Relocation & Redress Conference March 10-12, 1983Registration

University of UtahRelocation & Redress ConferenceThe Center for Historical Population Studies211 Carlson HallSalt Lake City, Utah 84112

______________________________ aName

Address

Zip

Telephone (Home) (Office)

Hotel preference (Conference planners will make reservations.)

Single DoubleMarriott $ 5 5 ____ $ 5 5 ___Howard Johnson__ 2 9 _____ 3 8 __Carlton__________ 2 6 _____ 3 1 __Expected arrival time ______________(A ll hotels have airport limousine service)

Number AmountRegistration Fee

$9 ($3/day) ________ _______Topaz V isit $15 ________ _______Friday Luncheon

$5 ________ _______Friday Dinner

$13 ________ _______Total ________ _______

Registration includes attendance at sessions, hotel-to-university transporta­tion and Friday reception. Topaz visit includes bus transportation and lunch.

Make checks payable to The Center for Historical Population

Studies.

f t

icHPS

Non-Profit Organization U.S. Postage Paid Permit No. 1529

Salt Lake City, Utah

RELOCATION & REDRESSTHE JAPANESE AMERICAN EXPERIENCE

An International Conference March 10-12, 1983

University of Utah & Utah State Historical Society Salt Lake City

Relocation & Redress: The Japanese American Experience

A conference exploring with scholars, former internees, and the public the many dimensions and consequences of the relocation of Japanese American citizens during World War II and the subsequent redress movement.

Sessions

Thursday, M arch 10, U tah State Historical Society 8:00 a.m. Topaz—A Visit and Remembrance

Buses to Topaz and return*4:00 p.m. Intermountain Camps 4:00 p.m. Alternative Internment8:00 p.m. Opening Plenary Session; Speaker, Roger Daniels

Friday, M arch 11, U niversity o f Utah 9:00 a.m. Evacuation: The Uprooting of Communities 9:00 a.m . Utah: The Crossroads of Relocation 9:00 a.m. The Response of Church and State

11:00 a.m . Economic Losses of the Japanese American Community 11:00 a.m. Public Opinion and Congressional Reaction 11900 a.m. Education in the Camps

1:00 p.m. Luncheon*followed by panel—Reminiscences of Camp Life

3:30 p.m. Socio-psychological Impacts of Relocation 3130 p.m. The Role of the Japanese American Citizens League

Social hour and dinner* at Alta Club precede session 8130 p.m. Plenary Session; Speaker, Minoru Yasui

Saturday, March 12, U niversity of U tah 9:00 a.m . The Redress Movement9:00 a.m. The Canadian and Latin-American Experiences

11 GO a.m. Constitutional Issues 2:00 p.m. Forty Years After: Japanese Americans and Politics

Registrants are invited to all sessions whether or not they attend the Friday luncheon and dinner. The public is invited without charge to plenary sessions.

Photographic exhibits, art exhibits, and films relating to relocation will be open to registrants and to the public during the conference.

Members of the Conference Steering Committee are Judge Raymond Uno, Yoshiko Uno, Alice Kasai, Leonard J. Arrington, Dean L. May, Sandra C. Taylor, Howard Ball and Edward Mayer.

Presenters

Arthur A . A lm eida, President, San Pedro Bay Historical Society, San Pedro, CaliforniaLeonard J . Arrington, History, Brigham Young UniversityHoward B all, Political Science, University of UtahShirley Castelnuovo, Political Science, Northeastern Illinois UniversityF. A lan Coombs, History, University of UtahJohn J . Culley, History, West Texas State University

* Extra fee required

Roger Daniels, History, University of CincinnatiDixie L . Ehrenreich, Laboratory of Anthropology, University of Idaho C. Harvey Gardiner, History (Emeritus), Southern Illinois UniversityA sael T . H ansen, Anthropology (Emeritus), University of AlabamaLon Hatam iya, Cincinnati, OhioGordon H irabayashi, Sociology, University of AlbertaLane H irabayashi, Asian-American Studies, UC-Santa BarbaraW illiam Hohri, National Council for Japanese American Redress, ChicagoB ill Hosokawa, Journalist, The Denver PostToaru Ishiyama, Superintendent, Ohio Department of Mental HealthThomas Jam es, Education, Stanford UniversityAlice K asai, JACL Coordinator, Salt Lake CityTetsuden Kashim a, Director, Asian-American Studies, University of WashingtonM ary Kaw akam i, Business, Provo, UtahMrs. Toyo S. Kaw akam i, Head Librarian, Ohio State UniversityH arry K itano, Sociology, UCLATom Lansburg, Publisher, Thousand Oaks, CaliforniaW illiam M. M arutani, Judge, Court of Common Pleas, PennsylvaniaAmy Iwasaki M ass, Social Work, Whittier CollegeSpark M atsunaga, U.S. Senator/Hawaii, Washington, D.C.Herbert B. Maw, Former Governor, State of UtahGary Okihiro, Director, Ethnic Studies, University of Santa Clara, CaliforniaDennis M. Ogawa, American Studies, University of HawaiiGrace Oshita, Salt Lake CityBarry Saiki, Business, Universal Public Relations Inc., Tokyo, JapanM asayuki Sato, San Jose, CaliforniaFloyd Schmoe, American Friends Service Committee, SeattleFloyd Shimomura, National President, JACLRobert C. Sims, History, Boise State UniversityGeoffrey Smith, History, Queens University, CanadaJohn Tateishi, Director, National Redress, JACL, San FranciscoSandra C. Taylor, History, University of UtahDr. Jam es Tsujim ura, Past President, JACL, Portland, OregonRaymond Uno, Judge, Fifth Circuit Court, UtahRon W akabayashi, National Director, JACL, San FranciscoM inoru Yasui, Commission on Community Relations, Denver, Colorado

Major funding for this conference provided by the National Endowment for theHumanities and the Utah Endowment for the Humanities, a state-based affiliate of the

/ 1National Endowment for the Humanities. Additional funding and support from the Castle Foundation, the University of Utah College of Social and Behavioral Science and College of Humanities, Departments of History, Geography, Anthropology, and Political Science, the Center for Ethnic Studies, the Center for Public Affairs and Administration, the Hinckley Institute of Politics, the Center for Historical Population Studies, and the Asian Studies Association; the Utah State Historical Society and the Japanese American Citizens League, Salt Lake Chapter.

Sponsored by the Center for Historical Population Studies University of U tah

i

Please detach, place in envelope and mail to:

Relocation and Redress Conference Registration

The Center for Historical Population Studies

University of Utah 211 Carlson Hall Salt Lake City, Utah 84112

Health Maintenance is a “ reach o u t” program to ensure good health for com m unity residents, especially the elderly. This includes eye exams, blood pressure screening, blood donor assurance, health fair, flu shots, health evaluation, consulta­tion. monitoring, referral, follow-up, advocacy, and education.

Job Placement is a new job-finding program to develop full-time and part-tim e em ploym ent for Asian older workers (55 and up) in the competitive Chicago labor market.

Senior Citizen Housing. Em bodied in a 200- unit apartm ent building com plex, Heiwa (Peace) Terrace, at Lawrence and Sheridan, was sponsored and constructed with the help o f com m unity support and Federal funds under the aegis o f the JASC, which is the chief provider o f social services for its residents.

Fiscal ResponsibilityThe JASC has always provided vital services

to as many needy people as possible in a cost- efficient manner.

Located in a 25,000-square-foot building in the Uptown-Edgewater-Lakeview com m unity, the JASC’s annual budget has grown from approxim ately $9,000 to more than $900,000. It employs 44 full-and part-tim e professional and staff persons to conduct and administer the various social service programs on and off the premises. O f the budget total 84 per cent is devoted to programs and services, 12 per cent to administrative costs, and 4 per cent to expenses for fund-raising activities and events.

VolunteersThe JASC has grown with the help of volun­

teers who spend countless hours serving as members o f the Board of Directors, and others who have developed into a force of nearly 200 additional volunteers assisting with day-to-day services, programs, office work, educational and cultural programs, special events, and fund­raising activities.

Community Support

Financial support breaks down to the follow­ing approxim ate figures: 35% from Sheltered Workshop subcontracts from business and industry; 34% governmental grants; 13%m em ber­ship, contributions* program fees, and miscellan­eous income; 3% foundations and corporations; 10% United Way; and 5% special events, such as Fuji Festival, Food Festival, M arket Day, and Christmas Delight Sale.

Left to right: Sansei Career Conference; Executive Director Masaru Nambu and 1984 Volunteers, o f the" Year, Mr. and Mrs. Takeru and Fujiko Asa; Sheltered Workshop; 1984 Market Day; 1984 Health Fair.

is.r a l

As the JASC expands its programs, services, and budget to m eet the increasing needs o f the com m unity, various sources o f funding support, who recognize its im pact, are rallying to help the agency continue its good w ork-these include foundations, corporations, JASC members, and other contributors.

An Inspirational FutureThe JASC has never lost its vision and com ­

m itm ent to meet the challenges o f fulfilling hum an needs. A lthough it began as a human service agency primarily serving Japanese-Ameri­cans, it has always been attuned to the changing needs o f the general com m unity.

From first responding to the immediate needs of housing and em ploym ent for the wartime evacuees, then directing its attention to the needs o f the elderly and mentally handicapped, it continues to accept new challenges to fulfill unm et needs o f its own constituency and other larger segments o f the Chicago area population.

The JASC is instituting a long-range plan for the next five years w ith clearly set specific goals and objectives; this will help the agency strive to achieve its hopes, dreams, and visions in concert w ith com m unity support. Among these is a soon-to-be launched, unprecedented, large scale fund-raising campaign to develop a Home for the Elderly. Creation o f such a facility will establish the JASC as a unique and rare ethnic service agency providing a continuum of com pre­hensive care for the elderly.

While maintaining its cultural and ethnic identity w ith the Japanese-American com m unity, the agency is always aware o f the key role it can perform in meeting the needs o f others who are integral members o f the mosaic society.

The JASC has, thereby, set its sights on being a model for all Asian groups, offering the benefit of its experience to help them and other social service agencies for the good o f the total com­m unity.

Japanese American Service Com m ittee 4427 North Clark Street Chicago, Illinois 60640

(312) 275-7212

The JASC: challenge to change

The Japanese American Service C om m ittee’ began in 1946 as the Chicago R ese lle rs’ Com­mittee to ease the plight o f Japanese Americans following World War II.

Resumption o f normal life for the relocatees was not easy, as their former way o f life, homes, em ployment, and businesses were wiped out during their incarceration in detention centers. The education and careers o f young Japanese Americans were also disrupted.

Now an integral part o f the Japanese American com munity, the JASC has impacted on three generations o f Japanese Americans (Issei, Nisei, and Sansei) and become the recognized leader among Asian social service agencies as its pro­grams expanded to serve all Asians and others.

Programs and ServicesIn 1984 the Japanese American Service

Committee was honored with an award for its “outstanding programs and services for the elderly” by the M ental Health Association of Greater Chicago.

Two years earlier, a proclam ation from the Mayor of Chicago, in com m em oration of JASC’s 35th anniversary, stated in part:

“The Japanese American Service Committee has become a com munity-wide social service organization concerned w ith the health and welfare problems of the elderly and em otionally disabled . . . and through the JASC a perm anent bond of friendship has been firmly established in our com m unity” .

Action corroborates the words o f the citations, as the JASC provides the following programs and

services to improve the quality o f life for the elderly, the mentally handicapped, and the new Asian refugees: '

The Sheltered Workshop - in keeping with the Asian philosophy of being gainfully employed until no longer able to work, self-supporting, and contributing to the com m unity - offers a therapeutic, rehabilitative, work-oriented environ­m ent for senior citizens and mentally handi­capped.

The A dult Day Care Center, a pioneer in the field, operates on the premise that the best way to maintain an individual’s psychological and physical function in later years is not in an institution bu t in a familiar environm ent that emphasizes positive thinking, self-confidence, and activity.

Casework Counseling offers guidance in coping with a variety of problems that challenge the individual’s personal, family, and social adjustments. Assistance is given through indi­vidual, family, and group counseling.

The N utritional Lunch Program serves the JASC’s elderly clients and com m unity residents, most o f whom come five days a week. The JASC has been a Golden Diners Club site for the City of Chicago since 1976.

In-Home Services for elderly clients offers “chore housekeeper” assistance w ith household tasks, and general assistance in daily activities so they can continue living independently.

Group Programs and Leisure Time Activities provide educational and cultural classes, events, and experiences for com munity members o f all ages.

L eft panel: President A r t Morimitsu accepts award “for JASC’s outstanding programs and services for the e lderly”; Center panels (L. to R .j: blood pressure check; Nutrition Lunch Center; Toddlers Play Group for Young Mothers; Sheltered Workshop; Hinamatsuri cultural program; arts and crafts program; Right panel: Nisei Group Program.

' ROM THE HONOLULU S T A R - B U L L E T I N . N o v . 2 6 , 1 9 8 2 -

■hternment of AJAs Called Justified

iA r e c e n t f r o n t p a g e n e w s s t ory i s a n o t h e r e x a m p l e of t he l e e d i n g - h e a r t l i b e r a l s g e t t i n g teir p e r i o d i c c a t ha r s i s by hang- ig a n o t h e r g u i l t tr ip o n A m e r i c a nd d e m a n d i n g t h e u s ua l c a s h i d e m n i f i c a t i o n .

In t hi s c a s e t h e b l e e d i n g - h e a r t s o m p r i s e a g r o u p f o r m a l l y c al l ed ae C o m m i s s i o n o n W a r t i m e Relo- a t i o n a n d I n t e r n m e n t o f Civi l - ms, se t u p by C o n g r e s s in 1980 3 s t u d y h o w t h e A m e r i c a n s of a p a n e s e a n c e s t r y w e r e t r ea t edu r i ng W o r ld W a r II, a n d wh at ,

a n y t h i n g , s h o u l d be d o n e too m p e n s a t e t h e m .O n e m e m b e r , w h o i m m e d i a t e l y

e c a m e t h e i r s p o k e s m a n , is for-te r Rep. R o b e r t D r in an , a dar-ng of t h e l ef t i s t m a s s m e d i a an d

r adi ca l v o c a l a r c h i t e c t of t h e o m m u n i s t v i c t o r y in V i e t n a m , i th its r e s u l t a n t ho l oc a us t . A c c o r d i n g to D r in an , t h e pan el

Ians to call on C o n g r e s s a n d t her e s i d e n t to i ssue a f o r m a l apol- g y to t h e i n t e r n e e s a n d m a y e c o m m e n d c o m p e n s a t i o n at a ate u p to $25,000 for e a c h o f t h e 3,000 s u rv iv or s .

B e f o r e t h e s e s e l f - r i g h t e o u s ni n- o m p o o p s , a c t i n g in c o n s o r t wi t hh e m a s s m e d i a , f u l f i l l t h e i r ^enzied n e e d to s u b m i t A m e r i c a ■> t he ir usual o r g a s m i c se l f - f lage- i t ion rites, at t a x p a y e r e x p e n s e , d s e x a m i n e this s u b j e c t in the i ll l ight of hi st or i ca l r e t ro spe ct .T h e r e a s o n s g i v e n , t h e n a n d

ow, f o r t h e r e l o c a t i o n of t hedi zen s a n d n o n c i t i z e n s of Japa- e se a n c e s t r y were:1 — To p r e v e n t po s s i b l e sabo-’

ige a n d e s p i o n a g e . ( No e v i d e n c e v e r s u r f a c e d to j u s t i f y s u c h ^ars bu t t hat is a c a d e m i c as t h e y e r e t a k e n i nt o c u s t o d y so s oo nTer P e ar l H arb or t h e y h a r dl yad a n o pp or tu ni t y . )

2 — T o p r o t e c t s u c h i n d iv i du a lso m a t t a c k by A m e r i c a n s , espe- al ly o n t h e W e s t Coast . Thi s lat-?r h a s b e e n v i r t u a l l y s w e p t nd er t h e rug a n d i g n o r e d , for to?cognize this f ac to r w o u l d di lut eīe e f f o r t s of t h e b le e d i n g - h e a r t s► p r o p a g a t e t h e m y t h of gui l t )T a w r o n g f u l de c i s i on .

Last s u m m e r , w i t h l i t t le no t ic e > t h e m e d i a , t h e g o v e r n m e n t , n d e r t h e F r e e d o m of Informa*o n A c t , r e l e a s e d p r e v i o u s l y as s i f i ed a n d s u p p r e s s e d d a t a hi ch d i s c l o s e d that in t h e earli-;t d a y s o f W o r l d W a r II evi-?nce a c c u m u l a t e d r api dl y thatie J a p a n e s e w e r e r o u t i n e l y prac- c ing a tr oc i t ie s o n a sc al e and e nz i e d bar bar i t y no t t h e n c om- r e h en s i b l e to t h e c iv i l i zed m ind,bis w a s we l l k n o w n a nd docu- i ent ed d u r i n g t h e J a p a n e s e ad- i n c e i n t o China. B u t t ha t wa s

J h a l f a wo r l d a w a y an d a f te r all T ’t h e y a re just h e a t h e n C h i n e s e —

a n d t h e r e a re t oo m a n y of t h e m a n y w a y . ”

t h e f u l l h o r r o r of J a p a n e s e a t r oc i t i e s s t ar t ed c o m i n g h o m e to of f i c i a l W a s h i n g t o n s h or t l y a f t er t h e “Da y of I n f a m y ” a n d t h e fall o f t h e P h i l ip p in e s .

F r o m t h e l at ter a s t e a d y s t r e a m o f i n t e l l i g e n c e f i l t e re d t h r o u g ht h e B a m b o o Cu rt a i n e s t a bl i sh in g b e y o n d d o u b t t ha t t h e J a p a n e s e h a d s h a t t e r e d t h e f ra gi l e v e n e e r o f c iv i l iz ed b e h a v i o r a n d h a d re­v e r t e d to a b a r b a r i s m that w o u l d h a v e m a d e Att i la t h e H u n look l i k e t h e G ood S a ma r i t a n .

E v e n t o d a y d e a t h b e d c o n f e s ­s i o ns a re c o m i n g o ut of J a pa n d e t a i l i n g s u c h ho rr ors as i n f e c t ­i ng p r i s on er s w i t h p l ag ue , t y p h u s a n d syphi l l i s , to n a m e o n l y a f ew; at least 10 p r i so ne r s o f war , s o m e b e l i e v e d A m e r i c a n s , l ined u p b e ­h i n d a p r o t e c t i v e s c r e e n w i t h t h e i r b u t t o c k s e x p o s e d w h i l e f r a g m e n t a t i o n b o m b s w e r e e x ­p l o d e d 100 m e t e r s a w a y . All d i e d o f g a n g r e n e .

O t he r s w e r e l ed o u t d o o r s in e x ­t r e m e c o l d w i t h a r m s ba r ed unt i l t h e y f r oz e sol id. Of t h e t h o u s a n d s o f A m e r i c a n s t a k e n p r i s on e r byt h e J a p a n e s e , o n l y a m i n u s c u l en u m b e r s u r v i v e d t h e brut al i t ya n d r e t u r n e d h o m e .

It is n o w r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e A m e r i c a n g o v e r n m e n t , k n o w i n g t h e s e facts , m a d e t he d e c i s i o n at t h e h i g h e s t l ev e l s that if t h e s e at ro ci t ie s w e r e m a d e publ ic a lust f o r v e n g e a n c e w o u l d be o v e r ­w h e l m i n g - a n d t h e J a p a n e s e , c i t i ­z en s a n d n o n ci t i z en s , m i g h t we l l b e s u b j e c t e d to w h a t later w’oul d b e c o m e k n o w n in E u r o p e as t h e ho l oc a us t . E v e n w-ith w a r - t i m e c e n s o r s h i p no o n e d ar e d h o p e t ha t t h e i n f o r m a t i o n a v ai la b le to t h e g o v e r n m e n t w o u l d n o t be e x ­p o s e d to t he publ ic.

L o n g b e f o r e W o r l d W a r II, O r i e n t a l s , i n c l u d i n g J a p a n e s e , w e r e s u b j e c t e d to s t r o ng racial p r e j u d i c e a nd o v e rt hos t i l i ty on t h e W e st Coast. Wi th r e ve l a t i o n of a t roc i t i e s a ga ins t A m e r i c a n s in t h e Paci f i c , o n l y t h e m o st i g n o ­r a n t a n d u n c a r i n g g o v e r n m e n t c o u l d h a v e f ai led to act to p r e­v e n t an ac t i on that w o u l d h a v e c a s t a d a r k sh a do w- o v e r t h e A m e r i c a n c h a r a c t e r for all t ime, w h e n t he eas i ly i de n t i f i a b le J a p a ­n e s e w o u l d h a v e b e e n h u n t e d d o w n a nd ki l led l ike d o g s in t he s t ree t s .

S o m e say t o da y that thi s c ou ld n ot h a v e h a p p e n e d in A m e r i c a . It is t r u e that h i s t or y n e v e r r ev e a l s i ts a l ter nat i ve . It d o e s p r o v i d e a m p l e h y p o t h e s e s . A n h y p o t h e s i s is a s c i e n t i f i c g e n e r a l i z a t i o n w h i c h s p e c i f i e s t h e c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h t h e p h e n o m e n o n in q u e s t i o n is l ike ly to recur . T h e p h e n o m e n o n ' of o n e p e o p l e m a s s a c r i n g a n o t h e r d a t e s f r o m

t h e t i m e m a n f i rs t s to o d u p r i g h t a nd h a d a f r e e h a n d to s w i n g a club.

A n d b e f o r e anyone s a y s t h e g o v e r n m e n t ’s acTion in r e m o v i n g t h e J a p a n e s e f r o m h a r m ’s wray w'as p r e c i p i t o u s a n d u n n e c e s s a r y , t h e y s h o u l d l oo k to N e w Yo r k City w h e r e t h e r a ce riots o f t h e Civil W a r r e a c h e d a b l o o d y f r e n z y w h e n t h e b u t c h e r y o f h u n ­d r e d s o f i n n o c e n t b l ac ks t u r n e d t h e c i t y ’s s t r e e t s int o an abat to i r , c r e a t i n g o n e of t h e d ar k e s t c h a p ­ters in A m e r i c a n h i st ory . .

T h e r e is no t t h e s l i g h t e s t d o u b t in m y m i n d , t hat in t he e m o t i o n ­al c l i m a t e o f t h e e ar l y s t a g e s o f W o r l d W ar II, w i t h o n e h u m i l i a t ­i ng d e f e a t pi led o n a n o t h e r , t hat t h o s e i nd iv i d u a l s w i t h t he p h y s i ­c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of J a p a n e s e a n c e s t r y w e r e in g r e a t a n a i m m i ­n e n t p e r i l . T h e g o v e r n m e n t ’s ' i n a c t i o n at s u c h a t i m e w o u l d have- b e e n u n t h i n k a b l e in a c i v i ­

l i z e d s o c i e t y — a n d s o m e t h i n g w e w o u l d h a v e r e g r e t t e d for all t i m e.

As it wras, in a w o r l d g o n e m a d, t h e i n t e r n e e s s p e n t t h e w'ar y e a rs s a f e l y r e m o v e d f r o m h a r m ’s w ay , a l t h o u g h t h e a c c o m m o d a t i o n s left* s o m e t h i n g to be d es i red . g;

It c o m e s d o w n to this: W a s t h e a ct i o n o f r e l o ca t io n unjus t? Of c o u r s e it was . W as it l egal? P r o b ­ably. Did t h e i n t e r n e e s s u f f e r loss of p r o p e r t y and d ig n i t y ? U n q u e s ­t io na bl y . Wa s t he ac t i on jus t i f ied? J It w a s no t o n l y jus t i f i ed, it w a s 1 - a b s o l u t e l y n ec e s s a r y . A n d this lat- * ter c o n s i d e r a t i o n r e m o v e s a n y in- ; d i c t m e n t o f w r o ng - d o i n g .

As to c o m p e n s a t i o n : As far as *’ m a t e r i a l l o s s is c o n c e r n e d , it < w o u l d be n e x t to i m p os s ib l e to sort o u t s u f f i c i e n t facts to m a k e i an i n t e l l i g e n t d e t e r m i n a t i o n at 1 this late date .

T h e r e is h a r d l y a p er so n w h o ! l ived t h r o u g h Wo r ld War II w h o w'as n o t t o u c h e d a d v e r s e l y b y t hat w o r l d w i d e c o nf l a g ra t i o n . Mil ­l ions lost t he ir m o st pr i ce l es s p o s ­se ss io n, l i f e i tself . Ar e t he p e r s o n s o f J a p a n e s e a n c e s t r y to be s i n ­g l e d o ut for i n d e m n i f i c a t i o n 0 If t h e y are, let t h e m be i n d e m n i f i e d by t he J a p a n e s e g o v e r n m e n t . T h e J a p a n e s e s t a r t ed t he wa r — w e did not. T he J a p a n e s e c o m m i t t e d t h e a t ro ci t ie s a g a i n s t h e l p l e s s A m e r i c a n s w h i c h m a d e t he r e l o ­c a t i o n n e c es s a ry . " J

If it w’ill m a k e a n y o n e feel b e t ­ter, let t h e C o n g r e s s i s sue a s t a t e ­m e n t s a y i n g w e a r e s orry t h e r e l o c a t i o n w a s n e c es s a ry . B u t it < w a s t h e o n l y s o l u t i on to a m o s t * di f f i c u l t p r o b l e m u n d e r t h e c i r ­c u m s t a n c e s a n d w e f e e l no r e ­g re ts and o w e no apologies .

A n d h a v i n g said that , l e t ’s h e a r n o m o r e of this n o n s e n s e . Old w o u n d s , l ike P a n d o r a ’s box, ar e be st l e f t u n o p e n e d .

J . F. M c D a n i e l

Broad reparations billCalifornia Congressman Norman

Mmeta's Bill. HR 442, embodies the recommendations of the president’s Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, five of whose nine members were discred­ited, whose report was based on dis­torted testimony and which ignored or refused to hear testimony that did not bear out the majority views.

Part- of the foregoing, as well as the justice of the wartime relocation (which was found constitutional by our Supreme Court) are subject to debate. However, those who would qualify for reparations and an apol­ogy under the bill are not.

th e y include the 6,000 children born in the relocation centers; de­pendents who accompanied alien parents so as not to separate fami­lies; those w ithout American citi­zenship, who could h ave been in­terned and their property confiscat­ed under U.S. laws dating back to 1798; those 10,000 from the 44 unaf­fected states, who requested shelter in the centers; and th ose 11,000 who requested expatriation to Japan

— m a n y ren oun cin g U.S. citizenshipand some subsequently fighting forJapan against the United StatesEDGAR C. DOLEM AN

TESTIMONY OF MR. GINZO MURONO

PROVIDED TO

THE COMMISSION ON WARTIME RELOCATION AND

INTERNMENT OF CIVILIANS ACT

November 24, 1981

Mr. Chairman, members of the Commission

My name 1s 61nzo Murono, a naturalized U.S. citizen currently residing 1n Bridgeton, N.J., with my wife Hlsako. During World War II I was taken from Lima, Peru and brought to the United States where I spent the next 3 years and 8 months 1n 2 Internment camps. I am grateful for the opportunity of describing the events of my internment experience to this Commission.

On Sunday, January 6, 1943, my wife, 4 year old daughter and Infant son spent the afternoon at the seashore with the family of my business partner.

Around 7 p.m. after having dinner together, we drove to my partner's home where 2 Peruvian men in plain clothes were waiting for him to return. The 2 men asked for my partner, who promptly identified himself. They explained that by order of the United States my partner was to go with them. He entered their car and they drove off. About one hour later, the same thing happened to me.

We were all taken to the small basement of a police station where about 60 other Japanese had already been detained.

No one could sleep that night because of the crowded conditions, cigarette smoke and heat. There were no chairs or beds; only a cement floor. We could not lay down because there wasn't enough room.

Early next morning we were .loaded, onto 3 open trucks and told we were being taken to an unknown destination.. We found out later this was to be Talara, the northern most port of Peru. The trip, which took 2 days under a hot sun, was a terrible one. No jneals were provided during the journey.

It was during this trip that I began to feel the complete separation from the peaceful family and social life I had 1 n Peru. Without committing any wrong, and without even a hearing our Individual rights had been taken away from us.

When we-arrlved at Talara, there was a ship waiting for us 1 learned only recently that the name of the ship was the Frederic C. Johnson, an American flagship.

As we boarded,our pencils, pens, knives and razor blades were taken from us by U.S. officers. We were put Into the bottom of the ship where we were given 2 meals a day during the trip to San Francisco which lasted approximately 3 weeks.

After a few days In San Francisco, we were placed on a train and taken to Kennedy Internment Camp 1n Texas. This camp was for single men only. I spent about 6 months at Kennedy before being transferred to Crystal City Internment Camp in Crystal City, Texas. It was here I was reunited with my family. My wife had applied for admission to the U.S. through the Spanish Embassy 1n Peru.

The application was approved and 1n late June, 1943,-'''' my wife, daughter and son left our home and business 1n Lima and boarded a Chilean ship for their two we.ek trip through the Panama Canal to New Orleans. After a two day train trip to Crystal City, our family was reunited 1n July of 1953.

The camp 1n Crystal City was mainly for Internees with , families. There were about 3,000 Japanese and als-o an - unknown number of Germans. Of the Japanese, about one half were from Peru and the other half from the U.S.

Inside the camp we were allowed to elect our own officials and manage our schools, post office, stores, general supply distribution and garbage collection. Everyone who worked in the camp was paid an hourly wage of 10$ per hour. We were also given freedom of religion and the right to conduct meetings. We managed to set up a rather efficient society within the barbed wire and guarded confines of the camp.-

On August 15, 1945, a long siren sounded. The war was over and peace had finally come. However, 1t was not until August of 1946, after 3 years and 8 months of detention, that we left the camp to accept job offers from Seabrook Farms 1n Seabrook, N.J. .

Life 1n Seabrook was not easy, especially for those with small children. During the peak harvest season we were required to work 12 hours a day, seven days a week. Because we were classified as illegal aliens by the U.S. Inmigratlon office, we had to pay a significantly higher income tax than U.S. citizens.

I could not support my family of 5 on my income alone. As a result,my wife had to go to work also, leaving the care of our 2-year old camp born son to a child care center.

1 - * ' * . •

We struggled for over 30 years to provide for our family and educate our 3 children. During that time, with the exception of our youngest son who is a natural born U.S. citizen, we have all become naturalized citizens. We are all:/ very proud to be Americans of Japanese ancestry. However, we cannot ignore the injustice that was done to us.

Some of the people from Peru who were interned with me were separated from their families for many yearsi

In a few cases, the broken families were never reunited*

Many people are still suffering from the psychological wounds caused by their internment 39 years ago.

Speaking as a former Internee and a citizen of the United States - the greatest country and strongest advocate of freedom and human rights in the world - I ask for acknowledgement of the injustice and hope that such an event will never again be repeated in the future. ^

Thank you very much.

PUBLIC LAW 9 6 -3 17

CO'-Hl SSI ON ON WARTIME RELOCATION AND INTERNMENT OF C IV ILIA N S ACT

SUMMARYI

Ah' ACT 10 ESTABLISH A COMMISSION TO GATHER FACTS TO DETERMINE WHETIILH ANY WRONG WAS COMMITTED AGAINST THOSEAf r ic a n c it iz e n s AhD permanent r e s id e n t a l ie n s ArrrcTED by Exec u t ive Order Numbered 9066, and for otherPURPOSES.

FINDINGS .a ppr o x im a t ely one hundred and twenty thousand c iv il ia n s were relocated and deta ined in

internment camps pursuant to E x e c u t iv e Order numbered 9066, issurD F ibru a ry 19, 19*)?, and otmir asso ciatedactions or the Federal Government

a ppr o x im a t ely one thousand. Aleut c iv il ia n Amtricah c it iz e n s wche relocated and, in someCASES, DETAINED IN INTERNMENT CAMPS PURSUANT TO DIRECTIVES OT Un IITD STATES MILITARY TORCES DURING WoRLD War 11and c i i .ik a sso c iated a c t io n s of the Fed era l Government

NO SUFFICI'ENT INOUIRY HAS BEEN MADE INTO THESE MATTERS

p j i i t s or c g v: : i s s i o n

TO REVIEW THE FACTS AHD CIRCUMSTANCES SURROUNDING EXECUTIVE ORDER HuMBERED 9066, ISSUED February 19, 19*12, and the impact of such Ex ec u t iv e order oh American c it iz e n s and permanent resid en t a l ie n s

TO REVIEW DIRECTIVES OF UNITED STATES MlLITAHY fORCES REOUIRING THE RELOCATION AND, IN SOMECASES, DETENTION IN INTERNMENT CAMPS OF AMERICAN CITIZENS, INCLUDING At f OT CIVILIANS, AND'PERMANENT RESIDENT A lllH SOf the Aleu t ia n and Pr ib ie o p I slands

TO RECOMMEND APPROPRIATE REMEDIES

The Com m ission sh all hold p u b l ic h ea r in g s in such c it i e s or the Uh it i j< States that it rum s a p ir '’Pr ia t e .

The tllMMlSSION SHALL SUBMIT A WRITTEN REPORT or ITS FINDINGS AND Rl.lt” JtEHDAT IONS TO I.ONGHISS.

riln'IRS OF : M IS S IO N

l.ic Com m ission may hold h e a r in g s , req uest the attendance.and test im o ny of w it n e s s e s and the ir o i.u c t iu ’. of bug . '.,51 CURDS, CORRESPONDENCE, MEMORANDUM, PAPERS, AND DOCUMENTS. T h £ Com: ; 15 SI ON MAY REOUEST THE AllO.TI.EY GENERALi; Mu OH THE AID OF AN APPROPRIATE UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT lo IIU U IR E , BY SUF.PUI.HA OP Oi -UNWISE, SUCH ,-.J'.ft,'iAt.iE, TESTIMONY, OR PRODUCTION.

T. ! f .if".! US 1ON MAY ACQUIRE DIRECTLY FROM THE HEAD OF ANY DEIVRTHI.HI, At, I NCY, INDCPEMD! K l INS1 iMl H I '! .! 1 Y, C« Ia . 01 Tlii EX tC U llV E 'BRANCH OF THE GOVERNMENT, AVAIL AIM E ll.H iR r.it JON WHICH Till (t*MMISSl>»l .'IRiSU-lkS U '. l f i ;In Th I - ,i t.Aj-Gl 01 ITS DUTIES.

1 . I : ■ i.stein , Chair: ui c F l u i e l Iungren, V ice-Chair liwi.Ui.iBUt tSWARD W. BROOKE

ijr t f i i i ih if ft : I.l i . . . V . 1 li; II

F a I hi r Rohirt F. IIh in m j Dr . Arthur S Th m m h r .J u s t i l e Ar uiu h J , Gu m a u r g

...... I .v , i.i.„ io irJuilf.r H ill I/ , 11. 11; l,IJT/.R|Tut Honor ai- i |t. I*l t |t ) l l l (

OH HARTIHC F.EIGCAI10H AHD INlERIiMLHl OF CIVILIANS4 ,i I»' ivt A rn rc Rut* ntkr ?*)£ larvm»! Pi k f t IJ V ^ntti Uir .imrTrtu H f. tir.f

ILWU backreparations for AJAsBy Charles TurnerAdvertiser Labor Writer

An impassioned plea fpr “ mone­tary redress” for more than 120,000 Japanese-Americans who w ere imprisoned during World War II was madfig yesterday at the ILWU inter­national convention.' Kbriko Bridges, wife of the union's

president emeritus, Harry Bridges* spoke to nearly 500 convention dele­gates at the Sheraton-Waikiki Hotel.

Sf|e received a standing ovation af­ter felling how she survived her own internment in a California camp Slohg with thousands of other Ameri- canj^ef Japanese ancestry or AJAs.

A|* her husband looked on with priq^, she told the delegates < how Bridges had advised her before the decision was maj&e to seek repytratiohs “T i r e ’s no nice way! to ask Jo r money — but we^e going to do i t - 1 ’

S|ie described henlnterhment as an “ awful experi­ence” and sa id s h |3 never fully unctqrstood why, as an American, she was kept behind barbed wire. / ‘Sometime in my past I chose

America — but America rejected me,” she said. “One hundred thou­sand of us were circled by barbed wire and we were ‘concentrated.’”

She said her parents “taunted me for taking the side of the Ameri­cans” while they were in the camp but%he felt vindicated after AJAs in Ha#aii and in the internment camps volunteered to serve with the 100th Infantry Battalion and the A42nd~ Regimental Combat Team^S?

She said the heroism of 4he Vdfliit-

Mrs. Bridges

teers, who served in the most highly/, decorated units in World Why- IL|* demonstrated to American leader^/ what kind of “passionate rage bums inside us all.”

She urged the ILWU delegates to speak up when the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians holds hearings thi$f sum­mer. The commission wafc set tip at? ter Congress passed legislation au­thorizing an inquiry and; “appropri­ate rem edies” for the incidents which occurred nearly 40 years ago .!

At the suggestion of ILWU Presir dent Jim Herman, the delegates ap­proved a grant of $1,000 to an inde­pendent committee seeking repara- * tions for the AJAs and for native- Aleuts who, also suffered durihg-- World War IT. ; :

Earlier in yesterday’s session, the * delegates got deeply involved in a V resolution criticizing the regime of Philippines President Ferd inands Marcos for “restrictive decrees and * policies/- */' % V i ’ ' -

Although one.'delegate "called it >‘ ‘not anti-M arcos,’ * C ar I p arid a so * president of Hawaii’s 26,000-member £ Local 142, said the, resolution finally passed after nearly an4 hour 4 of debate — didn’t go far enough. Be ; claimed Marcos’ policies are op^res^ ’ sive to many Filipinos.

“The poor are always the poor/’ he said. He added that Marcos had

^ ‘done nothing to cdrrect’’ the situa­tion.

Juan Trinidad, another Hawaii^ delegate, urged the sending of g?' delegation to look at all aspects of * the Philippines under martial laW \ and report back. He also saidv the ī Filipinos there should be advised ! that jobs are scarce in Hawaii. ,

j^have jobs iike we c&d 30 * , irhen we had plenty,” he^

k -SA,

*Access to articles restricted to University of Hawai'i affiliates only.Items in eVols are protected by copyright, with all rights reserved, unless

otherwise indicated.

The Capital Report: Panel Set to Probe Japanese Internment. (1981, July 12).The Washington Star.

L.■< / / fKJ * ’

O

/

Congressional Research Service

The Library of Congress

f . n

Washington, D.C. 20540

JAPANESE-AMERICAN INTERNMENT IN WORLD WAR II— THE ISSUE OF REDRESSIP0158

The controversy over World War II internment of some 120,000 Japanese-

Araericans has simmered for 40 years despite several Government efforts to

compensate internees with a small monetary settlement and Civil Service and

Social Security credit for time interned.

Debate over the creation of the Commission on Wartime Relocation

and Internment of Civilians, and the testimony and calls tor redress at its

hearings have resulted in many inquiries about the internment itself, the

Commission and its activities, and the issue of redress.

This Info Pack has been prepared to provide basic information on the

World War II internment, the Commission, its findings, and pro/con material

on the complex issue of redress.

We hope this information is useful.

Congressional Reference Division

Members of Congress desiring additional information on this topic should contact CRS at 287-5700.

Public Law 96-317

Almost forty years hive passed since the U.S. government ordered 120,000 civilians evacuated and detained in relocation camps, pursuant to Executive Order 9066 and Civilian Orders of the U.S. military forces.

President Franklin Delano Rooseveh signed Execute Order 9066 on February 19,19-42, desphe arguments ty the Attorney (foncril and FBI Director against the military necessity for mass evacuation. The Executive Order authorized military commanders designated by the Secretary of War to exclude persons from prescribed military zones or areas. Congress backed the Executive Order by passing Public Law 77-503, which authorized imprisonment and fines for civilians convicted of violating these orders. The Western Defense Command and Fourth Army subsequently issued over 100 orders which were applied exclusively to persons of Japanese ancestry living In the Western stales.

AO persons of Japanese ancestry in California and portions of Washington, Oregon, and Arizona were ordered to leave their homes, taking wfch them only what Hole they could pack and carry.Businesses, property, homes, farmlands, and personal goods were left behind. Assets were frozen by the U.S. jgmimmcnt. In 1942, the*United States government buQt 10 relocation centers in Arizona. Arkansas, California, Colorado, Idaho, Utah and Wyoming. Japanese American citizens and oerroanent resident aliens were moved to these camps. In March, 1946, the last detention camp dosed.

The released Japanese had great difficulty in reconstructing their lives. Many freed poverty; others found themselves homeless. All freed uncertainty regarding their future. v

The policy process which resulted in the evacuation and incarceration of 120,000 civilians has never been folly documented, nor has the economic, sodal and psychological impad of the years in relocation centers been comprehensively recorded or told.

The Aleut residents of both the Aleutian and Pribiiof Islands were removed by the US, military authorities from their homes during June and July of 1942. The initial decision to evacuate was based on the Japanese bomblne of Dutch Harbor In the Aleutian chain, and the Japanese invasions of Ami and Kfcska islands. More than 850 Aleut citizens were taken to temporary camps In southeastern Alaska, some times without adequate food, dothing, shehcr, or medical supplies. Non-natte residents of the Aleutian chain were allowed to remain In their communities.

In Mav 1944, the Aleuts were returned to their homes. Some had perished flue to disease. They found their homes had ofien been vandalized and property stolen. The returning Aleuts faced the same uncertainty about their future as did the Japanese, “it seems funny If our government can drop so many people in a place like this and forget about them altogether," said Lee McMillin, agent and caretaker of the Punter Bay camp for the Aleuts.

SOURCE: THE COMMISSION ON WARTIME RELOCATION ANDINTERNMENT OF CIVIL1ANS

Dated July 31,1980

Why a Commission?

Chronology

Japanese1941 December 7 — Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor Presidential ProdamaiJon No. 2525 ghes blanket authority u> Anorrxy GenenJ for a sweep of suspectsDecember — I) S. declares wir against Japan1942 January 29 — U. S Attorney General issues first of a series of orders establishing limited strategic areas along the Pacific (oasi and requiring the removal of all enemy aliens from these areas February 19 — Roosevelt signs Executive Order 9066 authorizing Secretary of War, or any military commander designated by Secretary, to establish “military areas" and exclude therefrom “any or all persons."March 2 — General DeWitt issues Public Proclamation No. 1, designating railiury areas in the stales of Washington, Oregon, California and Arizona Restrictions art placed on Japanese, German and Italian aliens and Japanese Americans. Period of voluntary evacuation beginsMarch 18 — President Roosevelt signs Kxecuthv Order No 9102 creating the War Relocation Authority (WRA), a miiwullltary agency with the authority to formulate and carry out a program for a planned and orderty relocation of persons evacuated under E.O 9066.

March 21 — President Roosevelt signs PuhUc law 77-503 making It a federal offense to violate any order issued by a designated military commander under authority of L 0 . 9066.March 22 — First large contingent of Japanese and Japanese Americans moves from Los Angeles to the Manzanar Assembly Center operated by the Army.May 19 — Western Defense Command issues (M ian Restriction

£ Order No. 1 establishing all assembly centers and relocation centersIn the eight far western states as military areas and forbidding evacuee residents to leave these areas without expressed approval of the Western Defense Command.July 13 — Mitsuye Endo petitions for a writ of habeas corpus, alleging that the was a loyal and law-abiding U.S. citizen, that no charge had been made against her, that she was being unlawfully

% detained, and that she was confined in a relocation center underarmed guard and held there against her wffl.August 7 — Western Defense Command announces the completion of evacuation of 110,000 from their homes in the military areas either to assembly centers or to WRA centers. The last of the residents of Japanese docent in eastern California are moved to relocation centers.1943 January 2 3 — Secretary of War Stimaon announces plans for formation of a special combat team of Japanese American volunteers from both the Mainland and Hawaii.February 8 — Registration (“loyally" questionnaire) of all persons over 17 years of age for Army recruitment, segregation and relocation begins at most of the relocation centers.June 21 — Hirabayashi v US and Yasui * US Supreme Court rules that 1 curfew may be imposed against one group of American citizens baaed solely on ancestry, and that Congress in enacting Public Law 77-50} authorised the Implementation of K.O. 9066 and provided criminal penalties for violation of orders of the* Ml!*ury Commander.August, September and earfy October — Mon* than 15,000 people art moved in and out of the Tuic Lake Center as 1 result of the segregation program. Thoae ordered out are redistributed t<* oilier centers.

1944 Jane 6 — D-DayJuly 1 — President Roosevelt signed Public law 78- iOS permitting U..N citizens to renounce their citizenship 011 American soil in tinu* of war under procedures appnwd by the Attorney (■•oiienii

December 17 — Western Defence Command rescinds exclusion and detention orders, freeing Japanese Americans to return to their homes on the west coast, effective January 2, 1945.

December 1 8 — Kortmatsu v. US Supreme Court rules that one group of citizens may be singled out and expelled from their homes and imprisoned for several yean without trial, based sole!) on their ancestry.

December 18 — In $x parte EnJo, Supreme Court rules that WRA has no authority to detain a “conceded)) foyal" American citizen1945 August 15 — YJ DaySeptember — Western lVfon.se Command issues Public Proclamation No. 24 revoking all individual exclusion orders and all further miliary restrictions against persons of Japanese descent1946 June 3 0 — War Relocation Authority program official)) terminates.

1948 July 2 — Evacuation Claims Act passed, giving evacuees until January 3,1950 to fife claims against the government “for damages to or loss of real or personal property... that is a reasonable and natural consequence of the evacuation. . . " Total of 5.5« million paid by the government, or less than 10« per dollar lost.1976 — President Geraid Ford formally rescinds Kxecuthv Order 9066.

Aleut and Pribilof Islanders1942 June 5 — Japaneic bomb Navy facilitfos in Dutch Harbor (Unalaska) Aleutian islands.Ju te 6 — Japanese aecurt a beachhead on Kiska Island, Aleutian Islands. Japanese take aQ 10 Navy personnel prisoners Ja n e 8 — Japanese army lands unopposed at Hohz Bay, Anu Island, Aleutian Islands, and takes 42 Aleuts and 2 U.S. government cMlian employees prisoner, occupies lisk i Island.June 14 — Aiks villagers ait found by the U i i . Hulbert and evacualedJan e 1 9 — Interior Department officials fearn of the Aleutian evacuation. Initially, the Fish and Wildlife Service was given the responsibility for Pribilof Aleuts, wth the office of Indian Affairs responsible for aU other Aleuts.Jan e 16 — U.S. military evacuates St. George, Prihtkif Islands Less than 24 hours are ghtn for departure. Natives’ cunfe are killed and their bouses booby-trapped but not destroyed. St Paul bland, Pribilof Islands is evacualed.Jan e 25 — Atka Aleuts arc discharged at Kfflbooo where the office of Indian Affairs has decided to locale them in 1 fish cannery.St Paul and St George vtQagers arc discharged at Funter Biy Jan e 2 6 — Afl Aleuts hive been evacuated1943 M idaom oer— Japanese withdraw entirely from the Aleutian Island chain.December 1 3 — Secretary of War Henry Sdmson gives final approval for all Aleuts to return home.1944 May 4 ILK. Air Triuuport returns the Afouts to tir PrihifofsAagttfC 7 President Roosevelt authorizes the allocation of $ltl,tXKifrxxn his emergency fond for claims for damages

2

Commission MandatePublic law 96-317. pissed July 31. 1980. established a Commission to gather facts to determine whether any wrong was committed against those American citizens and permanent resident aliens affected by Executive Order 9066, and for other purposes

Duties of the Commission• Tb review the facts and circumstances surrounding Executive Order

9066, issued February 19. 1942, and the impact of such Executive Order on American citizens and permanent resident aliens

• To review directives of United States military forces requiring the relocation, and in some cases, detention in internment camps of American citizens, including Aleut civilians, and permanent resident aliens of the Aleutian and Pribilof islands.

• To recommend appropriate remedies.• The Commission shall hold public hearings in such cities of the

United Slates that it finds appropriate.• The Commission shall submit a written report of its findings and

recommendations not later than one year after the date of its first meeting.

Commission MembersJoan Zeldes Bernstein, ChairMs. Bernstein Is a partner with Wald, llarkrader & Boss. She lues served as General 6>unsel for the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and the Environmental Protection Agency, and was named Vice Chair of the council of the Administrative Oinference of the United States. Ms. Bernstein received her B.A. from the University of Wisconsin, and her LL.B. from Yale Law School.

Daniel E. Lungren, Vice ChairCongressman Lungren Ls a second term member from l/mg Beach, California, and serves on the House Judiciary' Committee, the Select Committee on Aging, and the Republican Task Force on Congressional and Regulatory Reform. Mr. Lungren recetved his B.A. from Notre Dame University and J.D. from Gerogetown University.

Senator Edward W. BrookeMr. Brooke Is partner with O’Connor & Hannan He has served as attorney general for Massachusetts and United States Senator

Father Robert F. DrinanFather Drinan is president of Americans for Democratic Action. He has been active In civic affairs and was a member of Congress from 1970-1980. He is an ordained Jesuit priest.

Dr. Arthur S. FlemmingDr. Flemming is Chairman of the United States CM! Rights Commission. Dr. Flemming has been Secretary of HEW, Chairman of the White House Conference on Aging, Special Counsel to the President on Aging, and many other important positions in public service.

Justice Arthur J. GoldbergJustice Goldberg has been Secretary of Labor, Associate Justice in the United States Supreme Court, U.S. Representative to the United Nations, and Ambassador ai*large for the United States He is president of the American Jewish Committee

Father I. V. GromoffFather Gromoff is an ordained Russian Orthodox priest from UnaJaska in the Aleutian Islands. He has been active in the Aleutian/Pribiiof Island Association and was relocated to Punter Ha) camp during World War II.

Judge William M. MarutaniJudge Marutani present!)' serves on the bench for the G)urt of Common Pleas of Philadelphia County, Pennsylvania.

Senator Hugh B. MitchellSenator Mitchell was appointed to the U. S. Senate from Washington state, and served as a member of Congress from the 1st District of Washington for two terms.

Commission HearingsWashington, D.C. .................July h and 16, 1981Los Angeles, California August -i, 5, and 6, 1981San Francisco, California August 11,12, and 13,1981Seattle, Washington.................September 9,10, and 11,1981Anchorage, Alaska .................September 15, 1981Aleutian Islands (Unalaska) . .September 17,1981 Pribilof Islands (St Paul) . . . September 19,1981 Chicago, Illinois..................... September 22 and 23,1981

How to ParticipateThe Commission Is Interested in hearing from you. The members of the CommLsslon would like to be Informed of the* vk*ws of concerned Individuals and would like to encourage statements which will provide a framework for discovering the facts of the relocation and Internment of civilians. The Commission welcomes your view s and suggestions.

The Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of CiviliansNew Executive Office Building726 Jackson Place, NW Suite 2020Washington, D.C. 20506 Telephone: (202) 395-7390

3

O'Reilly, J., Jackson, D. S., & Melvain, J. (1981, August 17). Nation: The Burdenof Shame. Time, p. 4.

Japanese Americans and Injustice. (1983, March 2). The Washington Post, p.A22.

How to Atone for 'War Hysteria'. (1983, March 1). The New York Times, p. A22.

Barbash, F. (1983, February 25). Report on Japanese-Americans: WartimeInternment Decried. The Washington Post, p. A1.

Barbash, F. (1983, February 25). Internment of Japanese-Americans A ‘GraveInjustice,’ Panel Reports. The Washington Post, p. A4

14044 C O N G R E S S IO N A L R E C O R D — S E N A T E December 7, 1982

JAPANESE-AMERICANSMr. HAYAKAWA. Mr. President. I should like to remind my friends and colleagues th a t today is December 7, the 41st anniversary of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.Forty-one years ago today forces of the Empire of Japan attacked the United States at Pearl Harbor. Less than 3 months later President Frank­lin D. Roosevelt signed the Executive order th a t led to the relocation and detention of some 120,000 Japanese- American citizens and noncitizens in relocation centers.In the four decades since th a t “day of infamy** we have destroyed our powerful adversary and built her up to be a powerful friend—so powerful th a t we now plead with her to restrict the export of her products.In the four decades since the mutual hatreds of war, we have so healed our­selves th a t we now have a prosperous, thriving Japanese-American communi­ty which, despite its small population of about 600,000, Includes not one, not two, but three U.S. Senators. The an­cestors of these three men worshiped the Emperor. But these men stand in this Chamber, the heart of our democ­racy, and when the spirit moves them, freely criticize the President.But one controversy has not subsid­ed during the 41 years since Pearl Harbor. If anything, it has grown. T hat is the controversy over the relo­cation of Japanese-Americans.In an effort to understand the issue, the Congress created a commission to investigate the events surrounding the relocation and to make any recommen­dations for redress. By law the com­mission must release Its findings In a report by December 30, 1982. Accord­ing to several newspaper reports, it will recommend compensation to those who were interned of up to $25,000 per person.W hether or how we shall compen­sate those interned Is a m atter for future Congresses, of which I shall not be a Member. But as a U.S. Senator, a Japanese-American, and especially as

an American, I must share my views on this most sensitive issue.The wartime relocation of Japanese- Americans in 1942 can only be under­stood In the context of California his­tory. As is well known. California has been the principal source of anti-Ori- ental propaganda in the United States for more than 100 years. During the Gold Rush days, by 1851, there were25.000 Chinese in the State. It was a regular practice of miners, on a big Saturday night drunk, to raid the Chi­nese sections of mining towns to beat up or lynch a few Chinese Just for the hell of it. Chinese were often the vic­tims of mob violence. A mob of whites shot and hanged 20 Chinese one night In Los Angeles in 1871.When the first transcontinental rail­road. the Central Pacific, was complet­ed, great ceremonies were held in con­nection with the hammering in of the Golden Spike to celebrate the occa­sion. Eloquent speeches were given praising the magnificent contributions of Englishmen, Irishmen, Germans, Frenchmen, and others who had con­tributed to the completion of the rail­road. But no Chinese were invited to this event, although they above all—10.000 of them —had done the most dangerous and demanding labor to make the completion possible. The Chinese were dismissed when their work was done and set adrift w ithout severance pay.Anti-Chinese legislation and agita­tion were common throughout the la tter half of the 19th century and well into the 20th. The workers dis­charged from the railroads drifted from town to town looking for work. In San Francisco they entered some of the skilled trades like hatmaking, ci- garmaking, tailoring and so on. It is an interesting fact th a t th e first union label was one placed on cigars to tell the customer th a t this cigar was made by white men and not by Chinese. T h at is what the union label means. T h at is the proud origin of the union label. In 1882 the Chinese Exclusion Act was passed after much agitation on the part of Californians, including the very influential and then-powerful Sons and Daughters of the Golden West.The persecution of the Chinese con­tinued into the 20th century. Chinese- American friends of mine who are now older professional men in San Francis­co remember the days when, if they left the Chinese area, they were beaten up by Irish and other toughs, so they had to stay within the limits of Chinatown. Throughout this period, pam phlets and books were published attacking Orientals as a menace to white society.The Hearst newspapers continued to lead a crusade against the “Yellow P e ril" The Sacram ento Bee, Fresno Bee. Modesto Bee—all of the McClatchy chain—were notorious for their anti-Oriental propaganda. I re­member as a high school student in

'6

December 7. 1982 CONGRESSIONAL RECORD — SENATE S 14045Winnipeg in the early 1920's writing aterm paper on antl-Orlental agitation In California, and it was then th a t Ilearned of the McCla'ohy newspapers,long before I knew where Sacramento,Modesto, and Fresno were. The Hearstnewspapers were no better.The attacks upon Orientals were notlimited to the popular press or to laborunions and “patriotic” societies. It washighly endorsed by many of the lead­ing Intellectuals of the time. There were such books as Lothrop Stoddard’s“The Rising Tide of Color, AgainstWhite World Supremacy” (1920).O ther distinguished intellectuals whowrote warning books against the Ori­entals were people like Madison Grant, who wrote “Passing of the G reat Race, or Racial Basis of Europe­an History” (1916). There was also the distinguished labor economist of the University of Wisconsin in the 1930’s, Prof. E. A. Ross. When I was a gradu­ate student a t the University of Wis­consin in the 1930’s, I used to see Pro­fessor Ross at the University Club. Henever spoke to me nor did I ever speakto him. I did not know then what Ilearned much later, namely, th a t hewas one of the leading intellectual ad­vocates of exclusion of Orientials from the American labor force. He was re­garded as a.great liberal a t the time.There was also the widely accepteddoctrine of what was later to be knownas “Social Darwinism.” to the effectth a t the white race was the highestpoint of hum an evolution, and th a t yellow, brown, and black people repre­sented lower stages. Indeed, white people themselves were divided into the “higher” North European—“Nordic,” ”Aryan”—and the “lower”South Europeans—Slavs, Greeks, andItalians. The fact th a t these ideaswere widely believed to be scientific isall too evident in the UJS. Immigration Act of 1924, which codified these ideas into law, and which gave high immi­gration Quotas to British. Germans, and Scandinavians, lower quotas to Middle and South Europeans, andtotal exclusion to the Japanese. TheChinese had already been excluded in1882.Against this background of almost100 years of successful anti-Orientalagitation throughout California, it iseasy to understand th a t the attack onPearl Harbor aroused in the people ofCalifornia, as well as elsewhere, all thesuperstitious, racist fears th a t hadbeen generated over the years, as wellas the normal insanities of wartime.The surprise attack on Pearl Harborwas called “a stab in the back”—a typi­cal Oriental form of behavior.It is difficult for people who did not live through th a t dreadful time to re­construct the terror and the anxiety felt by people along the entire west coast. Disaster followed upon disasterafter the attack on Pearl Harbor. Ontha t same day, December 7. 1941, Jap ­anese forces landed on the Malay Pe­ninsula and began their drive toward Singapore. Guam fell on December 10,

Wake on December 23. On December 8 Japanese planes destroyed half the aircraft on the airfields near Manila.As enemy troops closed in. GeneralMac A rthur withdrew his forces from the Philippines and retired to Austra­lia. On Christmas Day the British sur­rendered Hong Kong.The Western World was scared stiff.The west coast of the United States,rich with naval bases, shipyards, oilfields, and aircraft factories, seemedespecially vulnerable to attack.There was talk of evacuating notJust the Japanese from the west coastbut everybody. Who knew what wasgoing to happen next?How frightening were the nightlyblackouts during th a t bleak winter ofdefeat. Would Japanese carriers cometo bomb the cities—San Diego, San Francisco. Los Angeles? Would subma­rines sneak through the Golden Gate to shell San Francisco? Would they ac­tually mount an invasion? Who could tell?I moved to San Francisco in 1955.You could still see along the shores ofM arin County the great big remains ofsubmarine nets th a t went across theGolden G ate to catch Japanese sub­marines in case they started sneaking through the Golden Gate. T hat is howserious the fear was.W ar of course breeds fear of enemiesw ithin—spies, saboteurs. There wererumors th a t Japanese farm ers inHawaii had cut arrows in the ir fieldsto direct Japanese fighter pilots to ta r­gets a t Pearl Harbor, and th a t west coast Japanese were equally organized to help the enemy. Such rumors werelater found to be totally w ithout foun­dation. but in the anxieties of the moment they were believed.I t was a field day for inflam matory Journalists and newscasters: West­brook Pegler, John B. Hughes—even.Damon Runyon—on the radio every night, screaming, these alarm istbroadcasts about the dangers of Japa­nese attack.The columnist Henry McLemorewrote:Herd ’em up, pack ’em off and give ’emthe inside room In the badlands . . . Let ushave no patience with the enemy or with any whose veins carry his blood . . . Person­ally I hate the Japanese. That goes for all of them.So both a t the level of sensationalJournalism and a t the level of thesocial sciences into the 1930’s, the ideaof white supremacy was challenged byremarkably few. In California, whitesupremacy took the form of anti-Ori-entalism. The notion th a t the Oriental w*as shifty, mysterious, and un­trustw orthy was built into the culturein such books as the Sax Rohm er “Dr.Fu M anchu” novels.Most Americans have always haddifficulty distinguishing between Chi­nese and Japanese I—must say the Chinese and Japanese have the same difficulty—although the la tter were treated far more leniently than the former. The Chinese, except for diplo­

mats and merchants, were forbiddento bring women or wives to America,so th a t they were essentially a societyof bachelors. You can still see many ofthese lonely old bachelors sunningthemselves in Portsm outh Square inSan Francisco.If you want to see the evidence ofhistory still alive, and tha t evidence infront of your eyes, you can see theseold, elderly Chinese gentlemen in old,old clothes and old hats playing chessin Portsm outh Square, all of them 75,80, and 90 years old. They are the oldbachelors who came a t a time w’henthey did not let Chinese women intothe country at all. But the Japanese could bring their wives or send for pic­ture brides, th a t Is, brides selected from photographs, so th a t they devel­oped strong family ties and a place for themselves in American society, espe­cially through the ir children wholearned English in the public schools and helped to Americanize the ir par­ents.Again the popular hue and cry wasbacked up by reputable intellectuals. W alter Lippmann, the dean of Ameri­can social comm entators then and fordecades thereafter, Joined in thedemand for mass evacuation. The ideawas also supported at the time by suchliberal intellectual Journals as theNation, the New Republic, and theextra-liberal bu t short-lived New Yorknewspaper. PM.

On February 19, 1942, PresidentRoosevelt* signed Executive Order9066, which set in motion the evacua­tion program. I t applied to all Jap a­nese, citizens and noncitizens alike, in the three W estern States and a por­tion of Arizona. A ltogether some110,000 were relocated, of whom more th a t 70,000 were American citizens bybirth; the rem ainder were not able tobecome citizens under the laws thenprevailing.Of course the relocation was unjust. B ut under the stress of wartime anxi­eties and hysteria and in the light of the long history of antiO riental agita­tion in California and the West. I find it difficult to imagine what else could have occurred th a t would not havebeen many times worse. If things had continued to go badly for American forces in the Pacific—and they did— what would Americans on the west coast have done to the ir Japanese andJapanese American neighbors as theylearned of more American ships sunk,more American planes shot down, more American servicemen killed, in­cluding your husband, your boyfriend,your brothers? W hat would they havedone? Would they have beaten the irJapanese neighbors in the streets? Would they have ostracized and perse­cuted Japanese American children? Would mobs have descended on LittleTokyo in Los Angeles and Japan townin San Francisco to burn down shopsand homes?There was precedent for such behav­ior in California, especially directed

S 14046 CONGRESSIONAL RECORD — SENATE December 7, 198Zagainst the Chinese. The Chinesestarted wearing lapel pins saying, “Iam Chinese.'*I recall a friend of mine, a JapaneseAmerican now living In Marin County,who was 11 years old when the warbroke out. She and her parents werevastly relieved when they learned oftheir evacuation from the west coast. Most of her generation and her par­ents generation welcomed the evacua­tion as a guarantee of their personal safety.The question is often asked whyGermans and Italians were not In­terned and why the Japanese In Hawaii were left alone. The answer issimple. Germans and Italians werepersecuted during World War I, whenthey were fairly recent immigrants,but there were too many of them tointern. However, "patriots" dumpedgarbage on the lawns of Germanhomes, and in some east coast cities,all the German books in the public li­braries were burned and courses in the German language offered in collegesand high school stopped. By the timeof World War II, both Germans and Italians were a well-established and fa­miliar part of American life. The samewas true of the Japanese in Hawaii,who were more than 20 percent of thepopulation there and well known andtrusted. Besides there were notenough ships to transport the hugeJapanese populations out of the majorislands.On the west coast of the Americanmainland, the situation was different.The Japanese w*ere a small fraction of the population of California, Washing­ton, and Oregon. The immigration ofJapanese was principally between the years 1900 to 1924; then it was stopped by law. Japanese males, who constitut­ed the first immigrants, married latein life because they felt that they hadto have a steady Job before they couldsend for a bride from Japan. Hencethe typical Japanese American familyconsisted of a father 20 years olderthan the mother, and the average ageof the Nisei, as the American-bornJapanese were called, at the time ofPearl Harbor was 10.This last statistic is of great impor­tance in accounting for the evacuation and internment.If the average age of the American-born Japanese is 16. it means that the average white adult official in Califor­nia knew little or nothing about theJapanese. He had not gone to school with Japanese children nor visitedtheir homes. He had not had Japanesefriends on baseball or debate teams.Furthermore, the Japanese parentgeneration spoke little English or noneat all. So the ruling classes, the peoplein the city councils, the State assem­blies, and so on, did not know who the Japanese were. They did not knowanything about them. So whateverWestbrook Pegler said about them waslikely to be true.For most white Americans, especial­ly those old enough to sit in positions

of authority, the Japanese were astrange and foreign element, so almostanything could be believed aboutthem.For example, it was widely be-lieved-^Japanese used to send theirchildren, after public school, to Japa­nese language schools. It was widely believed that the Japanese childrengoing to Japanese language schoolwere being taught reverence for theEmperor of Japan, that they werebeing indoctrinated with Japanese pa­triotism.This happened to be true. That is,many of the teachers who came overin the 1930’s were products of the su­perheated patriotism in Japan that made it possible for Pearl Harbor tohappen. However, it was not possibleat that time to predict that this indoc­trination in emperor worship would prove to be totally ineffective.Incidentally, our distinguished col­league Daniel Inouye. as a pupil in aJapanese language school In Hawaiibefore World War II, kicked up astrenuous protest against the use ofthese schools to preach Japanese na­tionalism—and look what happened to him. He got elected to the U.S. Senate.The relocation centers in desertareas to which the Japanese were as­signed were, indeed, dreary places. However, the governing body of the centers, the War Relocation Authori­ty, was headed by the wise andhumane Dillon Myer, a mldwestemerwho, before his appointment, had known almost nothing about the Japa­nese.Dillon Myer, by the way, died Justabout a month ago at quite an ad­vanced age. I believe he was in his nineties.Being a firm believer in democracyand Justice and knowing the people inthe camps has done nothing to deservetheir internment. Mr. Myer did every­thing possible to make life tolerable for the internees. He encouraged campself-government, hired teachers fromoutside to continue the education ofthe children, sent WRA staff aroundthe East and Middle West to seek col­lege admittance for Nisei who had graduated from the camp highschools. One result was that manyNisei students who. without enforcedevacuation from the west coast, mighthave stopped with a high school edu­cation to work in their father's shops or farms, instead went on to college. Including prestigious and private insti­tutions such as Antioch, Oberlin, andMount Holyoke, as well as to such great public institutions as Minnesota.Michigan. Wisconsin, and Purdue.A large number of young people-middle-aged people by this time—fromvery modest families got a college edu­cation which they otherwise would never have if they had not been sentto relocation camp.The officials of the staff of theWRA with a few exceptions were deeply concerned about the injustice of the relocation program, eager to re­

store the Japanese Americans, espe­cially Nisei, to normal American lives. They fanned out over the United Stales east of the Rockies to seek em­ployment for them. You must under­stand that the Japanese Americans that were put into camps were onlythose who lived west of the Rockies. Ifyou lived east of the Rockies—SaltLake City, Denver, Chicago—they leftyou alone, because you were not con­sidered to be a military danger. I was living in Chicago, thank goodness.They fanned out over the UnitedStates east of the Rockies to seek em­ployment for the Internees. Every­where the Japanese Americans went, they impressed their employers bytheir industry and loyalty, so thatmore were summoned from thecamps—scientists, teachers, mechan­ics, food processors, agricultural work­ers. By the time the order excluding Japanese from the west coast was re­scinded on January 2, 1945, half theinternees had found new jobs andhomes in mid-America and the East.I emphasize this last point becausethe relocation centers were not "con­centration camps." The younger gen­eration of Japanese Americans love tocall them concentration camps. Unlikethe Nazis, who made the term "con­centration camp" a symbol of the ulti­mate in man's inhumanity to man, theWRA officials worked hard to releasetheir internees not to be sent to gaschambers but to freedom, to usefuljobs on the outside world and to gettheir BA. at Oberlin College.By 1945, there were almost 2,500Nisei and Issei In Chicago, a city thatwas most hospitable to Japanese, and Imyself found relatives I did not knowexisted. Other Midwest and Easterncities acquired Japanese populationsthey did not know before the war;Minneapolis, Cleveland, Cincinnati,New York, Madison, Wis., Des Moines. St. Louis, and so on. And those who re­mained in camp In most cases did sovoluntarily. These were the olderpeople, afraid of the outside world,with the Nation still at war withJapan.I point out these facts to emphasizethe point that to call relocation cen­ters concentration camps, as is all too commonly done, is semantic inflationof the most dishonest kind, an attemptto equate the actions of the U.S. Gov­ernment with the genocidal actions of the Nazis against the Jews during the Hitler regime. As am American I pro­test this calamity against the Nation I am proud to have served as an educa­tor and even prouder to serve as a leg­islator.Now. the relocation center at TuleLake. Calif., was different from theothers. It was there that those who re­sisted the evacuation and Internment, including a Japanese veteran of the U.S. Army in World War I, a Nisei whorenounced American citizenship inprotest against the relocation, and other angry people were sent to isolate

10

iJecember 7, 1982 CONGRESSIONAL RECORD — SENATE S 14047them from those who patiently accept­ed their internment. There were fre­quent distrubances at Tule Lake.

The trouble-free lives at all the relo­cation centers other han Tule Lake can be contributed to a cultural trait of the Japanese, clearly seen In the Issei. that Is, the older generation of Immigrants, but almost unheard of in their American-born grandchildren, and that Is the concept of g&man, which means endurance. Gam an is to endure with patience and dignity, especialy dignity, hardships, misfor­tunes or injustices, especially those about which nothing can be done.

I am sure there are some Americans who will be enraged at the suggestion that anyone was happy in a relocation camp. But with the concept of gaman, you learn to make the best of a tough situation, endure with patience and dignity the situation you are in and make the best of It.

The people In the relocation camps were shopkeepers, market gardeners, farmers, laborers, all in relatively humble occupations, finding them­selves with 3 years of leisure on their hands.

As one elderly gentleman said re­cently, "That was the first time in my life that I didn't have to get up at 4 o’clock in the morning to milk the cows."

Finding themselves with some lei­sure in their lives, they went in for art. There was a tremendous artistic output. They turned out little master­pieces of sculpture, flower arrange­ments, and ceramics and painting, later memorialized in a scholarly volume entitled "Beauty Behind Barbed Wire" by Allen Hendershott Eaton, 1952.

How else can one account for the el­derly Japanese farmers and grocers who gathered around a bridge table to go over the nagauta, a traditional, long narrative song, and the music from the kabuki, which is the Japa­nese equivalent of opera?

For many older Japanese, the reloca­tion turned out to be a 3-year release from unremitting work on farms and vegetable markets and fishing boats, and they used this leisure to recover and relive the glories of their tradi­tional culture.

Now I come to the most important part of the story. It is the story of the Nisei, the children of the older genera­tion I have Just been talking about.

It was a great hurr.iii&tion for the Nisei of the 100th battalion of the Hawaii National Guard to be sent to Camp McCoy, Wis., where they were trained with w’ooden guns.

S p a r k M a t s u n a g a , now a U.S. Sena­tor from Hawaii, was in that unit. He wTites:

We wrote home of our great desire for combat duty to prove our loyalty to the United States. It was not known to us then that our letters were being censored by higher authority. We learned subsequently that because of the tenor of our letters, the W ar Department decided to give us our chance. Our guns were returned lo us, and

we were told that we were going to be pre­pared for combat duty • • \ Grown men leaped with Joy.

On January 28, 1943. the War De­partment announced that Nisei would be accepted as a special combat unit. They volunteered in the thousands both from Hawaii and from the reloca­tion camps. They were united with the 100th Battalion as the 442d Regimen­tal Combat Team at Camp Shelby, Miss.

The 100th Battalion first saw action at Salerno, Italy, in September 1943, and took heavy casualties. The 442d landed In Italy in June 1944, at once gained a reputation as an assault force, and accomplished the famous rescue of the "lost battalion" of the 36th (Texas) Division at an enormous cost in blood. Fighting in seven major campaigns, the men of the 442d suf­fered 9,486 casualties and won more than 18,000 individual decorations for valor.

Another 3,700 Nisei served in combat areas in the Pacific as translators and interpreters. The Japanese military, believing their language to be too dif­ficult for foreigners to master, were careless about security. They did not count on Nisei on every battlefront reading captured documents and pass­ing Information on to Allied command­ers. Kibei, Nisei born in America but educated in Japan and originally the object of special distrust, turned out to be especially helpful in this respect.

They were born in America. They were American citizens, but they were educated in Japan. They could read Japanese very well, so they were very, very good for intelligence work.

In short, the Nisei covered them­selves with honor and made life In America better for themselves, their parents, who a few years after the war won the right to be naturalized, and their children. I remember vividly the returning Nisei veterans I saw in Chi­cago soon after V-E Day. Short of stature as they were, they walked jproudly, infantry combat citations on their chests, conscious that they were home—in their own country. Chicago, known throughout the war for its hos­pitality to servicemen, outdid itself when the Nisei returned. They had earned that welcome.

The relocation u’as a heart-breaking experience for Japanese Americans as well as a serious economic loss for those who had spent decades of labor on their farms and businesses. But most seriously it was an affront. Amer­ica was saying to them, "You are not to be trusted. You are Japs. We doubt your loyalty."

The Nisei, although very much Americanized, are in some respects profoundly Japanese. An imputation of disloyalty, being an affront, was also a challenge. A powerful Japanese motivation is "girt to one's name"—the duty to keep one's reputation—and one's family’s—unblemished. Giri is also duty to one’s community, one’s employers, to one’s nation. The Nisei’s

nation was the United States. One ac­cused of disloyalty is dutybound to remove that disgrace by demonstrat­ing himself to be loyal beyond all ex­pectation.

This 1s a basic reason the Nisei vol­unteered in such numbers and fought so well. More than 33,000 Nisei served in the war—a remarkable number out of a total Japanese American popula­tion—Hawaii and mainland com­bined—of little more than 200,000. They had a fierce pride In their repu­tation as a group.

The Nisei were also motivated by "girl to one’s name." Those who found Jobs outside the camps were exempla­ry workers, as If to prove something not only about themselves but about their entire group. Japanese Ameri­cans, young and old alike, accepted the mass relocation with dignity and ma­turity, making the best of a humiliat­ing situation. In so doing, they exhib­ited the finest resources of their an­cient background culture.

The prewar theory of white suprem­acy was completely discredited by the crushing defeat of Hitler and Hitler­ism. The prejudice against Japanese in America was all but wiped out by the courage and the sacrifice of Nisei serv­ice men in Italy and the Pacific. Then in the 1960's came the civil rights movement, which further discredited doctrines of racial superiority and in­feriority. We live today in a totally dif­ferent era, in which the prevailing ra­cialist theories of the 1930’s and earli­er are seen as historical curiosities.

The Nisei, with their courage, and their parents, by their industry, have won for Japanese Americans the admi­ration and respect of all Americans. Japanese Americans have an average level of education higher than any other ethnic group, including wrhites. They have a higher representation in the learned professions—medicine,law, engineering, computer science— than other ethnic groups—and in this respect they are doing as well as an­other group famous for their respect for learning—namely, the Jews. The per capita income of Japanese-Ameri- c&ns is $500 a year above the national average. And they have, with a popu­lation of less than half a million, three representatives in the U.S. Senate, while the blacks, with a population ap­proaching 23 million, have none. What more can Japanese-Americans want? We are living today at a time when Japanese-Americans are Almost a privileged class, with their notorious scholastic aptitude, their industrious­ness, and their team spirit in whatever occupation they find themselves.

Mr. President, I am proud to be a Japanese-American. But w'hen a small but vocal group of Japanese-Ameri- caivs calling themselves a redress com­mittee demand a cash indemnity of $25,000 for all those who went to relo­cation camps during World War II, in­cluding those who were infants at the time and those who are now dead, a

S 14048 CONGRESSIONAL RECORD — SENATE December 7, 1982total of some two and three-quartersof a billion dollars—we have been seeing this in a series of articles being published in the Washington Post— my flesh crawls with shame and em­barrassment.Let me remind the Japanese Ameri­can Redress Committee that we also live in a time when American Industry is seriously threatened by Japanesecompetition—in automobiles, steel,cameras, television, and radio sets,tape recorders, and watches. I warnthe Japanese Americans who demandabout $3 billion of financial redress forevents of 41 years ago from whichnobody is suffering today, that theirefforts can only result in a backlashagainst both Japanese Americans andJapan. And to make such a demand ata time of the budget stringencies ofthe Reagan administration is unwiseenough, but to make this demandagainst the background of their ownrecord as America’s most successfulminority is simply to invite ridicule.Let me remind the Japanese Ameri­cans that we are, as we say repeatedly in our Pledge of Allegiance, “onenation," striving to achieve “libertyand justice for all."This means—and I say this to black Americans and Mexican Americans and all other ethnic political groups— let us stop playing ethnic politics to gain something for our own group atthe expense of all others. Let us con­tinue to think of America as “one nation, under God, indivisible" and letus act accordingly.

12

Kishiyama, D. (1981, August 4). Wartime Crime Against 77,000 Americans AwaitsRedress. Los Angeles Times, p. 5.

Watanabe, T. (1980, June 29). Redress Divides Japanese-Americans: Some WarInternees Want Losses Repaid, Other Want Nothing. Los Angeles Times.

W ash ing ton . D.C 2 0 S 4 0

Congressional Research Service The Library of Congress

THE INTERNMENT OF GERMAN AND ITALIAN ALIENS COMPARED WITH THE INTERNMENT OF JAPANESE ALIENS IN THE UNITED STATES DURING WORLD WAR II:

A BRIEF HISTORY AND ANALYSIS

Peter B* Sheridan Analyst in American National Government

Government Division November 24, 1980

15

CRS-ii

PREFACE

The internment in the United States during World War II of more than

100,000 Japanese Americans, aliens and native-born citizens alike, has been

the subject of numerous articles and books. Less well known is the fact that

a significantly smaller number of German and Italian aliens, and some citizens,

were also interned, despite the fact that they comprised a greater population

than the Japanese Americans, and were present in larger numbers in equally

sensitive and strategic areas of the United States.

Recently, a Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians

was established (P.L. 96-317, July 31, 1980) ,fto gather facts to determine

whether any wrong was committed against those American citizens and permanent

resident aliens affected by Executive Order No. 9066*' which authorized the

War Department in 1942 to exclude persons from designated military areas.

The reasons for this disparity in treatment form the basis for the

attached report.

16

THE INTERNMENT OF GERMAN AND ITALIAN ALIENS COMPARED WITH THE INTERNMENT OF JAPANESE ALIENS IN THE UNITED STATES DURING WORLD WAR II:

A BRIEF HISTORY AND ANALYSIS

In 1940 the military successes of the Axis powers (Germany, Italy, Japan),

in Europe and elsewhere, caused a reappraisal of the traditional policy of the

United States regarding immigration and naturalization* As a result, and as

a precautionary measure, Congress in June of 1940 passed the Alien Registration

Act* 1/ An Alien Registration Division was established in the Department

of Justice and registration began in August 27, 1940. Registration involved

not only fingerprinting but also required the alien to answer forty-two

questions including occupation, geographical location, biographical data,

organizational membership, and status of citizenship. When registration was

completed, 4,921,452 aliens had reported in' the United States, and the Director

of the Alien Registration Division noted that we nknow more about the strangers

in our midst than about ourselves. " I f

Immediately after the attack on Pearl Harbor, the Federal Bureau of

Investigation began a roundup of aliens deemed potentially dangerous as a

result of prior investigation by the Bureau. Within weeks, several thousand

\J 54 Stat* 670. Also known as the Smith Act.

2/ Perry, Donald R. Aliens in the United States. In Minority Peoplesin a Nation at War. Philadelphia, American Academy of Political and SocialScience, 1942. (Annals, v. 223, September 1942) p. 6. For detailed descriptionof actual registration, filming of records, coding cards, fingerprinting, etc., see Amidon, Beulah. Aliens in America. Survey Graphic, v. 30, February 1943. p. 58-61.

17

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aliens had been taken into custody, brought before an Alien Enemy Hearing

Board and then released, paroled, or interned, for the duration of the war#

Those interned, if not considered a threat, were allowed later to apply for

parole. 3/

Early Japanese military and naval successes, and a belief that the American

mainland would be attacked, convinced many Americans, especially thoae living

on the West Coast, that this somewhat selective screening process was not

satisfactory. It was not long before calls were heard for an evacuation of

all aliens, but especially the Japanese, from designated military areas* In

January 1942, for example, Lt* Gen. John L* DeWitt, commander of the Western

Defense Command, stated that the only solution was "evacuation of all enemy

aliens from the West Coast and resettlement or internment under positive

control, military or otherwise**’ 4/

Certain steps had already been taken (via Presidential proclamations

in December 1941 and January 1942) to regulate the conduct and movement ofxenemy aliens* However, none of these measures was as severe as some desired*

In January and February of 1942, additional measures were announced by the

3/ Hoover, J. Edgar. Alien Enemy Control. Iowa Law Review, v. 29,March 1944. p. 402-403* Paroled meant that the individual was released but was under the observation of a "sponsor** selected by the Hearing Board.

4/ Conn, Stetson, et al* Guarding the United States and Its Outposts.The Western Hemisphere. United States in World War II. Prepared for the Officeof the Chief of Military History, Department of the Axmy. Washington, U.S.Govt. Print. Off., 1964. p. 123.

18

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United States Attorney General by which aliens were excluded from various

areas on the West Coast, 5/

Continued agitation against aliens on the West Coast resulted in the

issuance of Executive Order No, 9066 on February 19, 1942, This order gave

the Secretary of War, or his military commanders, the authority "to exclude

American citizens as well as alien enemies, from such areas as the Secretary

should designate," 6/ Lt, Gen, John L, DeWitt was designated as the military

commander to carry out the provisions of the executive order in the Western

Defense Command, Successive proclamations by DeWitt restricted the movement

of aliens. Finally, on March 24, 1942, DeWitt issued the first formal

evacuation order in Civilian Exclusion Order No, 1 by which all Japanese,

aliens and nonaliens, were excluded from military areas in the State of

Washington, Later orders extended exclusion to California and Oregon, 7/

Six days later, General DeWitt announced that certain classes of aliens

might be exempted from the exclusion orders. Eligible for exemption were**v

the following:

5/ U,S, Congress, House, Select Committee Investigating NationalDefense Migration, National Defense Migration; Findings and Recommendations on Evacuation of Enemy Aliens and Others From Prohibited Military Zones,Fourth Interim Report pursuant to H, Res, 113, House Report no, 2124, 77th Cong,, 2d sess,, May 1942, Washington, U,S, Govt, Print Off,, 1942, p, 160-162, Hereafter cited as Tolan Committee, Findings and Recommendations,

6>/ Ibid,, p, 163, It should be noted that authority to deal with alienswas now removed from the Justice Department, P,L, 77-503 (March 21, 1942)enforced exclusion from military areas,

7J Tolan Committee; Findings and Recommendations, p, 164-165,

19

C R S - 4

1. German and Italian aliens 70 or more years o; age.2. German and Italian aliens, parents, wives, husbands,

children of (or other person residing in a household whose support is dependent upon) any officer, enlisted man, or commissioned nurse on active duty in the Army of the United States (or any component thereof), United States Navy, Marine Corps, or Coast Guard.

3. German or Italian aliens, parents, wives, husbands, children of (or other person residing in a household whose support is wholly dependent upon) any officer, enlisted man, or commissioned nurse who on or since December 7, 1941, has died in line of duty with the armed forces of the United States indicated in the preceding paragraph.

4. German and Italian aliens awaiting naturalization who had filed a petition for naturalization and who had paid the filing fee therefor on or before December 7, 1941.

5. Patients in hospitals, or confined elsewhere, and too ill or incapacitated to be removed therefrom without danger to life.

6. Inmates of orphanages and the totally deaf, dumb, or blind.

However, Japanese were declared ineligible for all except categories 5

and 6. Thus, for all practical purposes, evacuation from the West Coast was

limited to the Japanese. 8/

There was some opposition to the evacuation of the Japanese, but this was^ * v

6tilled by the Japanese victories in the Pacific in early 1942. Secretary of

War Henry L. Stimson, for example, acquiesced because he had come to the

conclusion that the "racial characteristics" of the Japanese were "such that

we cannot understand or trust even the citizen Japanese." 9/ Attorney General

Francis Biddle’s efforts to prevent evacuation were derided on the West

Coast as "Biddling along," and he yielded; but he did resist successfully

8/ Tolan Committee; Findings and Recommendations, p. 165.

9/ Burns, James MacGregor. Roosevelt: The Soldier of Freedom. New York,Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc., 1970. p. 215.

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similar measures on the East Coast and was instrumental in setting up one or

more hearing boards in each judicial district. 10/

Opposition to the evacuation of German and Italian aliens met with more

success because the presence of large numbers of these people was not perceived

as a threat to national security, nor did they provoke the sort of hysteria

and panic engendered on the West Coast by the Japanese population. Moreover,

the problems posed in moving such large numbers deterred any major effort for

evacuation. Nevertheless, General DeWitt expressed a determination to proceed

against the German and Italian aliens as soon as the evacuation of the Japanese

was completed. Several of his staff members opposed such plans and they were

aided by similar resistance in the War Department.

In February 1942, Secretary of War Stimson directed General DeWitt to

"not disturb, for the time being at least, Italian aliens and persons of

Italian lineage" unless they constituted a definite danger. In support of

this order, Stimson stated that the Italians were "potentially less dangerous,

as a whole, than those of other enemy nationalities" and that because "of

the size of the Italian population and the number of troops and facilities which

would have to be employed to deal with them, their inclusion in the general

plan would greatly overtax our strength." 11/

10/ Galkins, C, WTartime Attorney General. Survey Graphic, v. 31,October 1942. p. 423.

11/ tenBroek, Jacobus, et al. Prejudice, War and the Constitution:Census and Consequences of the Evacuation of the Japanese Americans in World War II. Berkeley, University of California Press, 1975. p. 302. A similar conclusion was reached by a congressional committee investigating evacuation.In March 1942, the committee called mass evacuation of German and Italian aliens an "unmanageable proposal," and internment for the duration of the war was considered "unthinkable." U.S. Congress. House. Select Committee Investigating

(continued)

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By March 1942, the War Department had decided that any evacuation of

German and Italian aliens would “produce repercussions throughout the nation,"

and Attorney General Biddle was contending that any evacuation of these groups

would "have the gravest consequences to the n a t i o n’s economic structure and

war morale since it would be bound to produce confusion and disaffection among

persons of those nationalities," 12/

Consequently, L t . General Hugh A, Drum, commanding general of the Eastern

Defense Command, was informed that there was to be no evacuation within his

command. General D r u m’s statement on April 27, 1942, regarding the establishment

of military zones and approved conduct therein contained the announcement that

"Mass evacuation is not contemplated. Instead thereof, such evacuations as may

be considered necessary will be by selective processes applicable to enemy

aliens, or to other persons deemed dangerous to remain at large within the

area or within its zones,"13/

However, General DeWitt still recommended mass evacuation of German and

Italian aliens on the grounds of military necessity. If his recommendations

(continued) National Defense Migration, National Defense Migration; Preliminary

Report and Recommendations on Problems of Evacuation of Citizens and Aliens

from Military Areas, House Report No, 1911, 77th Cong,, 2d sess. , March 19,

1942, Washington, U.S, Govt, Print. Off,, 1942, p, 23, See Ibid,, p, 21-16

for reasoning of committee regarding a "flexible policy" for German and Italian

aliens. The same committee reported that there were, according to the 1940

census, 126,947 Japanese, foreign-born and citizen, in the United States.

Most of the Japanese were concentrated on the West Coast with 88.3 percent

residing in the States of California, Oregon, and Washington. In contrast,

German aliens amounted to 314,105, and Italian aliens, 690,551. When the number

of German and Italian foreign-born naturalized citizens is included, the figure approximates four million. See Ibid., 91-92, 230.

12/ Conn, Stetson, Guarding the United States, p. 145.

13/ Tolan Committee; Findings and Recommendations, p. 36.

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were not to be adopted, DeWitt requested "definite instructions to the contrary

that would exempt him from all responsibility for the consequences." 14/

In the meantime, the House Select Committee investigating the evacuation

of enemy aliens issued its fourth report in which various reconnnendation6

were made for the treatment of aliens. The committee also reiterated a

statement made in a previous report regarding the evacuation of German and italian

aliens:

If the Japanese evacuation creates serious questions, it is because an entire group out of our population is being bodily removed, family by family. This is in the nature of an exodus of a people. The numbers involved are large, but they are by no means as large, for the whole country, as those who will be involved if we generalize the current treatment of the Japanese to apply to all Axis aliens and their immediate families. Indeed, this committee is prepared to say that any such proposal is out of the question if we intend to win this war. 15/

On Hay 15, 1942, General DeWitt was informed that there was to be no

"collective evacuation of German and Italian aliens from the West coast or

from anywhere else in the United States." v The War Department would, however,

authorize individual exclusion orders "against both aliens and citizens under

the authority of Executive Order 9066." 16/ In a letter to DeWitt from

Assistant Secretary of War John J. McCloy on May 20, McCloy told DeWitt that

in approving evacuation under Executive Order 9066, "both the President and

14/ Conn, Stetson, Guarding the United States, p. 146. On May 5, 1942,President Roosevelt wrote to Secretary of War Stimson that on the subject ofevacuation of German and Italian aliens, he was "inclined to think this may have a bad effect on morale." See Polenberg, Richard. War and Society: The United States 1941-1945. New York, J.B. Lippincott Co., 1972. p. 61.

15/ Tolan Committee; Findings and Recommendations, p. 31.

16/ Conn, Stetson, Guarding the United States, p. 146.

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the Secretary of War did so with tb'! expectation that the exclusions would

not reach such numbers • • • . We want, if at all possible, to avoid the

necessity of establishing additional relocation settlements." 17/

Thus there was no mass evacuation of German and Italian aliens in the

United States during World War II, despite the fact that the Italians were

more numerous than the Japanese on the West Coast and the Germans more so

on the East Coast. For example, New York State alone contained more German

aliens than the number of Japanese, both aliens and citizens, on the whole

Pacific Coast. 18/ Part of the reason for this lack of action was the

sizeable logistical problem it would have imposed at a critical period of

the war. More important was the inability of the American people in World

War II (in contrast to World War I) to fear "that people of German or Italian

descent, unlike the Japanese-Americans, owed a divided allegiance." 19/

Indeed, as early as November 1942, Attorney General Biddle announced that Italian

aliens were no longer considered "aliens oxf enemy nationality." 20/ As one

17/ Weglyn, Michi. Years of Infamy: The Untold Story of A m e r i c a ’sConcentration Camps. New York, William Morrow and Company, Inc., 1976. p. 291.In June 1942, President Roosevelt assured Herbert Lehman, then Governor of New York, "that he was 'keenly aware of the anxiety that German and Italian aliens living in the United States must feel as the result of the Japanese evacuation of the West C o a s t . 1 Would Lehman assure them 'that no collective evacuation of German or Italian aliens is contemplated at this time?'" See Burns, Roosevelt: The Soldier of Freedom, p. 268. It was the opinion ofAttorney General Biddle in 1943 that Executive Order 9066 "was never intended to apply to Italians and Germans." See Michi, Years of Infamy, p. 73.

18/ Grodzins, Morton. Americans Betrayed: Politics and the JapaneseEvacuation. Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1949. p. 173.

19/ Polenberg, War and Society, p. 41.

20/ Ibid., p. 42. Earlier in the year, Roosevelt rejected the idea that the Italians in the United States constituted a threat and dismissed them as "a lot of opera singers." See Burns, Roosevelt: The Soldier of Freedom,p. 214.

CRS-9

historian of wartime America concluded, "Since Germans and Italians were

numerous, politically influential, well assimilated and widely dispersed,

Roosevelt and Biddle believed that it would be unwise to take action against

them." 21/

Nevertheless, selective individual exclusions were carried out, based

on information from the FBI and the results of individual hearings by a board

of army officers. Anyone judged "potentially dangerous11 was ordered to leave

the area. Grounds for exclusion included pre-Pearl-Harbor ties with German or

Italian organizations and expressions of "admiration, sympathy, or loyalty

to Hitler, Mussolini, the Nazi Party, Fascism, or the Fatherland," 22/ For

example, in the Western Defense Command, from August 1942 to July 1943, 174

individuals, including native-born citizens and enemy aliens, were given

exclusion orders. Many of those excluded were German-born or Italian-born

American citizens. Similar action was taken in the same period by the

Eastern and Southern Defense Commands, In these instances, 59 and 21 persons,xrespectively, were excluded from the coastal area, 23/

Detention of enemy aliens was originally under the control of the Army,

However, in early 1943, operation of the camps was transferred to the

Immigration and Naturalization Service, By the end of the year, there were

21/ Polenberg, War and Society, p, 61,

22/ Barnhart, Edward N, The Individual Exclusion of Japanese-Americans in World War II. Pacific Historical Review, v. 29, May 1960. p. 113.

23/ Ibid., p. 113—114. In at least one case in 1943, that of a German- born American citizen in Philadelphia who had close ties with two German organizations, an order to leave the area was refused. This position was ultimately upheld later in the year by a Federal judge who ruled that the "Army lacked the right to exclude persons arbitrarily from coastal defense areas under present circumstances." New York Times, May 8, 1943, p. L 17, and August 21, 1 9 4 3 , p. 13.

CRS-10

sixteen internment camps scattered throughout the United States, most of them

located in Texas, New Mexico, California, Montana, and North Dakota, One camp,

Crystal City, Texas, was used solely for the internment of families, 24/

By July 1942, 6ome 7,469 aliens had been taken into custody. However,

many were released or paroled after investigation so that only 1,692 were actually

interned, 25/ The peak number of inhabitants of the camps appears to have

been reached at the beginning of 1944 when 9,341 aliens were being held. By

the end of the year, only 6,238 remained in custody, 26/ Exact numbers are

difficult to ascertain since in many cases they did not include German and

Italian seamen interned when their ships were caught in American waters after

the declaration of war, several thousand enemy aliens from Latin American, and

a similar number awaiting deportation*

Within a few years after the war, all internment camps were phased out*

Some "detention1* facilities were still maintained, however, for aliens awaiting

disposition of various legal actions* The last internment camp, the family\

facility at Crystal City, Texas, closed on February 27, 1948, 27/

24/ U,S* Immigration and Naturalization Service, Annual Report, 1943* Washington, U,S, Govt, Print, Off*, 1943, p, 14-15,

25/ Ibid,, Annual Report, 1941, p, 26-27,

26/ Ibid,, Annual Report, 1942, p, 21, For descriptions of various campssee Harrison, Earl G, Civilian Internment— American Way, Survey Graphic, v, 33, May 1944, p. 229-233, 270, Some members of the German American Bund were denaturalized and spent time in the camps. See Diamond, Sander A, The Nazi Movement in the United States, 1924-1941, Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 1974, p, 345-346; and Bell, Leland V, The Failure of Nazism in America: The German American Bund, 1936-1941, Political Science Quarterly, v, 85,December 1970, p, 585-599,

27/ U,S. Immigration and Natura1ization Service, Annual Report, 1948, p, 19-21, Several camps closed during the war. For example, the KenedyInternment Camp, Kenedy, Texas, closed in September 1944, the Kooskia InternmentCamp, Kooskia, Idaho, closed in May 1945, and the Seagoville Internment Camp, Seagoville, Texas, closed in June 1945, See Ibid., Annual Report, 1945, p. 27,

* 26 "

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APPENDIX A: EXECUTIVE ORDER NO. 9066

E x e c u t i v e O i id e b— N o. 9066 A u t h o r i z i n g t h e S e c r e t a e t o r W a r T o P r e s c r i b e M i l i t a r y A r e a i

W h e r e a s th e successful pro^ecutioo of the *ar requires e v e r y por>ib)e pro­tection a cn in ' t espionage and acainst sal>otni:c to national defence material, national dc'fcn>c prcmiH^. and national dofcn-e utilities as defined in Section 4. Act of April 20, 1918, 40 S tat. 533, a* amended by the Act of X o \em b er 30, 1940. 54 S ta t . 1220, and the Act of August 21, 1941, 55 Stat. G55 (U. S. C., Title 50. Sec. 104):N o w , t h e r e f o r e , by virtue of the authority vested in n.e as President of the U nited S ta le s , and C om m ander in Chief of the Army and N avy , I hereby author­ize and d irect the Secretary of War, and the Military Commanders who he may from time to t im e des ignate , whenever he or any dc.'icnawd Con mandcr deems such action necessary or desirable, to pre-cribe military areas in such places and of such ex tent as he or the appropriate Military Commander may determine, from which a ny or all p erso ns may be excluded, and with respect to which, the right of any person to enter, remain in, or leave shall be subject to whatever restrictions th e Secretary of War or the appropriate Military Commander m a j impose in his discretion. T h e Secretary of War is hereby authorized to provide for residents o f any such area* who are excluded therefrom, such transport at ioo, food, shelter, and o ther accommodations as may be necessary, in the judgm ent o f the Secretary of War or the said Military Commander, and until other arrange­m en ts are m ade , to accom plish the purpose of this order. The designation of military areas in any region or locaiitv shall supersede designations of prohibited and restricted areas by the Attorney General under the Proclamations of D ec em ­ber 7 and S, 1941, and shall supersede the responsibility and authority of the A ttorney General under the said Proclamations in respect of such prohibited and restricted areas.I hereby further authorize and direct the Secretary of War and the said Military . C o m m a n d ers to take such other steps as he or the appropriate Mil itary C om ­m ander m a y deem advisab le to enforce compliance with the restrictions appli­cab le to each Military area hereinabove authorized to be designated, including th e use of Federal troops and other Federal Agencies, with authority to accept a ss istance of s ta te and local agencies.I hereby further authorize and direct all Executive Departments, independent es ta b l ish m en ts and other Federal Agencies, to assist the Secretary of War or th e said M il itary Com m anders in carrying out this Executive Order, including th e furni<hine of m edica l aid, hospitalization, food, clolhing, transportation, use o f land, shelter , and o ther supplies, equipment, utilities, facilities, and services.Th is order shall not be construed as modifying or limiting in any way the ' a uth or ity heretofore granted under Executive Order No. S972, dated Decem ber . 12, 1941, nor shall it be construed as limiting or modifying the duty and responsi­b ility of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, with respect to the investigation of alleged a cts o f sab o tag e or the duty and responsibility of the Attorney General

_and^ the D e p a r tm e n t of Justice under the Proclamations of December 7 and 8,1941, p r e s c r i b i n g r e g u l a t i o n s fo r t h e c o n d u c t a o d c o n t ro l of alieD enemies, e x c e p t as a uco d u t y aD d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y is superseded by the designation of military areaj b e re u D d e r .

T h e W h i t e H o u s e ,— Fr.hi~ua.rv IB. I Bit. ' — -------—

SOURCE: Tolan Committee, Findings and Recommendations, p. 31 4-3 1 5.

- 2 7

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SOURCE

APPENDIX B: PUBLIC LAW 503, MARCH 21, 1942

AN ACTTo provide o penflllj for violation of restriction* or order* with respect to person*entering, rem aining In, leaving, or committing au j *ct in m ilitary area* ortone*.

Be it enacted by the Senate and House o f Representative* o f the U n it 'd States o f America in Congress assembled. That whoever shall enter, remain in, leave, or commit any act in any military area, or mili tary rone prescribed, under the authority of on Executive order of the President, by the Secretary of War, or by any military com­m ander designated by the Secretary of YTar, contrary to the restric­tions applicable to any such area or zone or contrary to the order of the Secretary of W a r or any such military commander, shall, if it appears th a t he knew or should have known of the existence and extent of the restrictions or order and that his act was in violation thereof, be pu il ty of a misdemeanor and upon conviction shall beliable to a fine of not to exceed $5,000 or to imprisonment for not more (han one year, or both, for each offense.

Approved, M arch 21, 1942. ^

56 S t a t . 173.

M * / c b 23 , I K 2 p l . R U L S j __

1 PubLc L a v *03)

W jS J o o of Dfctaury restrVrU-uac

Paxu£j .

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APPENDIX C: CIVILIAN EXCLUSION ORDER NO. ]

C r n u m E x cx o s io * O a o c t N o. 1H c a d q o a i t l u , W e s t e * n D e f e n s e Command a n d F o u b tb A r x t ,

P rrtid 10 o / .San Francitco, California, March tt,, 1 9 tt.1. P u r su a n t to th e provjNions of Public Proclamations Xo*. I and 2. this head­

q uar te rs . d a ted M arch 2, 1942, and March 16, 1942, respectively, it is hereby ordered th a t all nelsons of Japanese ancestry, includiiig «.liens and oonalieoa. be excluded frora th a t portion of Mili tary Area No. 1 described as "Bainbridge Is land ," in the S ta te of Washington, on or before 12 o'clock noon, P. W. T., of the 30 th d ay of M arch 1942.

2. Such exclusion will be accomplished in the following m anner: •(a) Such persons m ay , with permission, on or prior to M arch 29. 1942, proceed to any ap p ro v ed place of their choosing beyond the limits of Mili tary Arra No. 1 and the p ro h ib i ted tones established by said proclamations or hercafler similarly estab lished , subject only to such regulations as to travel and change of residence as are now or m ay hereafte r be prescribed by this headquarters and by the t ’ni*ed S ta tes A t lo rn e y General. Persons affected hereby will not be perm itted to t a k e up residence or rem ain within the region designated as M ili tary Area No. 1 or the proh ib i ted rones heretofore or hereafter established. Persons affected hereby are requ ired on leaving or entering Bainbridgc Island to register and obtain a perm it a t the Civil C ontro l Office to be established on said Island at or near the fe rryboat landing .(b) On M arch 30, 1942, all such persons who have not removed thcraselvea frora B a in b r id ge Is land in accordance with Parag raph 1 hereof shall, in accordance with in s t ru c t ion s of th e Comm anding General, N orthw este rn Sector, report to th e Civil Con tro l Office referred to above on Bainbridge Island for evacuation in auch m a n n e r and to such place or places as shall then be prescribed.(c) A responsib le m em ber of each family affected by this order and each indi­v idual l iv ing alone so affected will report to the Civil Control Office described above b e tw ee n 8 a. m. and 5 p. m. Wednesday, M arch 25, 1942.3. A n y person affected bv this order who fails to comply with anv of its p ro­visions o r who is found od hainbridge Island after 12 o'clock noon, P. W. T., of M arch 30, 1942, will be subject to the criminal penalties provided by Public L aw No. 503, 77th Congress, approved March 21, 1942, enti t led "A n Act to Pro­vide a P e n a l ty for Violation of Restrictions or Orders with Respect to Persons E n te r in g , R em ain in g in, Leaving, or Com m itt ing Any Act in Mili tary Areas or Z one", a n d al ien Jap an ese wifi be subject t i im m edia te apprehension and in te rn m e n t . ^

J . L. D e W it t ,Lieutenant General, U. S. A rm y ,Com manding.

SOURCE: T o l a n Committee , F i n d i n g s and Recommendat ions , p. 3 3 2 - 3 3 3 .

C R S - U

A P P E N D I X D: ST/^' i EM ENT 0 u . G E N . HUGH A. DRUM

T e x t o r D » o m ’* S t a t e m c h tThe t r i t of t_hc *< n r nv-m by Li (•< H e r l A u m m . oo rcm tndln j p'orrm) o f t b e l i r t m DrfcnM*Com m « n<3 and F ir»v A rm t . * u f< at OofrrDon Iviand. anDcxjoriof pwrr11 tninary tor Omm i ■ t»l ist> a*c n l. al an ra rly d « u % t w u -tu .M ll.ia ry A j r * aiotxf Lb* A tiju j I*" a o a il IoIMt t l JT h e P r e s i d e n t in E j e c u O ' e Or d e r 90G6. da te d F c b n u r r 19, 1942, a u t h o r i z e d

a n d d i r e c t e d mi l i t a ry m mr r . ' n o d r n * horn the Secre ta ry of W a r d es i g na t e s , w h e n ­e ve r t h e d c Mc n a t e d cnrr.ms ndcr dc c r m such act ion Dece*sary or de s i r a b l e , toprescr i l>e mi l i t a r y areas »n such pSacef a nd of ruch e x t e n t aa t he a p p r o p r i a t e m i l i t a ry c o m m a n d e r ma y de t e rmi ne . t rom which a ny or al) pe r ron» m a y be ex* e lud ed a n d wi th respect u> whi ch the r ight of a n r person t o e n t e r , r e m a i n in orl eave s ha l l be s ub j e c t to w h a t e v e r res t r i ct ion» the Secre t a ry of V\ ar or t h e a p p r o ­p r i a t e m i lit a ry c o m m a n d e r u i sv impos e in bis di scre t ion. AU Fe d er a l d e p a r t m e n U a n d a g en c i e s a re d i rec t ed to assist t he Secre ta ry of Wa r a n d mi l i t a ry c o m m a n d e r » in t h e e x e c u t i o n of aaid Ex e c u t i ve ord^r a nd a u t h o r i t y is g r a n t e d t o a c c e p t t h e a s s i s t a n c e of S l a t e a nd local acrnciea .

T h e S e cr e t a ry of W a r has d e s i gn a t ed E E Gen. H u g h A. D r u m , c o m m a n d i n g t h e E a s t e r n De fe n s e C o m m a n d a o d I i rst Army, who u c ha r ge d w i th t h e de f e n s e of t h e e a s t e r n &oabonrd, t o de s i gna t e mi l i t a ry areas. Ge ne r a l D r u m will d e s i g n a t e t he e n t i r e E x t e r n Defense C o m m a n d cs a mi l i t ary area , cal led t h e E a s t e r n M i l i t a r y Area . T h e E a s t e r n Mi l i t a ry Area includes the N e w E n g l a n d S t a t e s a n d t he M id die a nd Sou t h A t !ant ic Si al cs a n d Flor ida we?t of t he A pa la chi cola Ki vcr , a n d t he D i s t r i c t of C o l u m b i a . T h e o b j e c t of prescr ibing a mi l i t a r y a r ea is t o f a c i l i t a t e c on t r o l so as t o p r e ve n t su b ve r s i ve ac t ivi t i es a nd a id be ing gi ven t h e e n e m y , s uc h as b y l i gh t i n g a l ong our c oas t s T h e mi l i t a ry a rea s y s t e m ys a n i n q » o r t a o t a n d n e c e s s a r y n d j u u c t t o t)ie de fense of ou r eas t e rn s ea bo ar d .

T h e f u n c t i o n a l sulxi iviyiona for c ont rol will be t he fou r ex i s t in g c or ps a r e a s in t h e m i l i t a r y a r e a — na mel y, t he F i r s t Corps Area, wi th h e a d q u a r t e r * a t Host on, M a ss . ; t h e Se cond Cor]'14 Area , wi th hcad qua r l o rx a t G o v e r n o r s I s l a n d , X . Y. ; t h e T h i r d C o r ps Area wi th h e a d q u a r t e r s at Ba l t imore , M d . ; a n d t h e F o u r t h C o r p s Ar e a , wi t h h e a d q u a r t e r s a t At l a n t a , Ga.

C o n t r o l t h r o u g h o u t t he a re a will l>c decen t r a l i zed io m o s t p a r t i c u l a r s t o t he c o r p s a r e a s a n d will L»c m a i n t a i n e d pr i mar i ly by m e a n s of a s y s t e m of de f i n i t e l y descr i lxxf zones. T h e D e p a r t m e n t of Jus t i c e t rnscthcr wi t h t h e F e d e r a l B u r e a u of I n v e s t igat ion a nd o t he r Fe de r a l agencies will assi st in t he e x e c u t i o n a n d e n ­f o r c e m e n t of t he r egu l a t i ons prescr ibed. S t a l e a nd local officials will he r e q u e s t e d t o a s s i s t . A zone e mb r a c es genera l ly a publ i c u t i l i t y ; a m i l i t a ry , n a v a l , o r civil i n s t a l l a t i o n ; a c omme rc ia l or de fense faci l i ty; a t er r i t o r i a l r egion, o r a s t r i p of c o a s t l i ne or w a fe r f ront , or o t h e r place, whose i nd i v i d ua l i m p o r t a n c e t o t h e n a ­t i o n a l d e f en s e a n d sec ur i ty wilJ v a r y in a cco r da nc e wi t h local o r o t h e r c on d i t i o ns .

T h e p l a n e m b o d i e d in t he a d mi n i s t r a t i o n of t he E a s t e r n M i l i t a r y A r e a c on­t e m p l a t e s t he con t ro l of c o n d u c t wi th i n the area on t he p a r t of c n e r n y a l i ens , as well os of all o t he r per rons , so as t o sa f egua rd (he n a t i on a l s e c u r i t y , a n d will be e f f ec t e d b y m e a n s of genera l res t r i c t ions and orders i ssued f r o m t h e h e a d q u a r t e r s of t h e E a s t e r n Defense C o m m a n d .

T h e f u n d a m e n t a l pol icy e mb o d i e d in the p l an is Dot t o i n t e r f e r e io a n y m i D o c r w h a t e v e r wi th t he l ives of t h e c rc a t moss cf loyal A m e r i c a ns in t h e S t a t e s i n c l ud e d io t h e m i l i t a r y a reas , or wi t h t he e con omi c life of t he a r ea , b u t it d o es e xp r e s s t he d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e mi l i t a r y a u t ho r i t i e s t o p r e v e n t an}* e n e m y s y m p a t h i z e r , w h e t h e r al i en e n e m y , al ien of o t h e r na t i ona l i t y , or d i s loya l A m e r i c a n , if a n y exi s t , f r o m c o m m i t t i n g a ny act d e t r i m e n t a l t o t he n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y . T h o s e p e r so n s who s e c o n d u c t reflects t he i r pa t r i o t i c m ot i ve s will n o t be a f f e c te d by th i s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .

E n f o r c e m e n t of res t r i ct ions , a nd conscqucDt lv c on t ro l of t h e a r e a , will be a c c o m p l i s h e d by t he a pp l i c a t io n of pena l t i es p r o v i ded by l aw for v i o l a t i o n s of t he r e s t r i c t i o n s a o d order s of the c o m m a n d i n g general . T h e s e i nc l ud e e xc l us i on f r o m t h e a rea , i n t e r n m e n t of aliens, p r osecu t ions u n d e r P u b l i c L a w Xo . 503 of M a r c h 21, 1942, a nd e va c ua t i on s . Howe ve r , r c gu l a t io u o r c o n t r o l of c o n d u c t ia t h e k e y n o t e of t he plan, r a t h e r t h an evac ua t i ons .

Maj^a e v a c u a t i o n i* not cor j i eranla t rd. I n s t ea d t he re o f , suc h e v a c u a t i o n ! as m a y be cou-sidcred necessary will t>e by ^elect ive processes a p p l i c a b l e t o e n e m y al i ens , o r t o o t h e r persons d e e me d d a ng e r ou s t o r e m a i n a t l a rge w i t h i n t h e a r e a o r w i t h i n i ts zonca.

A* a n ini t ia l s t e p in the e n fo r c e m e n t of t he r e s t r i c t ions t o be p r o s c r i be d for t h e m i l i t a r y area , t he F o u r t h Co: ps Area c o m m a n d e r s i n d i c a t e d a b o v e h a v e b e e n d i r e c t e d for thw ith to a s s ume r c n ' r o l over all l igh t i ng on t h e J s c a co os t so aa t o p r e v e n t t h e s i l h o ue t t i ng of shi ;x a nd thei r c o ns e q u e n t d e s t r u c t i o n b y e n e m y • u b m a r i n r / t .

I n a c c o r d a n c e wi th t h - p: rv. ; -n* of the ^ r e s i d e n t ’s E x e c u t i v e o r d e r t h e g o v ­e r n o r s of all t he Stat e* a:.U civil officials h a ve been reqner . t ed t o arr. ist t he corpaa r e a c o m m a n d e r » in t h- c • r - r r n t of t he ne ce r sa r y rest r i e t ion*.

SOURCE: T c l n r Con: and R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s , p. 3 5 - 3 6 .

CRS-15

BIBLIOGRAPY

BOOKS AND MONOGRAPHS

Bosworth, Allan R. America's concentration camps. New York, W.W. Norton,1967, 283 p. D805,U5B6 1967

Burns, James MacGregor, Roosevelt: the soldier of freedom. New York, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1970, 722 p, E807.B386

Conn, Stetson, Rose C, Engelman, and Byron Fairchild. Guarding the United States and its outposts, U,S, Army in World War II, The Western Hemisphere, v, 12, pt 2, Office of the Chief of Military History. Department of the Army. Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1964. 593 p.

D769.A533 v. 12, pt. 2

Diamond, Sander A. The Nazi movement in the United States, 1924-1941. Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 1974, 380 p. E184.G3D66

Girdner, Audrie and Anne Loftis, The great betrayal: the evacuation of the Japanese-Americans during World War II. New York, Macmillan, 1969.562 p. x D769.8.A6G5

Grodzins, Morton. Americans betrayed: politics and the Japanese evacuation. Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1949. 445 p. D769.8.A6G7

Lee, Kendrick, Forced evacuation. Editorial research reports, v. 1,April 30, 1942: 279-290. H35.E35

Phillips, Caball. The 1940s: decade of triumph and trouble. New York, Macmillan, 1975. 414 p. E806.P5

Polenberg, Richard. War and society: the United States, 1941-1945. New York, J.B. Lippincott, 1972. 298 p. HN57.P568

tenBroek, Jacobus, Edward N. Barnhart and Floyd W. Matson. Prejudice, war and the Constitution: causes and consequences of the evacuation of the Japanese Americans in World War II. Berkeley, University of California Press, 1975. 408 p. D769.8.A67^ 19^5

- 31

CRS-16

U.S. Congress. House. Select Committee Investigating National DefenseMigration. National Defense Migration. Findings and Recommendations on Evacuation of Enemy Aliens and Others From Prohibited Military Zones. Fourth Interim Report pursuant to H. Res. 113. Washington, U.S. Govt.Print. Off., 1942. 362 p. (77th Congress, 2d session. House. Reportno. 2124) D769.8.A6A5 1942 h

Preliminary Report and Recommendations on Problems on Evacuation ofCitizens and Aliens from Military Areas. Report pursuant to H. Res. 113. Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1942. 33 p. (77th Congress, 2dsession. House. Report no. 1911) D769.8.A6A5 1942 d

Problems of Evacuation of Enemy Aliens and Others From ProhibitedMilitary Zones. Hearings, 77th Congress, 2d session, on H. Res. 113,Parts 29-31. Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1942. 10965-11945 p.

HD8072.Al7 1941Hearings held February 21 and 23, 1942, San Francisco; February 26

and 28, 1942, Portland and Seattle; and march 6, 7, and 12, 1942,Los Angeles and San Francisco.

Weglyn, Michi. Years of infamy: The untold story of America's concentration camps. New York, William Morrow, 1976. 351 p. D769.8.A6W43

ARTICLES

Amidon, Beulah. Aliens in America. Survey graphic, v. 30, February 1943: 58-61. HV1.S82

Barnhart, Edward N. The individual exclusion of Japanese-Americans in World War II. Pacific historical review, v, 29, May 1960: 111-130.

F851.P18

Bell, Leland V. The failure of Nazism in America: the German American Bund, 1936-1941. Political science quarterly, v. 85, December 1970: 585-599.

H1.P8

Biddle, Francis. Axis aliens in America. Survey graphic, v. 31, January 1942: 13, 47. HV1.S82

Taking no chances. Collier's magazine, v. 109, March 21, 1942:21, 40-41. AP2.C65

Calkins, C. Wartime Attorney General. Survey graphic, v. 31, October 1942: 420-424. HV1.S82

Freeman, Harrop A. Genesis, Exodus, and Leviticus; genealogy, evacuation, and law. Cornell law quarterly, v. 28, June 1943: 414-458.

K3.07

CRS-]7

Gosnell, Harold. Symbols of national solidarity. In Minority peoples in a nation at war. Phi1ade1phia , American Academy of Political and Social Science, 1942. (Annals, v. 223, Sept. 1942) p. 137-161. H1.A4, v. 2 2 3

Harrison, Earl G. Axis aliens in an emergency. Survey graphic, v. 30. Sept. 1941: 463-468. HV1.S82

Civilian internment— American way. Survey graphic, v. 33, Ma7 1 944:229-233. HV1.S82

Hoover, J. Edgar. Alien enemy control. Iowa law review, v. 29, March 1944:396-408. K9.088

Lasker, Loula D. Friends or enemies? Survey graphic, v. 31, June 1942:277-279, 300-302. HV1.S82

Our three concentration camps. American magazine, v. 133, january 1942: 46-48. ' AP2.A346

Perry, Donald R. Aliens in the United States. In Minority peoples in anation at war. Philadelphia, American Academy of Political and SocialScience, 1942. (Annals, v.223, Sept. 1942) p. 1-9. H1.A4, v. 223

Stoneauist, Everett V. The restricted citizen. In Minority peoples in anation at war. Philadelphia, American Academy of Political and SocialScience, 1942. (Annals v. 223, Sept. 1942) p. 149-136. H1.A4, v. 223

Stuart, Graham H. War prisoners and internees in the United States.American foreign service journal, v, 21, October 1944: 330-331, 368, 371-373. ^ JX1.A3

Warren, George L. The refugee and the war. In Minority peoples in anation at war. Philadelphia, American Academy of Political and Social Science, 1942. (Annals, v. 223, Sept. 1942) p. 92-99. H1.A4, v. 223

zu Putlitz, Wolfgang. Your German-American neighbor and the Fifth Column. Harper’s monthly, v. 184, January 1942: 322-328. AP2.H3

PBS/r1 a

Federman, S. (1973, December 12). Prejudice overcome: Japanese grocerssurvived tough life. The Oregonian, p. 31.

Inouye, R. (1966, May 8). A "Day" that Will Live In Infamy. Northwest, p. 23.

Gregory, L. H. (1966, May 8). Cabooses: Every Back Yard Could UseOne. Northwest, p. 24.

McCready, A. (1966, May 8). Lieutenant Okamoto Country. Northwest, p. 10.

PHOTO #2 , National A rch ive s Tul e Lake WRA center became a segregation center in 194for pro-JapanHOKOKU SEINEN DAN, a pro-Japan p a tr io tic o rgan iza tion at Tule Lake Segregation C en te r, march in "goose-step" fa sh io n . Fascist s ty le . They wear Japanese m ilita ry h a irc u ts , w ith head-bands, and pro-Japan p a tr io tic symbols on s h ir ts . They "p ra c tic e , Japan m ilita ry s ty le " , fo r wnen th e y supposedly can jo in Japan's fo rces in fin a l v ic to ry against the U nited S ta tes. HOKOKU SEINEN DAN was one o f several su b ve rs ive o rg an iza tio n s opera ting on the West Coast and at th e Tule Lake Segregation C en te r. Most o f its members were tra n s fe rre d from the w ar re location centers in o th e r p a rts o f the U nited S tates, because th e y were "tro u b le m a k e rs ", causing anti-Am eH can r io ts . Many had re ­quested e xp a tria tio n o r re p a tr ia tio n to Japan. Some members were a rres te d a fte r mass dem ontra tions, in c lud in g Japanese-Am ericans who had renounced th e ir American c itiz e n s h ip — th u s becoming Japanese enemy a liens. They could th e re fo re be tra n s fe rre d un de r the D ept, o f Justice fo r in te rn m e n t. No American c itizen could be " in te rn e d " , because in te rn m e n t is fo r alien enemies o n ly . This is p h o toqraph ic evidence o f thousands o f cases o f d is lo y a lity by AMERICANS of Japanese descent. To attem pt to s u b v e rt loyal Am ericans is an act o f sabotage, and many loyal Am ericans who were p ro -A m e rica n , were beaten and th rea tened b y the p ro -J apan memoers o f HOKOKU SEINEN DAN.

THIS LETTER HAS BEEN MAILED TO

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P H O tb #1; National A rch ives FBI Raid at Tu le Lake Segregation C en te r, uncovers co ve rt action taken by pro-Japan ^'patriotic organizations", tb su b vert pro-A m erican a c tiv itie s . PRO-JAPAN iite ra tu re being p rin te d .

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WESTERN DEFENSE COMMAND AND FOURTH ARMY iOffice of Assistant Chief of Staff, Civil Affairs Division w

WARTIME CIVIL CONTROL ADMINISTRATION 1231 M a r k e t S t r e e t

S a n F r a n c is c o , C a l if o r n ia

Telephone KLONDIKE 2-2611

MEMORANDUM FOR: Director, War Relocation AuthoritySUBJECT: Situation at Manzanar regarding military police.

Pursuant to your request, the following consolidated confiden­tial report of investigation of relations between military police and others at Manzanar, is submitted to you for information:

■ *1. The Relationship Between the Military Authorities and the Interior Police. This relationship is satisfactory; close cooperation being maintained by both groups. The relationship between the Center Manager and the military authorities seems to be strained from the Center Management side. I have attached to this report a notice dated Tuesday, May 19, 1942, from Mr. Roy Nash, Project Director, which was placed on the bulletin boards throughout the Center by the manager.Also a copy of the Manznnar Free Press, dated May 19, 1942, in which is included a write-up of a speech made by the Center Manager, the occasion being a Sunday afternoon audience in commemoration of "I Am an American Day." This bulletin, as well as the Free Press write-up, seems to leave the burden of discipline completely to the Amy, while the Center Manager is desirous of allowing total freedom to the evac­uees. I could not find during this investigation any semblance of friction between Amy personnel and the Center Management that was initiated by the Amy personnel.

2. The Relationship Between the Army Personnel and theEvacuees. Since the shooting of the evacuee by the Military Police, the evacuees have enclosed their feelings in a shell. They are resigned to the fact that the military authorities axe in charge «nH that they will be punished or shot if they venture across the sentry lines.There is, however, the feeling that, though the evacuee who was shot was wrong in being beyond the sentry line, even though given permis­sion by the sentry, after he had been shot and no punishment directed towards the patrolman, at least the patrolman should not be allowed the freedom of the county in which to brag about the shooting. This came from an evacuee in the center who had not been outside and his information must have been open to the evacuees in the center. Other than this there is no difference apparent between the military auth­orities and the evacuees.

MEMORANDUM FOR: Director, War Relocation Authority June 5, 19-42

3. The Relationship Between the Center Manager «r>d theEvacuees. This information was gathered from contacts with the Chief of Interior Police Kenneth Horton and Assistant Chief L. F. Day and ein evacuee that I am sure can be depended upon for truthfulness, Tokutaro N. Slocum. Slocum, being an evacuee and commonly known as Tokie Slocum, served in the last world war as Sergeant-Major of an out­fit overseas. This man was educated in this country, adopted by anAmerican family by the name of Slocum.

a. There is at present as Director of Information, oneAkira Itami, who has as his right-hand man and as one of theblock leaders, one Carl Yoneda. Carl Yoneda, according to information in our files has a very definite communistic ten­dency, being the husband of a Russian Jewess, who is of the rabid soap-box type communist. Akira Itami, in turn, is the head of the Kebei group, and brought the first thousand evacuees to this center. Itami, working directly under Kidwell, Service Manager, is responsible for the placing of all evacuees in the leading positions. The election of block leaders is conducted by having the members of each block select three members of the block, submit these to Kidwell and one of the three is chosen by him as the leader. The impression received by the Police Chief, Assistant Chief of Police and Slocum is that only the man that Itami chooses is selected by Kidwellas being block leader. Frasure, who has charge of assigning the evacuees to jobs, has under him Oko Murata, who is heartily disliked by the evacuees and who has on occasion met busses as they entered with new arrivals and called out to some of these that she had good jobs picked for them. They in turn received the better positions. Itami, since the center has been filling, has assumed an imperialistic attitude toward all of the evacuees, even among his own lieutenants. Between the offices of Kidwell and Frasure there seems to be thrown throughout the center an attitude of favoritism and politics that must be played through either Itami or Murata. This seems to be a follow-through of the attitude that originated under the former 6et-up, that of operating under the lines of the WPA project and allowing poli­tics to fill the key positions.

b. While talking with Slocum, I was impressed by thestraightforward discussion of the various problems, his Ameri­canism and utter lack of any bitterness toward the government or any agency causing him to be placed there. I was also im­pressed by his knowledge jq £ what seemed to be taking place out

Page Two

r <r*\r. ii or.-J £T/, cr X)

*r: - < r,r-r n jr, *■' !: ’ i ; •• : ■. __ • ♦ —

MEMORANDUM FOR: Director, War Relocation Authority

, *> ' -- i i

L ta td ^ t-uaby June 5, 19A2

Page Three

at the center. One bit of information that he gave, I am passing on for what it might be worth; parts of it are truein my opinion, parts I was unable to verify. He says that the Catholic religion had this hold on the camp: They havemade promises to those that attended the church that if any of their friends or relatives were in a detention camp in Montana, if the names were furnished, the Catholic Church would see that they were released and sent to the center at Manzanar. This he was unable to verify. However, the fact that the center management and the Clergy of the Catholic Church met and visited socially among themselves outside of the center was common knowledge.

c. This information was passed on by Slocum, that thefirst group of one thousand that entered the center consisted of three distinct groups, (l) The first was a group that came to the center fearing to stay on the outside because of the activity of the F.B.I., and fearing that if they would stay outside they would be picked up by them. (2) The secondgroup consisted of evacuees that did not have a job on the outside and were glad to be placed somewhere so that they might be fed and housed. (3) The third group consisted of the politicians, or the group headed by Akira Itami, who entered early so that they might worm their way into the con­fidences of the Center Management, obtain the key positions and be able to place men of their own choice into other posi­tions when they entered."

Takahashi, R. (1988, August 10). President Ronald Reagan signing the CivilLiberties Act (redress bill) into law[Photograph]. Washington D.C.