but the Xiachuan cores are not always D-shaped and are sometimes bifacially prepared. The Xiachuan technique might have been the most popular and possi- bly the oldest among diverse wedge-shaped core techniques.

The Xueguan and Hutouliang sites are slightly more recent than the Xiachuan site, and may represent the middle period of microblade development. Several basic features may be observed.

(1) A trend toward the specialization of microblade technology is a major characteristic in this period. Wedge-shaped and boat- shaped cores became the principal core types at Xueguan and wedge-shaped cores only were employed by Hutouliang occupants. Conical cores and other core types were poorly made. They were not frequent at Xueguan and totally absent at Hutouliang.

(2) Wedge-shaped cores display more careful preform preparation and diverse platform patterns. Some specimens increased in size. The Xiachuan technique of platform preparation was still flourishing but several more elaborate platform techniques appeared (Fig. 19).

Pattern 4. A flat platform was trimmed from various directions to form a plane. This pattern can be included with the Xiachuan technique.

Pattern 5. A smooth platform was produced by the Hetao or Yubetsu technique.

Pattern 6. A small platform was trimmed by the Sanggan or Oshoroko technique. Preforms were either bifaces or D-shaped flakes. Rejuvenation of the platform occurred in the course of microblade reduction. The exhausted cores are usually teardrop-shaped, broad at the distal end and very narrow near the platform.

Pattern 7. A platform was made by the Yangyuan technique. The effective platform was longitudinally snapped to remove tiny flakes or tablets. Some specimens contain a notch transversely struck near the keel end which is supposed to control the length of the effective platform, but which may also result from rejuvenation of the core while mounted in the clamping vise.

(3) Some wedge-shaped cores contain double fluted surfaces.

(4) Projectile points are unifacially or bifacially worked. Especially at Hutouliang, bifacial technology dominated the projectile point and wedge-shaped core production.

The microblade assemblages belonging to the Neolithic or the Bronze Age in North China may be assigned to the late period of microblade development. These assemblages show extreme temporal and spatial variation, reflecting a highly developed stage of microblade industries. Judging from the assemblages of Yingen, Inner Mongolia, Angangxi, Heilongjiang Province, and Chikuochingtse , Xinjiang Province (Chen 1984; Liang 1959; Teilhard de Chardin 1939), very brief characteristics of Neolithic period microblade remains may be defined:

(1) The specialization of core technology is still a main attribute in this period. Conical and wedge-shaped cores are two dominant types, but account for different proportions or frequencies in different assemblages.

(2) Conical and wedge-shaped cores vary in size, with some specimens being quite large. Many wedge-shaped cores were made on rectangular nodules to form thick, narrow-bodied preforms. When exhausted, they look like conical forms but contain a keel edge in the back. The platforms of these cores were usually trimmed around the edge to produce a slightly concave plane (see Fiff. * 19, 9).

*

The wedge-shaped cores from Chikuochingtse were made on flakes, and have a broad-bodied appearance and thin cross-section. They appear to be prepared by the Xiachuan technique, but no detailed information is available to confirm this (Fiff. * 19, 8).

(Fiff. *

On the basis of the foregoing presentation, a preliminary outline of microblade development in North China is as follows. In the 2arly period, conical cores with somewhat




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irregular shapes and small boat-shaped cores were the principal types used in microblade production. Wedge-shaped cores were few in number, and rather simple in platform technique. Along with the development and expansion of microblade technology, wedge- shaped cores became the primary core type in some assemblages, revealing a trend toward greater sophistication in preform and platform preparation. During and after the Neolithic, microblade industries display diversification in different periods and places, but conical and wedge-shaped cores are still the major types in most assemblages.

BRIEF REVIEW AND COMMENT ON MICROBLADE DISCOVERIES IN ASIA AND NORTH AMERICA

OUTER MONGOLIA

Outer Mongolia has remained little known archaeologically since members of the American Central Asiatic Expedition, under the leadership of R. C. Andrews, carried out field surveys in 1922 to 1930. These surveys are closely connected with the name of N. C. Nelson, the former Associate Curator of Archaeology of the American Museum of Natural History in New York, who joined the staff in 1925.

The major focus of the survey was a more or less narrow zone stretching from Zhangjiakou (former Kalgan), Hebei Province, in North China to Outer Mongolia, or a dis- tance of 1600 km. Nelson defined this zone as lying between longitudes 97°-115°E, latitudes 45°-46°N at the west end and latitudes 42°-44°N at the east end (Maringer 1950).

The Andrews expedition made rich and surprising Stone Age discoveries, mainly during the seasons of 1925 and 1928, in scattered parts of the Mongolian plateau. In this oblique stretch, which penetrates the barren Gobi Desert proper, 122 localities yielding Stone Age artifacts were discovered. About 200,000 items were collected from these localities, but only 5000 artifacts were selected and saved for scientific study. Nelson ( 1926a, b, 1935, 1937) published some brief papers about the collection gathered in 1925, but a comprehensive and detailed report was never published.

The discoveries outlined above were mainly those of surface collections, except those of the Shabarakh-usu site in the Gobi Desert which contained two cultural layers ascribed by Nelson to the Mesolithic and the Neolithic, respectively. The Mesolithic stratum yielded flake cores, microblade cores of conical, cylindrical, and wedge-shaped forms, microblades described by Nelson as long, slender, prismatic, and often very delicate, end

scrapers, and other artifacts such as perforators, hammerstones , and disk beads of egg shell.

The upper stratum is of the Neolithic period. The lithic inventory contains flake cores and flakes, microblade cores and microblades, perforators, side scrapers, choppers, spear points or knife-blades, some end scrapers and arrowheads which have a subtriangu- lar outline with straight, concave, convex, or stemmed butt ends, as well as a few adzes, mortars, and celts. Many potsherds, gray to brick red in color, were found in this layer.

In 1947, A. P. Okladnikov visited the Shabarakh-usu site and found that pottery occurs in both layers. Therefore, the Mesolithic culture at Shabarakh-usu was rejected by Okladnikov (Maringer 1963). In 1960, a Soviet archaeological expedition re- examined Shabarakh-usu and confirmed Okladnikovfs 1947 observation that the lower layer does not contain a pure Mesolithic culture as Nelson believed (Chard 1961).

Maringer (1963) questions, however, if the two layers surveyed by the Soviet scholars are the same as those investigated by the American expedition, because the lack or presence of pottery is an obvious element that would hardly have been overlooked. He is inclined to accept the American scholars1 hypothesis pertaining to the Mesolithic culture of the Gobi Desert.

In addition, several sporadic microblade discoveries include those from a stratified site on the Orkhon River, near Erdeni-Dzu. The upper layer yielded prismatic and wedge- shaped microblade cores and massive artifacts such as choppers and Mousterian type points. The age of the layer was estimated to be the Epi-Paleolithic or the Mesolithic (Chard 1962).

In 1961 and 1962, several sites regarded as being terminal Upper Paleolithic or possible Mesolithic in age were found by the Soviet- Mongolian Expedition on river terraces 140 km to the south of Sukhe-Bator. Conical and prismatic cores, microblades, and large numbers of flakes were collected in extensive sandy blowouts (Chard 1964).

In 1967, A Mesolithic site was investigated by an expedition team at Mt. Khereul on the Khalkin-Gol River, eastern Outer Mongolia. Microblade cores, microblades, flake cores, and ski spalls were identified and described as being very similar to those of preceramic Japan (Chard 1971).

Since very few microblade sites and assemblages have been thoroughly studied and few detailed archaeological reports are available, it is impossible for us to provide a detailed comparison of microblade remains from North China and Outer Mongolia. Based on his examination of some of the Shabarakh-usu materials, Morían (1978) mentions that the Mongolian cores are mainly made on cobbles.




Platforms are nearly always shorter than the flute elements and frequently are shorter than the flute chord. Flaking of the faces on many specimens originates entirely from the wedge, which more frequently forms an effective, and apparently often used, cutting edge. The faces were almost always formed before the preparation of the platform. Morían also points out that the Mongolian microblade cores intergrade continuously from wedge-shaped cores to conical cores on the one hand, to tabular cores on the other. Obviously, these characteristics are very similar to the specimens found at sites such as Yingen in Inner Mongolia. There appears to be a correlation between environmental conditions and occurrence of microblade remains between Inner and Outer Mongolia, suggesting that these two regions should be treated as an integrated geographic zone. Microblade remains in this zone have a broad occurrence but primarily come from ill-defined and undated archaeological sites. Most are from dune blowouts and other surface sites. Wedge-shaped and conical cores are the major form and indicate a sophisticated level of manufacture. The microblade assemblages prior to the Mesolithic are by far poorly known. Therefore, microblade remains found in Outer Mongolia basically correspond to the late period of microblade development in North China.

JAPAN

Microblade remains are widespread over almost all the Japanese archipelago and comprise the principal cultural feature from the late preceramic to the ceramic periods. However, precise information concerning their stratigraphic context is not always available (Serizawa and Ikawa 1960). It seems that the microblade site with best stratigraphic evidence is the Fukui Cave site in Kyushu. Several successive cultural layers from the preceramic to the ceramic periods were identified. Microblade technology represented by conical cores appears in Layer 4. In Layer 3, conical cores are replaced by wedge- shaped cores and the earliest pottery appears. A radiocarbon date of 12,700±500 B.P. was obtained (Hayashi 1968; Ikawa-Smith 1982; Kobayashi 1970). On the basis of the study of wedge-shaped technology at Fukui, Hayashi defined the "Fukui core" or the "Fukui technique." The Fukui core is made on a flake with bifacial retouch. Its platform is formed after the sides, and it is laterally retouched by multiple flaking. The effective platform is rejuvenated by multiple short , longitudinal flaking.

Hayashi also mentions that very few of the wedge-shaped cores from Fukui Cave were

made on bifacial preforms, and that there was no trace of the typical Yubetsu technique. We have ascertained that the diagnostic attributes of the Fukui technique are similar to the Xiachuan technique, although the Fukui cores show a more sophisticated preform preparation.

The microblade industry in Layer 4 of the Fukui Cave is generally identical to the Yadegawa-Yasumiba industries which mainly occur in the southern part of Japan and were first discovered at Yadegawa, Nagano County (Hayashi 1968; Serizawa and Ikawa 1960). Conical cores made on small chunks and flakes are the main feature of the industry. They resemble the conical cores at Xiachuan and contain a fluted surface covering part of the body.

In northern Honshu and Hokkaido, the chronological sequence of microblade industries is built mainly on the basis of obsidian hydration tests. Shirataki, the most productive and best studied site, contains 74 localities and has a considerable time depth from the preceramic to the post-Jomon period (Morían 1967; Serizawa and Ikawa 1960).

The locality yielding the earliest microblade remains is Shirataki Locality 13 in Terrace 4 from which boat-shaped cores, large and medium size blades, end scrapers, side scrapers, and hand-axe-like tools were discovered from 2 m below the surface. Obsidian hydration measurements gave a date of 17,000 B.P. Morían (1967, 1978) defines a Horoka technique based on these boat-shaped cores. A large, broad flake, of various thickness, was struck from a cobble or other large piece of stone. The ventral surface of this flake became the "platform" of the finished tool, and the sides of the tool were formed by blows struck on the "platform." Material was thus removed along one edge of the flake until one side of the tool was finished .

According to Morían1 s definition, boat- shaped cores in Hokkaido and northern Honshu look very similar to their counterparts at Xiachuan and Xueguan, although the boat-shaped cores at these two sites in North China are made on chunks or thick flakes rather than on split cobbles. On the other hand, specimens in Hokkaido and northern Honshu are much larger than the North Chinese ones.

The Horoka technique persisted in Hokkaido for more than 5000 years. It probably vanished about 11,800 years ago at the Okedo site.

The locality containing the earliest conical cores is Shirataki Locality 4 on Terrace 3. Four conical cores with plane platforms were found along with small boat-shaped cores, a




few end scrapers, and crude blade-like flakes. An obsidian date of 16,800 B.P. was obtained for this locality (Morían 1967). These conical cores, part of the Momijiyama industry in Hokkaido, have finer and more carefully worked outlines than those of the Yadegawa-Yasumiba industries in southern Japan (Hayashi 1968).

About 15,000 years ago, wedge-shaped cores made by the Yubetsu technique appeared along with bifacial point technology in Hokkaido. The locality yielding the earliest Yubetsu cores is Shirataki Locality 33 on Terrace 4, with an obsidian date of 15,200 B.P. The Yubetsu technique lasted less than 3000 years in Hokkaido. The youngest example of this core type was obtained from the Sakkotsu site, Mombetsu County. Published obsidian dates give an age of 12,500 B.P. (Morían 1967).

Before and after the decline of the Yubetsu core type, several other kinds of wedge-shaped cores made by different techniques appeared. One is called the Oshoroko core. The platform was made on a heavy bifacial point by first striking a single diagonal blow on the tip. Using this first facet as a platform, several diagonal blows were struck in the opposite direction on the tip. The result was a core with a single facet on one edge as a platform and multiple facets on the other (Morían 1967, 1978). This technique is identical to the Sanggan technique at the Hutouliang site in North China.

Another wedge-shaped core is the Togeshita core. The platform was unifacially worked, although some specimens bear bifacial edge retouch and even restricted retouch on both surfaces. The platform was first transversely retouched, then trimmed by taking off a tablet or by a burin blow along one long margin to remove part of the platform (Morían 1967, 1978). This technique is basically identical to the Yangyuan core at Hutouliang, North China.

On the basis of the foregoing description, we may present a general picture of microblade technology in Japan in comparison with microblade development in North China.

Microblade industries in southern Japan indicate a successive development from conical to wedge-shaped cores. From a techno- typological perspective, the microblade technology of the Yadegawa-Yasumiba industries is basically identical to that at Xiachuan. The close similarity between the Xiachuan and Fukui techniques suggests that they might be culturally related. The specialization of wedge-shaped core technology in Layers 3 and 2 in Fukui Cave, however, parallels the situation found in the middle period of microblade development in North China. We have good reason to postulate that the Fukui

technique might be derived from industries related to the Xiachuan or Xueguan site in North China.

In northern Honshu and Hokkaido, microblade technology and development reveal a quite different picture from that in the southern part of Japan. Boat-shaped and conical cores appeared relatively early, while wedge-shaped cores of the Yubetsu, Oshoroko, and Togeshita cores appeared more recently. Although the archaeological evidence at present is not adequate to prove a direct connection between microblade industries of Hokkaido and North China, some significant similarities exist between them.

As documented earlier, boat-shaped and conical cores are the dominant types in the early period of microblade development in North China. The specialization and diver- sified techniques of wedge-shaped cores appeared in the middle period. The situation encountered in Hokkaido provides a somewhat similar picture. The problem is that Hutouliang is more recent than the localities at Shirataki which yield the Yubetsu, the Oshoroko, and the Togeshita cores. There- fore, Hutouliang could not be the antecedent of various forms of wedge-shaped cores in Hokkaido. The resemblance of wedge-shaped technology between Hutouliang and Hokkaido may indicate an equivalent level of microblade development. More information is needed to fill the formidable geographic gap to establish cultural contact between these two regions. On the one hand, the mutually exclusive distribution and different core typology and technology in Japan imply different origins of microblade industries in the north and the south. On the other hand, they share certain characteristics in their microblade industries and demonstrate a somewhat coincident process of cultural change as that of North China.

EASTERN SIBERIA

Microblade remains have a vast distribution from the Lena River basin to the Pacific coast and from the Amur River valley to the Arctic Circle. Based on the evidence available, microblade sites are relatively concentrated in four major geographic zones.

The first zone covers the upper Angara River, the upper Lena River, and Lake Baikal. The early microblade sites in this region are best represented at Verkholenskaya Gora, Krasnyi IAr, Makarovo I and II, and Ust'Belaya (Abramova 1965; Chard 1971, 1974; Medvedev 1964, 1969a, 1969b; Michael 1984; Powers 1973). Most sites are riverine locations associated with stratified cultural layers. The layers containing microblade remains were principally




assigned to the Mesolithic, although microblade remains were also the major component part in the Upper Paleolithic, the Neolithic and even the Bronze Age sites. Because of the absence of a firmly dated chronological sequence and of detailed reports in English, it is only possible to provide a very preliminary overview of microblade development in this region.

Microblade remains are a major component at Verkholenskaya Gora. Microblade core types may be divided into two large groups: prismatic and conical types on the one hand, and wedge-shaped type on the other. The first group of cores shows a carefully prepared pressure-flaked platform. The blanks are often rectangular nodules. Retouch of the platform by pressure is absent in most wedge-shaped cores. These two groups of cores exist side by side on the site. Ac- cording to Medvedev (1964), these two types of core preparation are similar to those of the Neolithic.

The lithic inventory at Krasnyi IAr contains irregular cores, sandstone abraders, wedge-shaped cores, microblades, pebble tools, lateral burins, and microblades with bilateral pressure flaking. Wedge-shaped cores as a whole are rather small in size. Their form is distinctive and very consistent. They have a well prepared straight or slightly bevelled platform. The dimensions of such cores range from 2. 3x1. 9 to 4. 0x3. 3 cm (Abramova 1965; Medvedev 1969a; Michael 1984).

Only one wedge-shaped core is found from Layer IV at Makarovo I which is dated to the Mesolithic. The core platform shows burin- like retouch from the facet end and was regarded by Aksenov as similar to Verkholenskaya Gora or the Mesolithic culture in the Cis-Baikal region. At Makarovo II, microblade remains are the main components from Layers II to IV. Wedge-shaped cores with heavily bevelled platforms make up the majority of the tool assemblage (Powers 1973).

Ustf Belaya is an important microblade site containing Mesolithic, Neolithic, and Bronze Age materials. Sixteen Mesolithic cultural layers were identified and divided into early, middle, and final stages by Medvedev. The early Mesolithic stage is represented by Levels XIV-XVI. The majority of the stone artifacts are microblades and wedge-shaped and prismatic cores. The middle Mesolithic stage is represented by Levels II-XIII. Microblades are dominant in the total inventory. The final Mesolithic stage is represented by Level I. Microblade remains constitute 64% of all items. The wedge- shaped, conical, and prismatic cores were discovered together.

Although two major core types coexisted side by side from the early to the final stages

of the Mesolithic strata, there was a gradual evolution toward typical Neolithic forms. For example, few conical cores were found in the lower levels, indicating a replacement of conical by wedge-shaped cores in microblade manufacture (Chard 1971; Medvedev 1969b). There are two radiocarbon dates available for the Mesolithic levels: 8960160 B.P. for Levels III and IV, and 9850±500 B.P. for Level XIII (Michael 1984).

From a techno-typological perspective, the microblade industries in this region reflect diverse and highly developed wedge-shaped core techniques in the Mesolithic and a transition from wedge-shaped to conical technology. Although it is still premature to give a detailed comparison, our brief impression is that the development of microblade industries in this region is basically equivalent to the middle and the late periods in North China.

The second major region is the Aldan River valley. Several important microblade sites with very early radiocarbon dates are located there. Almost all these discoveries were from the alluvial terraces on the Aldan River. The close similarity between lithic inventories led Mochanov (cited in Powers 1973) to conclude that they might represent a distinctive ethnic group, the Dyuktai culture, flourishing in eastern Siberia during the Upper Paleolithic.

The content of Dyuktai materials proposed by Mochanov (see Powers 1973) is as follows: bifacially worked, flint spear points and triangular and oval knives, disc-shaped, Levallois, and wedge-shaped cores, central and lateral multifaceted burins, massive semilunar skreblos, and miniature end scrapers on blades. There were also unifacially worked, flint oval knives and massive flint blades with a side notch at the base. Of the bone tools, an elongate-triangular, well retouched, unifacially worked spear point made from a flake of mammoth tusk is of importance .

The main sites initially assigned to the Dyuktai culture on the Aldan were Layers III-XIV in the Dyuktai Cave, Verkhne- Troiskaya, and Ust-Timpton. The age of the Dyuktai culture was first dated to between about 18,000 to 19,000 B.P. More recently, the age of the Dyuktai culture has been estimated at 30,000-35,000 B.P. by Mochanov, based on discoveries and the radiocarbon dates from sites such as Ikhine, Ust'Mil, and Ezhantsy (Mochanov 1978, 1980). Mochanovfs conclusions became a controversial issue and were challenged by Yi and Clark (1985). We basically agree with the argument advanced by Yi and Clark and would like to add some comments concerning the early chronological placement of the Dyuktai culture. Several interesting phenomena may be noted from a




comparison between the Dyuktai culture and the North Chinese microblade industries.

(1) Wedge-shaped cores of the Dyuktai culture show more careful preform preparation and more diverse platform patterns than those of the early stage of microblade development in North China. One wedge-shaped core from Verkhne-Troiskaya appears to be trimmed by the Xiachuan technique (Mochanov 1978:65), and another from Ikhine has a smooth platform, probably formed by the Hetao or Yubetsu technique (Powers 1973:58).

(2) Projectile points of the Dyuktai culture are much more meticulously manufactured than those at the Xiachuan, Xueguan, and Hutouliang sites. They have an elongated, thin, and leaf-shaped appearance. There is no evidence to help us trace point origin and technological development in northeast Asia. Morphologically and technologically, such projectile points appeared rather late and mainly flourished during the North Chinese Neolithic period.

(3) Conical cores are absent in the Dyuktai culture and appeared very late in the Sumnagin culture, with an extremely slender shape and sophisticated manufacturing technique .

These comparisons suggest that the age of the Dyuktai culture may not be as early as Mochanov thought, based on techno-typological analogies. Rather, The Dyuktai culture appears to closely resemble the Xueguan and Hutouliang industries, or generally represent the same level of microblade development.

The third major region is the Amur- Maritime Territory. The microblade sites found in this region include Novopetrovka, Gromatukha, and Osipovka on the Amur and Zeia rivers and Ustinovka and Maikhe I on the Tadusha and Maikhe rivers (Chard 1971, 1974; Derevianko 1969; Michael 1984; Powers 1973). The start of the intensive use of blades and microblades is exemplified by the lower cultural horizon of Ustinovka (Ustinovka I). Many preforms of wedge-shaped cores were found in this horizon. A detailed description of these cores is not available. Judging from the illustrated specimens (Powers 1973:32), some core platforms consist of a weathered or natural plane. It is con- spicuous that wedge-shaped cores disappeared in the upper horizon, Ustinovka II, and were replaced by a kind of prismatic core that does not seem to be a microblade core at all. Derevianko assigned the date of 20,000-15,000 B.P. to Ustinovka I and 15,000-9000 B.P. to Ustinovka II, based on typological comparison (see Powers 1973).

The Osipovka site is characterized by four geological layers. The third layer represented by the loess-like clay yielded wedge- shaped cores, microblades, bifacial points, pebble adze-like tools, scrapers, burins, and

pointed tools. Derevianko estimated these materials to be of Mesolithic age, or about 8000 and 10,000 B.P. (Powers 1973).

Novopetrovka and Gromatukha are dated to the early Neolithic, based on the presence of pottery. Wedge-shaped and conical cores are found together in both these sites, but conical and prismatic cores at Gromatukha are very small. Judging from core morphology and technology, the wedge-shaped cores found at Novopetrovka show quite different attributes from those in the Dyuktai culture, especially platform patterns. Some wedge- shaped core platforms at Novopetrovka consist of weathered or natural surfaces (Chard 1974; Powers 1973).

The microblade discoveries just described from this region are as yet insufficient to provide a clear picture of microblade development. The absence of conical cores, however, is striking at Ustinovka and Osipovka and suggests that they may correspond to the second period of microblade development in North China.

The fourth major region is the Northeast, covering the area of the Indigirka and Kolyma rivers, Chukchi Peninsula, and Kamchatka. The best microblade assemblages in the region are from the Ushki Lake sites, where microblade development can be well understood from the stratified sequences. Wedge-shaped cores appeared in Layers VI and V. Some are made by the Yubetsu technique. Some have a narrow-bodied shape and seem trimmed by the Xiachuan technique. The two radiocarbon dates for Layer IV are 10,360±350 and 10,760±110 B.P. Microblade remains persisted in the upper layers of the Ushki sites, with a trend toward conical cores replacing wedge- shaped ones and becoming a dominant attribute in microblade manufacture (Dikov 1965; Dikov and Titov 1984; Michael 1984; Powers 1973). The Maiorych site on the Kolyma River yielded a surface collection containing a wedge-shaped core prepared by the Yubetsu technique. The specimen is quite large, measuring 5. 3x4. 8x 1.0 cm. Our impression is that microblade development in North- east Asia is basically identical to that of the Aldan region, reflecting a transition from wedge-shaped core technology in the Upper Paleolithic and the Mesolithic to conical technology in the Neolithic.

NORTH AMERICA

Microblade production played a prominent role in the early development of arctic culture in Alaska and the Northwest Coast. Most of these remains occur along the former or present channels of river valleys, lake shores, and coastal areas, extending from North Alaska to the Columbia River in Washington .




In terms of cultural development, several microblade traditions have been defined according to their geochronological positions, cultural components, and technological attributes .

The earliest microblade tradition in North America is the American Paleo-Arctic tradition which is defined by D. D. Anderson (1970) on the basis of discoveries at Onion Portage, and Trail Creek, Cave II. Later, the tradition was extended to include the microblade discoveries at the Campus site at the University of Alaska, the Dry Creek site, the Tangle Lake sites, and Healy Lake site in interior Alaska. Examples of wedge-shaped cores of this tradition do not exceed 5 cm in length. They have sometimes been referred to as the "Campus type" microblade core after the site where they were first recognized.

According to Andersonfs (1970) definition, the principal diagnostic features of the wedge-shaped cores of the tradition are as follows:

(1) The core is formed by unif acial or bifacial retouch of thick flakes;

(2) The striking platform is formed by the initial unifacial or bifacial flaking of the top of the core and subsequent detachment by a longitudinal blow from the intended fluted end; the effective striking platform often terminates in a hinge fracture;

(3) Cores are occasionally rejuvenated by the removal of the entire fluted surface; and

(4) New platform surfaces are occasionally created by removal of the entire original platform area through a longitudinal blow from the fluted end.

Morían (1970) named this wedge-shaped technology the "Campus technique," based on his comparative studies of microblade cores in North America. The American Paleo-Arctic tradition in Alaska dates to between 9000 and 6000 B.C. (Dumond 1978).

A much younger microblade tradition is the Arctic Small Tool tradition (Dumond 1978; Irving 1968), now known to have spread from the Bering Sea side of the Alaska Peninsula northward along a strip of land adjacent to the Alaskan coast, throughout the Brooks Range, and beyond Alaska through the Canadian Arctic Archipelago to Greenland.

The Western Arctic representative of the tradition is the Denbigh Flint complex (Giddings 1951) situated at Cape Denbigh on Norton Bay, Alaska. In addition, other locations with materials clearly attributable to the tradition occur at Onion Portage on the Kobuk River, along the Colville drainages in the Brooks Range, and in the upper portions of both the Ugashik and Naknek rivers on the Alaska Peninsula.

A prominent feature of the Arctic Small Tool tradition is the use of microblades. Another diagnostic artifact is the burin. The

stone tool collections also contain several types of projectile points for spears, har- poons, and arrows. Unfortunately, no detailed description is available of the techno- typology of the microblade cores. According to Morían (1970, 1978), microblade cores were made on pebbles or chunks. The platform element was formed first and the face elements second. The faces were formed by blows struck along the edges of the platform, and the bulbs in these scars are usually intact. The wedge was frequently formed by the intersection of the blows that formed the faces and bears little or no direct flaking. Morían termed it the Denbigh technique, which seems analogous to boat-shaped core technology or the Horoka technique in Asia.

The appearance of the Arctic Small Tool tradition in the Bering Strait region does not date earler than 3000 B.C. and ended every- where in Alaska no later than 1000 B.C. (Anderson 1979; Dumond 1978). The origin of the Arctic Small Tool tradition is still unclear. It is not known if this tradition was developed by Siberian Neolithic peoples of the Chukchi Peninsula or was derived from an earlier American Paleo-Arctic tradition.

The microblade industries of south-central British Columbia and the Columbia Plateau are placed within a single technological tradition, the Plateau Microblade tradition. The sites or units belonging to this tradition include Ryegrass Coulee, Drynoch Slide, Kootenay, Marron Lake, Lehman, Windy Spring, and the Nesikep late tradition at the Lochnore-Nesikep locality (Sanger 1968, 1970a, 1970b).

The diagnostic characteristics of the tradition are defined by Sanger (1970b) as follows:

(1) Microblade cores have a weathered surface for a striking platform which is usually modified only at the core edge; multiple-blow striking platform preparation is scarce and core rejuvenation tablets are not known;

(2) Microblades are usually removed from only one end of the core;

(3) Core rotation, resulting in more than one striking platform, is very unusual;

(4) Fluted surfaces commonly contrast to the wedge-shaped keel; and

(5) The technique of preparing fluted surfaces was unknown, but the apparent absence of ridge flakes may be very important in this respect.

Morían (1970) called this kind of core technique the Lehman technique. He con- tends that the nature of the lithic raw material predetermined the form of the core, and that the particular sequence of element formation was not especially important.

The Plateau Microblade tradition lasted at least 5000 years. It appeared as early as 5000-4500 B.C. and evidently did not end




until about A.D. 500 (Browman and Munsell 1969).

Among the microblade traditions mentioned in this paper, only the microblade cores in the American Paleo-Arctic tradition are re- markably similar to their Asian counterparts. The Campus technique basically resembles the Xiachuan technique, although the rejuvenation of tablets from the platform is similar to a certain extent to the Yangyuan technique. The specialization of wedge-shaped core technology is identical to the Dyuktai culture in eastern Siberia, but the techniques seem different. One obvious fact is that the Hetao or the Yubetsu technique, reported in the Dyuktai culture, is rare in the American Paleo-Arctic tradition. Morían (1978) indicates that the manufacturing process of the Denali complex cores is very similar to the Yubetsu technique. We think that the rejuvenation of a tablet to remove a partial or whole platform resembles the Yubetsu technique, but is technologically different. First, the preforms of wedge-shaped cores of the Denali complex are never made on bifaces; second, the tablets are not ski-like spalls as are those produced by the Yubetsu technique. They usually contain previously flaked scars. Rejuvenated platforms are usually trimmed again to adjust the edge angle. This sharply contrasts with the Yubetsu technique, that is based on bifaces with smooth platforms which were never trimmed by flaking.

The Denbigh and Lehman techniques in the Arctic Small Tool tradition and the Plateau Microblade tradition might be the result of local variation due to differing adaptational modes to differing environments. They might be related, but distantly, to Asian assemblages. The use of cobbles and chunks as raw materials and weathered and natural surfaces as platforms share certain similarities to the boat-shaped and conical techniques in Asian microblade industries. These similarities may result from technological convergence rather than from direct cultural connection, since these attributes were obviously unknown in the Neolithic of eastern Siberia, especially in the northeastern region.

CONCLUSION The Upper Paleolithic microblade industries

of North China may be tentatively divided into two chronological and techno-typological stages. Xiachuan, ranging from 24,000 to 14,000 B.P., represents the first stage of microblade development and is characterized by relatively small, wedge-shaped cores made on flakes and small chunks and simple preform and platform preparation. Two major types of microblade cores, wedge-shaped and conical, coexisted in the assemblage, but conical cores are the dominant type.

The second stage, represented by the Xueguan and Hutouliang industries (13,550 to 11,000 B.P.), witnessed the elaboration or specialization of wedge-shaped core manufacture. Several distinctive platform techniques appeared and preforms were usually bifacial. Conical and other forms of microblade cores seem to have degenerated or even disappeared. This situation may reflect the specialization of core technology employed by different microblade using groups.

During the Neolithic, microblade technology in North China displays a sophisticated level of core manufacture. Microblade cores show diverse forms, a variety of sizes, and simpli- fied preform and platform preparation. This might reflect the fact that microblade technology was widely adopted by most groups and developed into diverse local, short-term industries. At the same time, technical proficiency in microblade manufacture had reached a high degree, and artisans apparently did not need to spend much time and effort in preform and platform preparation. In the comparative studies of microblade industries in Asia and North America, wedge- shaped cores are often regarded as a fossil index in tracing cultural relationships (An 1978; Chen 1984; Gai and Wei 1977; Hayashi 1968; Jia 1978; Mochanov 1980; Nelson 1935, 1937; Teilhard de Chardin 1939). Microblade technology, especially wedge-shaped core technology, as a whole seems too complex to have been developed independently in various locations strictly by chance. It is reasonable to assume that microblade industries on both continents had a common cultural heritage.

Although the developmental sequence of miroblade technology in North China pre- sented here is still very preliminary, several comments can be offered based on the techno- typological comparison of Asian and North American assemblages.

(1) Microblade development in Japan basically corresponds to the first and middle stages of microblade development in North China. Different techno-typological attributes of microblade industries in southern Japan and Hokkaido may represent different groups who entered Japan separately and periodically both from the south and north.

(2) The Dyuktai culture seems equivalent to the middle stage of microblade development in North China. Wedge-shaped cores in the Dyuktai culture are generally identical to those from Xueguan and Hutouliang, even though they might not be directly connected. Therefore, this conclusion does not support Mochanov's argument that the Dyuktai culture appeared in Northeast Asia as early as 35,000- 30,000 B.P.

(3) The American Paleo- Arctic tradition may have derived from certain groups of the Dyuktai culture. However, the former




tradition does not exactly copy the Dyuktai culture; some wedge-shaped core techniques and tool types such as leaf-shaped projectile points are unknown in North American microblade assemblages. The Arctic Small Tool tradition and the Plateau Microblade tradition may represent local cultural development.

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ADDENDUM

Relevant dates for the Xiachuan industry were supplied after this article had gone to press. These are listed below.

Date (B.P.)

1380±80 2830±100

13, 9001300 16,400±900 18,375±480 18,500±480 19,600±600 20,700±600 21,700±1000 23,90011000 36,200±3500-2500

Lab No.

ZK-493 ZK-634 ZK-762 ZK-385 ZK-494 ZK-497 ZK-634 ZK-393 ZK-384 ZK-417 ZK-638

Material

charcoal charcoal charcoal charcoal mud peat charcoal charcoal charcoal charcoal charcoal

Location

Shanshanyan Shunwangping Shunwangping Xiachuan Shanshanyan Shanshanyan Shunwangping Xiachuan Xiachuan Xiachuan Fuyuhe

ZK-638 was obtained on charcoal from the lower cultural layer at Fuyuhe. ZK-634 was obtained on a sample from the Holocene stratum. The late date from Shanshanyan (1380±80, ZK-493) seems problematic because the charcoal sample was associated with Paleolithic remains.



upper paleolithic microblade industries in north china and their relationships with northeast asia...

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