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A MQ-9 Reaper during a training mission

Unmanned combat air vehicleFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from UCAV)

An unmanned combat air vehicle (UCAV), also known

as a combat drone or drone, is an unmanned aerial vehicle

(UAV) that is ar med with weaponry and has no onboard

human pilot. Cur rently oper ational drones are under real-

time human control of unknown precision.[citation needed ]

Drones change the nature of modern aerial combat.

Controllers of drones are in no immediate danger, unlike jet

 pilots. As an advanced use of robots in war, drones also

 prompt fundamental questions about the relationship of 

warriors to war, and soldiers to their weapons.

In terms of military logistics, much of the equipment

necessary for a human pilot (such as the cockpit, ejectionseat, flight controls, and environmental controls for pressur e

& oxygen) can be omitted from an unmanned vehicle, r esulting in a decrease in weight. This may allow for greater 

 payloads, range and maneuverability. However, the distance between the pilot and the aircraft may result in slowe

response time or latency.

The use of drones in war has far-reaching consequences for wars in the 21st Century, including AI development,

the ethics of war (see below), and for military software design.[citation needed ] The degree of a drone's autonomy

the field of battle also has legal ramifications, e.g., proximate cause.[citation needed ]

Contents

1 History

2 Proliferation

3 Laws of war & ethics

4 Political effects

5 Future models

5.1 BAE Taranis

5.2 J-UCAS5.3 N-UCAS

5.4 USAF Hunter-Killer 

5.5 Sagem Sperwer 

5.6 Elbit Hermes 450

5.7 Lethal Miniature Aerial Munition System (LMAMS)

6 See also

7 References

8 External links

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History

One of the earliest explorations of the concept of the combat drone was by Dr. Lee De Forest, an early inventor o

radio devices, and U.A. Sanabria, a TV engineer. They presented their idea in an article in a 1940 publication of 

 Popular Mechanics.[1] In the 1980s, Iran deployed a drone armed with six RPG-7 rounds in the Iran-Iraq War.

This was the first time a combat drone was used in war. [2] The first time drones were used as proof-of-concept o

super-agility [post-stall controlled flight] in combat flight simulations was with tailless, Stealth-Technology-based

three-dimensional Thrust Vectoring flight control [jet steering] was in Israel in 1987.[3] In recent years the US has

increased its use of UAVs in Pakistan as part of the War on Terrorism.

Proliferation

Countries with known operational armed drones:

China - Guizhou WZ-2000, AVIC Wing Loong I

France - EADS Harfang (based on the IAI Heron)Germany - Modified IAI Heron from Israel.[4]

India - IAI Heron, IAI Harop and IAI Harpy from Israel,[5] DRDO AURA, DRDO Nishant, DRDO

Lakshya, DRDO Rustom [6]

Iran - Karrar, Shahed 129 (UCAV), and others

Ireland - Aeronautics Orbiter UAV, number: 3+. Used in Irish Army duties. [citation needed ]

Israel - IAI Heron, IAI Harpy, Elbit Hermes 450, IAI Eitan, IAI Harop

Italy - MQ-1 Predator, MQ-9 Reaper from the U.S.[citation needed ]

North Korea - MQM-107-based flying bombs[7]

Pakistan - Shahpur (Testing), Falco UAV from Italy modified to carry rockets (Testing)[8]

Russia - IAI Heron from Israel[9]

Taiwan - The Chungshan Institute of Science and Technology (CSIST) is developing a defending and

attack UCAV based on the US X-47B.[10][11]

Turkey - TAI Anka, Vestel Karayel

United Kingdom - MQ-1 Predator, MQ-9 Reaper from the U.S.[citation needed ]

United States - MQ-1 Predator, MQ-9 Reaper 

Laws of war & ethics

See also: Targeted killing 

The international laws of war (such as the Geneva Conventions) govern the conduct of participants in war (and als

define combatants). These laws place a burden upon participants to limit civilian deaths and injuries through prope

identification of targets and distinction between combatants and non-combatants. The use of completely

autonomous weapon systems is problematic, however, because of the difficulty in assigning accountability to a

 person. Therefore, current designs still incorporate an element of human control (a "man in the loop") – meaning th

a ground controller must authorize weapons release.

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Concerns also include the human controller's role, because if he is a civilian and not a member of the military (whic

is quite possible with developmental and highly sophisticated weapons systems) he would be considered a

combatant under international law which carries a distinct set of responsibilities and consequences. It is for this

reason that the "man in the loop" should ideally be a member of the military that understands and accepts his role a

combatant.[12] However, in the United States in 2011/2012 the process for selecting targets outside of warzones

was altered so that power was concentrated within a group of people in the White House.[13]

Controllers can also experience psychological stress from the combat they are involved in. They may communicate

with the ground troops they are supporting and feel a bond with them. They may also feel helplessness, guilt,

exhaustion, or burnout as a response to what they witness remotely. A few may even experience Posttraumatic

stress disorder.[14][15]

On 28 October 2009, United Nations Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions, Philip

Alston, presented a report to the Third Committee (social, humanitarian and cultural) of the General Assembly

arguing that the use of unmanned combat air vehicles for targeted killings should be regarded as a breach of 

international law unless the United States can demonstrate appropriate precautions and accountability mechanisms

are in place.[16]

The Missile Technology Control Regime applies to UCAVs.

Collateral damage of civilians still takes place with drone combat, although some (like John O. Brennan) have

argued that it greatly reduces the likelihood.[17] Although drones enable advance tactical surveillance and up-to-th

minute data, flaws can become apparent.[18] The US drone program in Pakistan has killed several dozen civilians

accidentally for example.[19] Another example is the operation in 2010 Feb near Khod, in Urozgan Province,

Afghanistan. Over ten civilians in a three-vehicle convoy travelling from Daykundi Province were accidentally killed

after a drone crew misidentified the civilians as hostile threats. A force of Bell OH-58 Kiowa helicopters, who wer

attempting to protect ground troops fighting several km away, fired AGM-114 Hellfire missiles at the

vehicles.[20][21]

Political effects

As a new weapon, drones are having unforeseen political effects. Some scholars have argued that the extensive us

of drones will undermine the popular legitimacy of local governments, which are blamed for permitting the strikes.

The case study for this analysis is Yemen, where drone strikes seem to be increasing resentment against the Yemen

government as well as against the US.[22]

Some leaders worry about the effect drone warfare will have on soldiers' psychology. Keith Shurtleff, an army

chaplain at Fort Jackson, South Carolina worries “that as war becomes safer and easier, as soldiers are removedfrom the horrors of war and see the enemy not as humans but as blips on a screen, there is very real danger of 

losing the deterrent that such horrors provide.”[23] Similar worries surfaced when "smart" bombs began to be used

extensively in the First Gulf War.

Future models

Alenia Aeronautica, Sky-x (TD)

BAE Taranis intercontinental stealth UCAV (TD)

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A BAE Raven during flight testing

The EADS Barracuda on the

Manching Air Base in Germany

Dassault nEUROn stealth UCAV (TD)

Defence Research and Development Organisation, DRDO Rustom

Denel Dynamics : UCAV-TD such as Bateleur (TD)

EADS Germany & EADS Spain, EADS Barracuda stealth

UAV/UCAV (TD)

Elbit Systems Hermes 450 (see below)

Israel Aircraft Industries, Eitan

Israel Aircraft Industries, Harop NESCOM Burraq

 Northrop Grumman, X-47A/B (TD for A variant)

MiG Skat[24]

SAGEM Sperwer UCAV (see below)

AURA UAV

Various Chinese UCAV concepts have also

materialized[citation needed ]. WZ-2000, UCAV versions of the

Xianglong high altitude are long endurance UAV. Also, dedicated

UCAV's Shenyang's Dark Sword (Anjian), and also revealed at

Zhuhai 2008 was a model of a stealth strike UCAV with forward

swept wings, filling a similar niche to US X-45 called the Warrior 

Eagle.

General Atomics Avenger is a long-endurance UCAV,

surveillance/reconnaissance/attack, low-observables, first flight 4

April 2009.

Turkish Aerospace Industries, Anka: Anka was publicized on 16

July 2010.

Iran has at least 3 UCAV types in production or in development. These are the Karrar, [25]  Ra'd [26] and the

stealth Sofreh Mahi.[27]

Armstechno Dulo

 Note: Some of these are not aircraft prototypes but technology demonstrators (TD) that are not expected to enter

service.

BAE Taranis

 Main article: BAE Taranis

Taranis is a British demonstrator programme for unmanned combat air vehicle (UCAV) technology. It is part of thUK's Strategic Unmanned Air Vehicle (Experimental) programme (SUAV[E]). BAE describes Taranis's role in th

context as following: "This £124m four year programme is part of the UK Government’s Strategic Unmanned Air 

Vehicle Experiment (SUAVE) and will result in a UCAV demonstrator with fully integrated autonomous systems

and low observable features." The Taranis demonstrator will have an MTOW of about 8000 kilograms and be of

similar size to the BAE Hawk – making it one of the world's largest UAVs – that will be stealthy, fast and be able

to deploy a range of munitions over a number of targets and be able to defend itself against manned and other 

unmanned enemy aircraft. The first steel was cut in September 2007 and ground testing started in early 2009. The

first flight of the Taranis is planned for the first quarter of 2013. The demonstrator will have two internal weapons

 bays. With the inclusion of "full autonomy" the intention is thus for this platform to be able to "think for itself" for a

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BAE Taranis model one of the largest

designs of all of the concepts

J-UCAS Boeing X-45A UCAV

technology demonstrator 

large part of the mission.

J-UCAS

 Main article: Joint Unmanned Combat Air Systems

Boeing X-45 UCAV (TD)

 Northrop-Grumman X-47 Pegasus

Joint Unmanned Combat Air Systems, or J-UCAS, was the name for 

the joint U.S. Navy/U.S. Air Force unmanned combat air vehicle

 procurement project. J-UCAS was managed by the Defense Advanced

Research Projects Agency. In the 2006 Quadrennial Defense Review,

the J-UCAS program was terminated.[28] The program was revitalized

into UCAS-D.[29] It would have used stealth technologies and carry

 precision-guided weapons such as the Joint Direct Attack Munition

(JDAM) or precision miniature munitions, such as the Small-Diameter 

Bomb to suppress enemy air defenses.

Controllers could have used real-time data sources, including satellites, to

 plan for and respond to changes on and around the battlefield.

N-UCAS

UCAS-D and Northrop Grumman X-47B are the U.S. Navy-only successors to the J-UCAS, which was

cancelled in 2006. Boeing is also working on the X-45N in this sector.

In a New Year 2011 editorial titled "China's Naval Ambitions," The New York Times said "[t]he Pentagon must

accelerate efforts to make American naval forces in Asia less vulnerable to Chinese missile threats by giving them

the means to project their deterrent power from further offshore. Cutting back purchases of the Navy’s DDG-100

destroyer (with its deficient missile defense system) was a first step. A bigger one would be to reduce the Navy’s

reliance on short-range manned strike aircraft like the F-18 and the F-35, in favor of the carrier-launched N-

UCAS ...."[30]

On 6 January 2011, the DOD announced that this would be one area of additional investment in the 2012 budget

request.[31]

USAF Hunter-Killer

 Main article: USAF Hunter-Killer 

Scaled Composites Model 395

Scaled Composites Model 396

General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper (originally the Predator B)

Aurora Flight Sciences/Israel Aircraft Industries Eagle/Heron 2

Unnamed Lockheed Martin entry

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Sagem Sperwer B (not weaponized

on this photo)

The United States Air Force has shifted its UCAV program from medium-range tactical strike aircraft to long-rang

strategic bombers.[28] The technology of the Long Range Strike program is based on the Lockheed Martin Poleca

demonstrator.

Sagem Sperwer

 Main article: SAGEM Sperwer 

The Sagem Sperwer B is a long endurance tactical UAV. The Sperwer 

can carry two Rafael-made Spike LR missiles for 12 hours (can be

extended to 20) with a range of 200 km.[citation needed ] All ground

facilities of the Sperwer SDT (used by France, Netherlands, Sweden,

Greece, Canada and Denmark) are compatible with the Sperwer B.

Elbit Hermes 450

 Main article: Elbit Hermes 450

The Israeli Air Force, which operates a squadron of Hermes 450s out of 

Palmachim Airbase south of Tel Aviv, has adapted the Hermes 450 for use as an assault UAV, reportedly

equipping it with two Hellfire missiles or, according to various sources, two Rafael-made missiles. According to

Israeli, Palestinian, Lebanese and independent reports, the Israeli assault UAV has seen extensive service in the

Gaza Strip and was used intensively in the Second Lebanon War. Israel has not denied this capability, but to date

its policy has been not to officially confirm it either.

Lethal Miniature Aerial Munition System (LMAMS)

The LMAMS is a man carried missile with many UAV characteristics such as loitering time and a hand-held grounstation.[32][33]

See also

History of unmanned aerial vehicles

History of Unmanned Combat Air Vehicles

UXV Combatant – A proposal for a ship dedicated to UCAVs being designed for the Royal Navy

List of unmanned aerial vehicles

Drone attacks in Pakistan

References

1. ^ "Robot Television Bomber" (http://books.google.com/books?

id=19kDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA805&dq=Popular+Science+1933+plane+%22Popular+Mechanics%22&hl=en&ei=s

YNTvyADIGLsAK8pbSRCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDUQ6AEwAzgK#v=onepag

&q&f=true) Popular Mechanics June 1940

2. ^  Iran’s Asymmetric Naval Warfare, Policy Focus #87, The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, Septembe

2008

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3. ^ Gal-Or, Benjamin (1990). Vectored Propulsion, Supermaneuverability & Robot Aircraft . Springer Verlag.

ISBN 0-387-97161-0.

4. ^ http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/picture-germanys-first-heron-uav-emerges-338601/

5. ^ http://www.strategypage.com/militaryforums/512-20022.aspx#startofcomments

6. ^ "India joins select group to develop UCAV technology"

(http://www.hindu.com/2007/08/27/stories/2007082759890400.htm) . The Hindu. 27 August 2007.

http://www.hindu.com/2007/08/27/stories/2007082759890400.htm.

7. ^ "N. Korea developing unmanned attack aircraft from U.S. drones: source"

(http://english.yonhapnews.co.kr/northkorea/2012/02/05/17/0401000000AEN20120205000900315F.HTML) .Yonhap. 2012-02-05.

http://english.yonhapnews.co.kr/northkorea/2012/02/05/17/0401000000AEN20120205000900315F.HTML.

Retrieved 19 June 2012.

8. ^ http://news.yahoo.com/pakistan-struggles-race-develop-armed-drones-191812934.html

9. ^ http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/Israel-and-Russia-in-UAV-Deal-05459/

10. ^ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nAJlgahx-x8%7CTaiwan conceptual UAVs and UCAVs

11. ^ https://reader009.{domain}/reader009/html5/0403/5ac31ad69b700/5ac31ad9c5078.jpg%7C2011 TADTE from T

12. ^ Legal Implications of the Uninhabited Combat Aerial Vehicle – Air & Space Power Journal

(http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/cc/lazarski.html)

13. ^ Dozier, Kimberly (May 21, 2012). "Who will drones target? Who in the US will decide?"

(http://bigstory.ap.org/content/who-will-drones-target-who-us-will-decide) . Associated Press.http://bigstory.ap.org/content/who-will-drones-target-who-us-will-decide. Retrieved 8 January 2013.

14. ^ Stress of combat reaches drone crews (http://articles.latimes.com/2012/mar/18/nation/la-na-drone-stress-

20120318/2) March 18, 2012|By David Zucchino, Los Angeles Times

15. ^ Report: High Levels Of 'Burnout' In U.S. Drone Pilots (http://www.npr.org/2011/12/19/143926857/report-high

levels-of-burnout-in-u-s-drone-pilots) , by Rachel Martin, NPR.org, Dec 19 2011

16. ^ UN News Centre, "UN rights expert voices concern over use of unmanned drones by United States", 28 Octobe

2009 (http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=32764&Cr=alston&Cr1=)

17. ^ John O. Brennan (30 April 2012). "The Ethics and Efficacy of the President’s Counterterrorism Strategy"

(http://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/the-efficacy-and-ethics-us-counterterrorism-strategy) . Woodrow Wilson

International Center for Scholars. http://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/the-efficacy-and-ethics-us-counterterrorism

strategy. Retrieved 1 May 2012.18. ^ Owens, Hudson L.; Flannes, M. (2011). "Drone Warfare: Blowback from the New American Way of War".

 Middle East Policy 18: 122–132.

19. ^ Alex Rodriguez; David Zucchino; David S. Cloud (May 2, 2010). "U.S. drone attacks in Pakistan get mixed

response" (http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-drones-civilians-20100502,0,5865041.story) .

 Los Angeles Times: p. 2. http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-drones-c ivilians-

20100502,0,5865041.story.

20. ^ Anatomy of an Afghan war tragedy (http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-afghanistan-drone-

20110410,0,2818134,full.story) , David S. Cloud, Los Angeles Times, April 10, 2011

21. ^ Drone operators blamed in airstrike that killed Afghan civilians in February

(http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/05/29/AR2010052901390.html) , Karin Brulliard,

Washington Post, Sunday, May 30, 201022. ^ Smith, Jordan Michael (5 September 2012). "Drone "blowback" is real A new analysis finds five ways drone

strikes in Yemen are hurting American interests" (http://www.salon.com/2012/09/05/drone_blowback_is_real/) .

Salon.com. http://www.salon.com/2012/09/05/drone_blowback_is_real/. Retrieved 8 September 2012.

23. ^ Cole, Jim and Chris Wright. "Drone Wars UK." January 2010. http://dronewarsuk.wordpress.com/aboutdrone/

24. ^ Mikoyan-Gurevitch Skat in Aviation Week (http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story.jsp?

id=news/MIG082307.xml&headline=First%20Look%20At%20MiG%20Skat%20UCAV%20%5BUpdated%5D&c

nnel=null)

25. ^ "Iran unveils first bomber drone" (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-11052023) .  BBC News. 22

August 2010. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-11052023.

26. ^ http://en.rian.ru/mlitary_news/20100208/157809895.html

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27. ^ http://ias100.in/news_details.php?id=40

28. ^ a b "Pentagon Sets Plan For New Bomber, Terminates J-UCAS Program"

(http://www.globalsecurity.org/org/news/2006/060113-j-ucas-terminated.htm) , by Jason Sherman,

GlobalSecurity.org, 13 January 2006

29. ^ "Carrier UCAVs: The Return of UCAS" (http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/cv-ucavs-the-return-of-ucas-

03557/) , Defense Industry Daily, 7 February 2010

30. ^ Editorial (http://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/02/opinion/02sun2.html?hp) , The New York Times, January 1, 201

(January 2, 2011 p. WK7 NY ed.). Retrieved 2011-01-02.

31. ^ "Gates Reveals Budget Efficiencies, Reinvestment Possibilities."(http://www.defense.gov//News/NewsArticle.aspx?ID=62351)

32. ^ "Request for Information (RFI) - A Lethal Miniature Aerial Munition System (LMAMS)."

(https://www.fbo.gov/index?s=opportunity&mode=form&tab=core&id=711518492bcb26b863ad4eee787491f0)

United States Army, 5 February 2010.

33. ^ Eshel, Tamir. "Aerovironment, Textron Systems, IAT to Deliver Lethal Mini-Drone Prototypes in Four Months

(http://defense-update.com/wp/20101231_lmams.html) Defense-Update, 31 December 2010.

External links

Wired for War: The Future of Military Robots by(http://www.brookings.edu/opinions/2009/0828_robots_singer.aspx) P. W. Singer 

Current Unmanned Vehicles and Systems (http://www.lmc-us.com)

Article on Sperwer system (http://www.defense-update.com/products/s/sperwer.htm)

Joint Unmanned Combat Air System (J-UCAS) (http://www.darpa.mil/j-ucas/index.htm)

Saab UAV/UCAV info page (http://www.saabgroup.com/en/Air/Airborne-Solutions/?tab=62)

Unmanned Aerial Systems, Mini UAV (http://www.defense-update.com/features/du-2-04/feature-mav.htm

UCAVs – Panacea or Pipe Dream? (http://www.ausairpower.net/TE-UCAV-2003.html)

Chinese UCAV-converted J-5,J-6,J-7 (http://www.sinodefence.com/airforce/uav/ucav.asp)

Israel sets combat drones against missile launchers in Gaza

(http://www.worldtribune.com/worldtribune/07/front2454229.238888889.html) , World Tribune, May 8,2007

Israel Starts Reexamining Military Missions and Technology

(http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_generic.jsp?channel=awst&id=news/aw082106p2.xml) ,

Aviation Week & Space Technology, August 20, 2006

UAVs and UCAVs: developments in the European Union

(http://www.europarl.europa.eu/activities/committees/studies/download.do?file=19483) A briefing paper fo

the European Parliament's Subcommittee on Security and Defence.

Reprieve.org.uk Drone strike Investigations (http://www.reprieve.org.uk/investigations/drones/)

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