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UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURICENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING
HIS 104: Nigeria from the Earliest time to 1600AD(2 Units)
Course Facilitator:
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STUDY GUIDE
Course Code/ Title:
Credit Units:
Timing:
Total hours of Study per each course material should be twenty Six hours
(26hrs) at two hours per week within a given semester.
You should plan your time table for study on the basis of two hours per course
throughout the week. This will apply to all course materials you have. This
implies that each course material will be studied for two hours in a week.
Similarly, each study session should be timed at one hour including all the
activities under it. Do not rush on your time, utilize them adequately. All
activities should be timed from five minutes (5minutes) to ten minutes
(10minutes). Observe the time you spent for each activity, whether you may
need to add or subtract more minutes for the activity. You should also take note
of your speed of completing an activity for the purpose of adjustment.
Meanwhile, you should observe the one hour allocated to a study session. Find
out whether this time is adequate or not. You may need to add or subtract some
minutes depending on your speed.
You may also need to allocate separate time for your self-assessment questions
out of the remaining minutes from the one hour or the one hour which was not
used out of the two hours that can be utilized for your SAQ. You must be
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careful in utilizing your time. Your success depends on good utilization of the
time given; because time is money, do not waste it.
Reading:
When you start reading the study session, you must not read it like a novel. You
should start by having a pen and paper for writing the main points in the study
session. You must also have dictionary for checking terms and concepts that are
not properly explained in the glossary.
Before writing the main points you must use pencil to underline those main
points in the text. Make the underlining neat and clear so that the book is not
spoiled for further usage.
Similarly, you should underline any term that you do not understand its meaning
and check for their meaning in the glossary. If those meanings in the glossary
are not enough for you, you can use your dictionary for further explanations.
When you reach the box for activity, read the question(s) twice so that you are
sure of what the question ask you to do then you go back to the in-text to locate
the answers to the question. You must be brief in answering those activities
except when the question requires you to be detailed.
In the same way you read the in-text question and in-text answer carefully,
making sure you understand them and locate them in the main text. Furthermore
before you attempt answering the (SAQ) be sure of what the question wants you
to do, then locate the answers in your in-text carefully before you provide the
answer.
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Generally, the reading required you to be very careful, paying attention to what
you are reading, noting the major points and terms and concepts. But when you
are tired, worried and weak do not go into reading, wait until you are relaxed
and strong enough before you engage in reading activities.
Bold Terms:
These are terms that are very important towards comprehending/understanding
the in-text read by you. The terms are bolded or made darker in the sentence for
you to identify them. When you come across such terms check for the meaning
at the back of your book; under the heading glossary. If the meaning is not clear
to you, you can use your dictionary to get more clarifications about the
term/concept. Do not neglect any of the bold term in your reading because they
are essential tools for your understanding of the in-text.
Practice Exercises
a. Activity: Activity is provided in all the study sessions. Each activity is to
remind you of the immediate facts, points and major informations you
read in the in-text. In every study session there is one or more activities
provided for you to answer them. You must be very careful in answering
these activities because they provide you with major facts of the text. You
can have a separate note book for the activities which can serve as
summary of the texts. Do not forget to timed yourself for each activity
you answered.
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b. In-text Questions and Answers: In-text questions and answers are
provided for you to remind you of major points or facts. To every
question, there is answer. So please note all the questions and their
answers, they will help you towards remembering the major points in
your reading.
c. Self Assessment Question: This part is one of the most essential
components of your study. It is meant to test your understanding of what
you studied so you must give adequate attention in answering them. The
remaining time from the two hours allocated for this study session can be
used in answering the self- assessment question.
Before you start writing answers to any questions under SAQ, you are
expected to write down the major points related to the particular question
to be answered. Check those points you have written in the in-text to
ascertain that they are correct, after that you can start explaining each
point as your answer to the question.
When you have completed the explanation of each question, you can now
check at the back of your book, compare your answer to the solutions
provided by your course writer. Then try to grade your effort sincerely
and honestly to see your level of performance. This procedure should be
applied to all SAQ activities. Make sure you are not in a hurry to finish
but careful to do the right thing.
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e-Tutors: The eTutors are dedicated online teachers that provide services to
students in all their programme of studies. They are expected to be twenty- four
hours online to receive and attend to students Academic and Administrative
questions which are vital to student’s processes of their studies. For each
programme, there will be two or more e-tutors for effective attention to
student’s enquiries.
Therefore, you are expected as a student to always contact your e-tutors
through their email addresses or phone numbers which are there in your student
hand book. Do not hesitate or waste time in contacting your e-tutors when in
doubt about your learning.
You must learn how to operate email, because e-mailing will give you
opportunity for getting better explanation at no cost.
In addition to your e-tutors, you can also contact your course facilitators through
their phone numbers and e-mails which are also in your handbook for use. Your
course facilitators can also resolve your academic problems. Please utilize them
effectively for your studies.
Continuous assessment
The continuous assessment exercise is limited to 30% of the total marks. The
medium of conducting continuous assessment may be through online testing,
Tutor Marked test or assignment. You may be required to submit your test or
assignment through your email. The continuous assessment may be conducted
more than once. You must make sure you participate in all C.A processes for
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without doing your C.A you may not pass your examination, so take note and be
up to date.
Examination
All examinations shall be conducted at the University of Maiduguri Centre for
Distance Learning. Therefore all students must come to the Centre for a period
of one week for their examinations. Your preparation for examination may
require you to look for course mates so that you form a group studies. The
grouping or Networking studies will facilitate your better understanding of what
you studied.
Group studies can be formed in villages and township as long as you have
partners offering the same programme. Grouping and Social Networking are
better approaches to effective studies. Please find your group.
You must prepare very well before the examination week. You must engage in
comprehensive studies. Revising your previous studies, making brief summaries
of all materials you read or from your first summary on activities, in-text
questions and answers, as well as on self assessment questions that you
provided solutions at first stage of studies. When the examination week
commences you can also go through your brief summarizes each day for various
the courses to remind you of main points. When coming to examination hall,
there are certain materials that are prohibited for you to carry ( i.e Bags, Cell
phone, and any paper etc). You will be checked before you are allowed to enter
the hall. You must also be well behaved throughout your examination period.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Study Session 1: The People of Nigeria.
Study Session 2: Agrarian and Technological Revolutions and innovations –
Nok, Igbo-Ukwe and Daima.
Study Session 3: The Formation and Growth of Towns, States and Empires.
Study Session 4: Sources for reconstruction and interpretation of Oral
traditions.
Study Session 5: The micro states and stateless societies.
Study Session 6: Internal trade, relations with North Africa, the coming of
Islam and first contact with Europe.
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STUDY SESSION 1.
THE PEOPLE OF NIGERIA
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Nigeria lies between latitudes 4oN and 14oN. It is bounded in the north by the
sahara desert and in the south by the Gulf of Guinea. Nigeria has witnessed
many waves of human movements from across the sahara, which has never been
a barrier between the lands lying to the north and south of that great desert. In
the course of human migrations there have been displacement as well as
intermingling of peoples, some groups have been pushed into new and often
more difficult environments and adapted to the new environment. These waves
of human migrations which constitute a major feature of the pre-colonial history
of Nigeria brought desert people into grassland environment and grassland
people into forest environment.
1.2 LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the Session, students should be able to:
i. Discuss the origin, settlement pattern and economic activities of the
Nigerian people.
ii. Classify Nigerian people into two broad categories namely the
Grassland peoples and peoples of the forest belt.
iii. Assess the distribution and movements of population in Nigeria in the
period covered by this study.
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1.3 IN-TEXT
Human settlement in the Nigerian area has a long history – Archaeological
evidence suggests that the country have been settled by man since the
(Paleolithic or Old Stone Age period 500,000 – 9000 BC). According to the
1952/53 census, there are more than 200 distinct ethnic groups in Nigeria, most
of who have different or distinct customs, traditions, and languages. The larger
and politically dominant groups include the Yoruba (10 million), the Igbo (7
million), the Hausa (16 million) and the Fulani (5 million). Other prominent but
less numerous groups include the Edo, the Ibibio of the Cross River State, the
Tiv of the Benue valley, the Nupe of the Middle Niger valley, and the Kanuri of
the Lake Chad basin.
Each ethnic group occupies a distinct and continuous territory and most
of the smaller groups had very little contact with other groups before the spread
of Islam and the imposition of colonial rule. There was, however, considerable
trade and cultural contacts between the major grassland groups featuring the
Hausa, Fulani, Nupe and northern Yoruba. In the forest belt a long-standing
historical link existed between the Edo of Benin with the Yoruba of Ife and
Lagos. The delta people whose territory is too swampy for cultivation and who,
in consequence, produced mainly fish and salt, carried on a sizeable trade with
the forest peoples who supplied them basic foodstuffs in exchange of fish and
salt. During the 18th and 19th centuries, the delta peoples accumulated much
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wealth because of their middle man position in the trade between the hinterland
peoples and the European traders on the Coast. It was during the colonial
period when the various groups inhabiting Nigeria came under one government
and when roads and railways were built that trade and cultural contacts among
the different ethnic groups increased substantially. Because of the considerable
differences in the environments occupied by the various groups, it is necessary
to consider the peoples of Nigeria under two major geographical groups namely
the forest peoples and the grassland peoples.
Peoples of the Forest belt
The forest belt attracted mostly people seeking refuge from southward
pressing groups from the north. The protection offered by the forests is obvious
from the attacks of the Fulani warriors who had great difficulty in penetrating
and fighting in a forest environment.
The largest known people of the forest belt are the Yoruba and Edo who
live in the southwest or western states of Nigeria and the Igbo, Ibibio and Ekoi
peoples of the south east or eastern states of Nigeria. There is a marked
difference between the political and social organization of the Yoruba and Edo-
speaking peoples who successfully established and maintained vast kingdoms
within the forest environment and the stateless societies of the Igbo, Ibibio and
Ekoi peoples of the south east of Nigeria. It is important to note that the empire
– building Yoruba and Edo peoples of the western forests had greater contacts
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with the Empire building groups of the far north, than was the case with the
politically fragmented peoples of the eastern forests.
The traditional religion of the forest peoples remained almost completely
insulated from the influence of Islam up till the Early years of the colonial
period, when Christianity was introduced and readily adopted in many districts
since the Christian missionaries were the innovators and agents of the diffusion
of western type education, the coastal and forest peoples of the south have since
produced the largest number of educated and highly trained people in the
country’s labour force.
The Yoruba Speaking people
The Yoruba speaking peoples of Nigeria are concentrated in the Ogun,
Oyo, Ondo, Kwara and Lagos states. The Yoruba are linguistically
homogenous and also share common traditions and claime descent from a
common ancestor called Oduduwa, who is believed to have established the Ife
dynasty. It is worthy to note that the Yoruba never united under a common
government. Rather, Yoruba land consisted of several powerful kingdoms such
as Ife, Oyo, Egba and Ijebu. Certain kings were, however, recognized
throughout the whole of Yorubaland, the most important of these being the Ooni
of Ife, who was regarded as the spiritual leader of all Yoruba and the Alafin of
Oyo who was the political leader of the Yoruba people.
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Although the Yoruba are predominantly an agricultural people, they have
a unique and longstanding tradition of living in large towns, the largest of which
include Ibadan; others are Ogbomosho, Oshogbo, Ilorin, Abeoukuta, Illesha and
Ede. The Yoruba are the most urbanized group not only in Nigeria but through
out the African continent. Urbanization facilitated the growth of trade among
the Yoruba as well as between them and other Nigerian peoples, notably the
Nupe and Hausa.
The basic unit of social organization among the Yoruba is the family.
The main occupation of the men is farming, while the women engage primarily
in trading. There is also a considerable number of professional artists and
craftsmen who excel in wood-curving and other crafts. The famous work of
arts, the terracotta and bronze heads of Ife which are reputed to be up to 800
years old are the handiwork of the Yoruba.
The Edo-speaking people
The Edo established the famous Empire of Benin – they occupy the
territory immediately east of Yoruba land. Several close traditional links exist
between these two ethnic groups, whose political systems are also similar.
At the height of its power in the late 15th century, Benin influence
extended from the banks of the lower Niger valley to Dahomey (modern
Republic of Benin). The Benin Empire therefore embraced a large number of
ethnic groups including the Edo themselves, the western Igbo, and some Yoruba
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groups. Today, several Igbo towns like Onitsha, Atani, and Ossomari, all
located on the east bank of the lower Niger claim to have been founded by
migrants from Benin.
The Igbo and the Ibibio
The Igbo and the Ibibio are found in the east of the lower Niger valley
and are divided into several sub groups. These states were not organized into
large states or kingdoms. The largest political organization in these states was
the village group which had a population of only a few thousand people. Even
within the village group, power or authority was never concentrated in the hands
of any individual or family and although there were chiefs, usually elderly men,
there was not ruling aristocracy which wielded authority as a specialized
fulltime occupation.
The village group was ruled by a council of elders, usually the heads of
the major extended families. There was never an Igbo or Ibibio state with a
political head or a widely accepted religious leader.
Occupations
Like the Yoruba and the Edo of the west, the Igbo and the Ibibio are a
settled agricultural people. But unlike the western people, the Igbo and Ibibio
live in small villages and not in towns. In addition to farming, they involved in
trade and were fisher folk.
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The Grassland Peoples
The grassland or Savannah peoples of Nigeria fall into two distinct
geographical groups namely the Middle Belt peoples and the peoples of the far
north. The Middle Belt is noted for the large number of very small ethnic
groups, including the hill dwelling peoples of the Jos plateau region and the
eastern highlands of the Adamawa. The two largest and most prominent of the
Middle Belt grassland peoples are the Tiv of the Benue valley in the east and the
Nupe of the middle Niger valley in the west.
The Tiv Speaking People
The Tiv political structure is highly fragmented and, according to
Bohannan, the only Tiv group of which one could say there must be someone
responsible was the compound; which was essentially a domestic rather than a
political unit; but, although the Tiv lacked political organization, they were not
lacking in political leadership, since men of great affluence and good qualities
were recognized as political leaders.
The Nupe speaking People
The Nupe, unlike the Tiv, have a rather integrated political organization
which is similar in some ways to the Yoruba system. Like the Yoruba, they
lived in large nucleated villages. They were farmers, traders and craftsmen.
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In the more open grassland areas of the Nigerian sudan, the most
numerous and politically dominated groups are the Hausa, the Fulani and the
Kanuri.
Hausa is the most widely spoken language and it is generally understood
in most parts of Northern Nigeria. the Hausa peoples of Nigeria are however,
concentrated in Sokoto, Kano and Kaduna states.
The Hausa political organization was characterized by a number of city-
states which were never unified until the Fulani conquest in the early part of the
19th century. It was after the Fulani conquest that Islam became more widely
adopted, even though it had been introduced as far back as the 14th century.
Hausa economy has always featured the intensive cultivation of guinea
corn, millet, maize and beans, and more Hausa live in small agricultural
villages, although there are also large traditional Hausa towns, uncluding, Kano,
Katsina, Zaria and Sokoto. The Hausa owned cattle but entrusted these animals
to the cattle Fulani while the pastoral activities of the Hausa are largely limited
to keeping goats and chicken. They practiced irrigation in the dry season.
The Hausa are well known as skilled craftsmen and are probably the most
traveled traders in West Africa. Some of their crafts work includes leather
goods, wood curving, blankets of camel hair, and perfumes. In Nigeria, the
Hausa are largely responsible for organizing the trade in cattle and kola nuts
between western Nigeria and the northern states of Nigeria. The Hausa cattle
and kolanuts brokers and transporters usually live in large Yoruba town of
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Ibadan, Ijebu Ode and Shagamu; but many Hausa kola buyers and seasonal
agricultural labourers may be found in small villages all over the cocoa and
kolanut growing areas of southwestern Nigeria. The Hausa lived in mud
houses, roofed with thatch.
Hausaland is also the home of the Fulani of Nigeria who are probably the
only ethnic group in Africa with no distinct territory. Rather the Fulani are to
be found in every country of the Sudan zone, extending from Senegal in the
west to the upper Nile in the east. They migrated into Nigeria from the west and
settled amongst the Hausa and subsequently conquered them during the Fulani
jihad led by Uthman Dan Fodio in the early 19th century.
Two types of Fulani are usually recognized. They are the cattle Fulani
and the settled or town Fulani. The cattle Fulani is essentially a nomadic cattle
rarer who migrates regularly with his cattle in search of water and good grazing,
particularly during the dry season. He maintains his identity because he hardly
moves with non Fulani people. The town or settled Fulani live in the conquered
towns of Hausaland, where he is essentially an administrator or a farmer. Many
of them own large herds of cattle which they entrust into the care of their
nomadic brethren. They are devoted muslims and have been largely responsible
for the spread of Islam throughout Hausaland and parts of the middle Belt.
The Kanuri of Borno also fall within the major grassland peoples. The
Kanuri are muslim. Islam was already well established in Borno before the
Fulani Jihad in Hausaland and although the Fulani made several efforts to
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conquer Borno, they never succeeded in doing so. The Kanuri are farmers and
traders many of them also own large herds of cattle which are under the care of
Shuwa Arabs or the cattle Fulani. The Kanuri had established the famous
Empire of Kanem-Borno and are reputed to have been the most Islamised group
in the region with a dynasty which ruled to the best part of a millennium. They
are found in Borno and Yobe states but also in the former areas of Kanem,
Niger and northern Cameroons.
Distribution and Movements of Populations
With a population of over 150 million in 1991, Nigeria is by far the most
populous country in Africa. It has an area of 922,280 square kilometers. Some
areas are highly populated while others are sparely populated. A few pockets of
high population destiny, for example, occur within the Middle Belt in the region
of the Jos plateau, Southern Tivland and Okenne districts. Outside these areas,
the middle belt is characterized by very extensive areas of very low. Population
densities other areas which are very sparsely settled include the cross river
district, the Niger Delta and the Lake Chad basin. Almost all the forest reserves
in the country are located in these sparsely settled areas, many of which also
attract migrant farmers from the land hungry, densely populated areas.
Factors Responsible for the Pattern of Distribution of Population in Nigeria
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Environmental and historical factors are largely responsible for the
pattern of population distribution in Nigeria. Although the major concentration
of population in the Yoruba cocoa belt, the Kano groundnut belt and the Jos
plateau are partly a result of economic development during the colonial period,
these areas happen to have been already densely settled before 1900, largely as
a result of the civil wars and slave raids of the pre-colonial period.
The large concentrations of rural population in the Kano, Katsina and
Sokoto districts survived because for many generations the Hausa and later the
Fulani rulers of the city states were able to provide protection and stable
government for the people, thereby attracting more people from war-ravaged
borderland districts.
Inter-group warfare and slave raids were also largely responsible for the
large scale depopulation of vast areas or the middle Belt. There are, however,
many parts of the country which have always been sparsely populated because
of difficult environmental conditions. The Niger Delta, the Great Muri plains
and the areas lying between the Cross River and Cameroon border has always
been sparsely populated.
IN TEXT QUESTION
1. Explain why most of the Nigerian groups claim origin from the east.
IN TEXT ANSWER
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Most of the Nigerian groups like the Yoruba Fulbe, Kanuri, Hausa etc.
claim eastern origin for a number of reasons. First and foremost, the east was
associated with the rise of world religions like Judaism, Christianity and Islam.
All the prophets emerged in the east. The east served as center of world
civilization. It is as a result of these facts that the Yoruba claim eastern origin,
the Kanuri also claim that they descended from an Arab hero called Saif Ibn
Dhiyazau from Yemen and the Fulani claim descend from an Arab or Muslim
Islamic Army General called Uqba Ibn. Nafi.
1.4 SUMMARY
This chapter has attempted to present the basic facts about the Nigerian
environment. The conclusion that can be drawn from this chapter is that
geographical factors have merely influenced but have not determined the course
of human history.
1.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS (SAQ)
(1) Discuss the origins and settlement pattern of any one of the following
groups: the Igbo, the Yoruba, the Hausa, the Fulani, the Kanuri, the Edo.
(2) Assess the distribution and movement of population in Nigeria between
1000 – 1600 AD.
1.6 REFERENCES
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(1) O. Ikime (ed) (1960). Groundwork of Nigerian History, Ibadan.
(2) R. K. Udo, (1970). Geographical regions of Nigeria, London.
(3) K. M. Buchanan and J. C. Pugh, (1957). Land and people in Nigeria,
London.
1.7 SUGGESTED READINGS
1. M. Crowder (1974). The story of Nigeria, London.
2. H. Barth, (1957). Travels and Discoveries in North and Central Africa
1849 – 1855 New York Vol.I & Vol.III.
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Study Session 2: AGRARIAN AND TECHNOLOGICAL REVOLUTIONS
AND INNOVATIONS – NOK, IGBO-UKWU AND DAINA
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Agrarian and technological revolutions simply refer to the beginnings and
development of food production, the coming of metal and the innovations put in
place by man in areas such as Nok, Igbo-ukwu and Daima considered being one
of the earliest centers of human civilization in this part of Africa.
2.2 LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the study session, students should be able to:
1. Discuss the beginning and development of food production.
2. Explain the coming of metals into the Nigerian area.
3. Discuss the centers of ancient civilization in the Nigerian area.
2.3 IN-TEXT
The change from dependence on hunting, fishing and gathering wild
fruits to crop raising and domestication of livestock is the most important step
which early man has taken in the last 10,000 years. This development
fundamentally changed man’s way of life and brought with it numerous
consequences as follows:
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(i) It advanced man’s capacity for controlling his environment and set up
conditions necessary for the emergence of civilization.
(ii) It made sedentary life possible as never before.
(iii) It led to the storage of food.
(iv) It led to the accumulation of wealth, and an increase in population.
(v) It led to the division of labour.
(vi) It led to social stratification and new forms of social control.
The revolution in food production did not take place in a single location
and then spread to the rest of the world but few areas or places are responsible
as food centers in the world. The hill country of Anatolia Iran and Northern
Iraq are the early centers of food production. Here it is reported that, the
cultivation of wheat and barley and domestication of livestock such as sheep,
goats and cattle; Later the Euphrates, Nile and Indus, with the added techniques
of drainage and irrigation. By the 5th millennium BC there were domesticated
sheep and cattle in Egypt and cereals were being grown.
In tropical parts of Africa, there were domesticated suitable indigenous
wild grasses which gave rise to the African cultivated millets; the most
important of these was guinea corn (sorghum bicolor) which was domesticated
by the middle of the second millennium B.C. in the area between the sahara and
the Savannah between the Nile and the Lake Chad. Other wild grasses were
domesticated to become pearl millet and finger millet. African rice was
domesticated in the area of the inland delta of the Niger: In Iwo Eleru, an
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archaeological site during the Old Stone Age. Implements i.e. knifes associated
with harvesting of wheat and barely were discovered.
In the moisture zone of West Africa, the most stable crop was yam of
which more than one African variety was domesticated which might have taken
place more than 5,000 years ago. Perhaps, the cultivation of yam must have
required as a factor explaining the density of population in southern Nigeria.
We can conclude that by the first millennium AD, a sufficient agricultural
base had been established to support such ancient states of Ghana, Mali,
Songhai, Kanem-Borno Hausaland and the forest states of old Oyo, Benin,
Ahsnte.
The coming of Metal
The period of iron-age in Nigeria is divided into four namely:
1. Early contact period: C.400BC – AD 700
2. Northern contact period: C.700 AD – AD 1475
3. Southern contact period: C.1475AD – AD 1850
4. Inland contact period: after AD. 1850
EARLY CONTACT PERIOD: C.400BC – AD 700
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Throughout this period there would have been many parts of Nigeria
which had no contacts with the outside world where there were contacts
between West African and the Mediterranean world, such contact were very
limited. It was at the beginning of this period (C.400 – 700AD) that knowledge
of iron reached Nigeria. This was not just an importation of iron objects but
knowledge of an iron manufacture. At Taruga about 35 km, south-east of Abuja
in Central Nigeria, a number of iron-smelting furnaces have been excavated
dating from the 5th to the 3rd centuries B.C. Archaeological work been carried
out in an area now flooded by the Kanji Dam on the River Niger, indicated the
presence of iron in this area by the second century B.C. Taruga which located
very near to Abuja and the area flooded by River Niger are all located in
Nigeria. but it has been frequently suggested that a Knowledge of iron working
reached Nigeria from outside i.e. from Mewe in the Republic of Sudan. Mewe
was the later capital of the ancient Kingdom of Kush. Meroe was an important
industrial center for the manufacture of iron. Iron remains or slag are still
visible there today. It has been suggested that after the destruction of Mewe,
refugees with knowledge of iron from there had moved westwords along the
sahel strip south of the desert bringing with them a knowledge of iron working.
But the dates obtained on iron working in Taruge suggest that iron did not reach
Taruga from Mewe. Even if mewe was the center from which iron reached
West Africa, the connection must have started from the beginning of mewe’s
own iron-smelting activities. However, there is another route by which iron
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technology could have reached Nigeria and these are consistent with the Taruga
dates and which now seems more likely.
Carthage was established in 814 BC by a group of people called the
Phoenicians among whom the use of iron was common earlier than in Egypt or
at Mewe. Carthagiman influence became strong on the North African coast the
Garamanten traders of Fezzan traded with the Empire of western Sudan. It is
suggested that the Garamanten might have introduced iron and knowledge of
iron working to the people with whom they traded. This means that knowledge
of iron working must have reached the Nigerian area from these traders.
Nok Culture
The iron smelting areas of Taruga were associated with terracotta figures
of a distinctive style artistic style named after the Nigerian village of Nok where
they were first discovered. Nok culture was first known as a result of the
recovery of archaeological remain from the tin mining area west of the Jos
plateau in the course of mining operations.
These remains consisted of the following:
(i) ground stone axes
(ii) smaller stone tools
(iii) iron axes
(iv) other iron tools
(v) backed clay drought pipe
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(vi) quartz lip-plugs
(vii) other ornaments
(viii) Striking terracotta heads.
The style of the Nok terra cotta, although not uniform, represents
remarkable artistic achievements and has been admired throughout the world.
DAIMA
Daima was located in north western Borno south of Lake-Chad. It is
reported that soon after the first appearance of iron in the middle of the first
millennium AD the people of Daima begun to build circular huts of mud. The
people made use of potsherd pavements in making floors in their buildings. The
making of fired clay models of livestock such as cow, sheep, goats, wild
animals and human beings were also found at Daima grains of guinea corn
(sorghum) were found and it is reported to be the oldest direct evidence or
agriculture in west Africa.
Igbo – ukwu
Apart from the archeological sites of NOk and Daima, Igbo-ukwu was
also an important center of ancient civilization in the Nigerian area.
At Igboukwu, bronzes, vessels were found. Some of the vessels found
were covered by clothes there were sets of decorated pots in highly artistic
styles. There was large number of beads, mostly of colored glass. The nature
28
of bronzes shows that they were used for religious purposes, actual purposes
and of ornaments or dress-regalia of some important personalities.
The finds of Igbo-ukwu are an indication of the concentration of
considerable social wealth in terms of the economy of the area. The bronzes are
the products of a special class of craftsmen using imported raw materials.
Elephants tusks were also discovered and this suggest that there tusks were
considered to be objects of value.
IN- TEXT QUESTION
1. How did the change from hunting to cultivation of crops change man?
IN TEXT ANSWER
The change on dependency on hunting, fishing and gathering of wild
fruits to crop raising and domestication of livestock is the most important step,
which early men has taken in the last ten thousand years. This development
fundamentally changed mans way of life and brought with it numerous
consequences as follows:
i. It advanced mans capacity for controlling his environment and set up
conditions necessary for the emergence of civilization.
ii. It made sedentary life possible as never before.
iii. It led to the storage of food.
iv. It led to the accumulation of wealth and an increase in population.
29
v. It led to the division of labour.
vi. It led to social stratification and new forms of social control.
All these explain that a lot of changes were made on the life of man.
Summary
Food production and the coming of metal or iron into the Nigerian area is
an indigenous development. Daima, for example, was an agricultural center
with dates going back to the first millennium; Taruga, Nok and Igbo-ukwu are
acclaimed centers of ancient civilization.
The knowledge of iron working might have reached the Nigerian area
from Mewe Sudan but iron deposits have been found in the Nigerian area with
dates going back to the periods of Mewe in the Sudan, we can therefore
conclude that external influence regarding food production and the coming of
iron into the Nigerian area are not convincing in view of recent archeological
discoveries in the early history of the Nigerian area.
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
(1) Do you agree that food production and metal came into the Nigerian
area from outside?
(2) Enumerate and discuss the major archaeological finds discovered at
Nok.
(3) Assess the importance of Daima in the history of the Nigerian area.
30
(4) Assess the importance of Igbo-ukwu in the early history of the
Nigerian area.
REFERENCS
(1) Ikime, (1980) eds Groundwork of Nigerian history, Ibadan.
(2) Gonnah, Graham (1969) Settlements Mounds of the Firki: the
reconstruction of a lost society, Ibadan.
(3) Shaw, Thurstan (1964) Archaeology and Nigeria, Ibadan.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Shaw Thurstan, (1970) Igb-ukwu an account of archaeological discoveries in
eastern Nigeria, Lodon.
____________ (1976) Discovering Nigerias’ past, Ibadan.
____________ (1976) Unearthing Igbo-ukwu – Ibadan.
31
STUDY SESSION 3: THE FORMATION AND GROWTH OF TOWNS,
STATES AND EMPIRES.
1.1 Introduction
The formation and growth of towns, states and empires in the Nigerian
area is an important theme of historical studies. We shall examine factors
which were responsible for the establishment and growth of towns states and
Empires some of the states or empires to be examined include Kanem – Borno,
Hausa states, Oyo Empire and the Kingdom of Benin. A few prominent town
which emerged in the Nigerian area will also be examined.
1.2 LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the Study Session, students should be able to:
1. Discuss for the rise of towns, states and Empires which emerged
in the Nigerian area.
2. Explain the growth and development of towns, state and
Empire.
3. Discuss the indigenous and foreign perspectives regarding the
establishment of Empires or states in the Nigerian area.
1.3 IN - TEXT
The Kingdom of Kanem-Borno
32
Kanem is located in the north-eastern part of lake chad in the modern
republic of Chad. Kanem is believed to have been founded in the 9th C. AD by
a group of people called the Zaqhawa.
The kingdom was bounded in the north by the sahara desert, in the south
by Mandara mountains, in the east by Wadai, Darfur and in the west by the
Hausa states. At its peak in the 13th century, the boundaries extended to Fezzan
in the north and Darfur in the east.
Factors responsible for the Rise and Development of Kanem – Borno Empire
Kanem – Borno was founded in the 9th CA by the Zaghaya people who
ruled up to the 11th century and power shifted from the Zeghawa to the
Kanembu in the 13th C. Several factors were responsible for the rise of kanem –
Borno Empire. These included Islam, trade, political organization and warfare.
Kanem Borno emerged before the coming of Islam into the Empire. The
Empire was founded in the 9th C.A. but Islam reached the empire in the 11th C.
Islam was introduced into the empire by foreign Muslim traders who visited the
Empire. They traded with the people and took this opportunity to convert the
people into Islam. Mai Umme Jilmi was the first Muslim ruler of Kanem who
accepted the religion in 1096. He was converted to the religion by an Arab
missionary in the person of Muhammad Ibn. Mani. With the Islamization of the
empire Mai Umme Jilmi and his successors took the religion seriously and used
it to expand the territory of Kanem. Islamic wars were launched and several
33
areas were brought under the control of the empire of Kanem – Borno. Islam
therefore played an important role in the rise and expansion of the empire of
Kanem – Borno.
Apart from Islam, trade also played an important role in the rise and
development of the empire foreign traders, Arabs, Berbers flocked into the
Empire during the period of the Trans-saharan trade. With trade, came Islam,
new ideas and a considerable amount of wealth which came to develop the
Empire. Traders paid taxes to the empire and the wealth accruing from the trade
was used by the rulers to pay the salaries of staff and develop the empire. It was
therefore, partly through trade that Kanem-Borno rose and developed into an
appreciable empire. One important factor which was responsible for the rise
and development of Kanem – Borno was good leadership. The rulers of the
empire are acclaimed to be good rulers. They used the sharia to administer their
territory. Islamic laws were enforced; meaning there was justice and good
governance enjoyed by the subjects.
Wars and warfare were embarked upon. With a strong standing army, the
rulers of Kanem – Borno defeated their neighbours, introduced Islam to the
conquered areas and taxed the dependant people in line with the sharia. Large
areas were conquered and this meant a lot of revenue was realized from the
outlying conquered provinces. This added to the economic base of the Empire.
Lastly, the efforts of individual rulers were also an important factor in
explaining the rise and development of Kanem Borno Empire. Rulers such as
34
Mai Umme Jilmi, Mai Dunoma Daballemi, Mai Ali Ghaji and Mai Idris
Alooma, to mention just a few, initiated and enforced policies which stabilized
the kingdom and provided the much needed revenue to sustain the empire, they
defended the territorial integrity of the empire and ventured to all directions
hence they developed the empire.
The Hausa States
The Hausa states which emerged in Hausa land were independent states
which included Kano, Katsina, Zazzau, Gobir, Zamfara, Kebbi, Yauri. These
states came under the influence of Songhai Empire by the 15th Century and
Borno with the collapse of Songhai in the 16th Century. Each state occupied a
defined territory and was under its own rulers/sarakuna. These states competed
for the control of trade and political dominance. By the beginning of the 19th
century, Gobir was the most dominant state in Hausaland.
Islam in Hausaland
It would appear that, after Borno, the next area in present day Nigeria to
which Islam spread is Hausaland. The introduction of Islam into this area is
generally associated with the coming of the Wangarawa a group of Mande
Dyula Muslim merchants and clerics from Mali. Islam reached Kano in the
reign of Sarkin Kano Yaji (1349 – 1385). It is related that the Muslim
immigrants preached Islam to the Sarki who accepted and built a mosque. The
35
Sarki also appointed several of the Muslim immigrants to offices associated
with the practice of Islam.
A north African Muslim scholar Muhammed b. Abdulkanni al-maghili
visited Kano in C. 1492 during the reign of sarki Rumfa and spread the religion.
The Development of Islam in Hausaland
It would appear that it was in the 15th century that a strong Muslim
tradition begun to be established especially in Kano and Katsina. It was not
only the Muslim wanga rawa scholars clerics that arrived the Muslim Fulani
with books of law and theology also immigrated, some of them staying in
hausaland while others continued their journey to settle in Borno. It is reported
that in about 1487, Ahmad b. Umar b. Muhammad Aqit of Timbuctu, the great-
great grand father of the celebrated Ahmad baba, have stayed and taught in
Kano. It was the same 15th century (about 1492-4) that Muhammad al-maqhili
visited Kano and Katsina at the request of Sarkin Kano, Mohammed Rumfa, Al-
Maghili write the obligation of princes apparently to guide the sarkin Kano in
his administration as a Muslim ruler.
Islam, under sarki Rumfa spread and become increasingly influential in
Kano by the end of the 15th C. He built mosque on the site of a shrine
signifying the triumph of Islam over traditional religion in the city.
Both in Kano and Katsina, the rulers encouraged the ulama to preach and
spread Islam.
36
In Kebbi, the ruler Muhammad Kanta accepted Islam and encouraged its
spread in the city and its environs most of the were aliens, especially the Fulani
and traders. In Yawuri, Islam might have reached the state in the 17th century.
Yawuri resisted the muslim jihadist under Shehu Usman Dan Fodio in the 19th
century and was given a dhimmi status. It recognized the political authority of
the caliphate but was left free to continue its traditional religion.
In conclusion, we can say that the Hausa states emerged in Hausaland.
There was no single central political authority rather each city state was under
its own ruler. This suggest that Hausaland was more of a geographical term
than a political term. It was only in the 19th century that the jihad of Shehu
Uthman Dan Fodio brought the whole Hausaland under a single political
umbrella called the caliphate Geographical factors such as fertility of the soil,
trade and Islam were some of the most important factors which led to the
establishment and development of the Hausa states in the period covered by this
study i.e. (1000-1600AD).
Oyo Empire
The foundation of old Oyo empire has been attributed in the traditions to
Oranyan, who is also said to be the founder of present Benin monarchy of all
the Yoruba kingdoms, the one that eventually acquired the largest territory and
became a veritable empire was Oyo. It emerged as a strong kingdom in the
middle of the 16th century from the Bariba and Tapa attacks with an army
37
composed of both cavalry and infantry. After a short period spent in
consolidating, it embarked on its imperial expansion by about the beginning of
the 17th century.
Imperial Expansion of Oyo Empire under its Rulers (Alafins)
Imperial expansion in old Oyo empire started by about the beginning of
the 17th century and continued up to the late 18th century. However, we are
concerned with the beginning of the 17th century, which falls within our period
i.e. (1000-1600).
The first Alafin to start the process of imperial expansion in old Oyo
empire was Obalokun. He conquered Ijanna and stationed an officer called
Ajele in the area Ijanna was in Egbado towards the coast. The Oba attempted to
conquer Illesha in the south east but he was defeated. After Obalokun, the next
Alafin who succeeded him was Ajagbo. Ajagbo created the little Are-onas
kakanfo. He sent out 4 expeditions under military officers to all direction of the
empire. His army moved towards the coast and conquered a town called Weme.
He also conquered some part of Egba kingdom. The conquest of old Oyo
continued throughout the 17th and 18th centuries. Dahomey was conquered in
1726 and in 1730 thus Dahomey kingdom became a tributary of old Oyo
empire. By 1750, therefore, the Alafin of Oyo was ruler of a territory that
covered the Oyo kingdom, the whole of Egba and Egbado, some parts of
38
Igbomina, the whole of Ajase kingdom, the whole of Weme kingdom, the whole
of Dahomey kingdom and parts of Tapa (Nupe) and bariba.
The bringing together of such a vast territory under a single
administration was bound to have economic advantages. Trade routes were
established and there was regular supply of taxes, wealth to the central
government. The Alafins lived in larvish palace, and maintain a formidable
force. Inspite of these economic advantages, however, there were some
problems been faced by the Alafins of old Oyo empire. The basic problem was
how to govern the territories, maintain peace and order and at the same time
prevent breakaways. The Ajeles were appointed by the Alafin to supervise the
local rulers of the conquered territories and they were to a large extending
successful in this regard.
Perhaps the most persistant problem was how to distribute power among
the ruling circles in the capital city of Oyo. The constitution of Oyo empire like
all Yoruba kingdom was balanced between the Alafin and his chiefs and other
stakeholders. For the 17th & 18th centuries, there were frequent clashes between
members of the Oyomesi (council) and the Alafins in their bid to control power.
Summary
Oyo Empire was the most dominated empire in Yorubaland. The Alafin
was recognized as the political overlord in Yorubaland while the Ooni of Ife
was considered as the spiritual leader of the Yoruba. Oyo was established in the
39
16th century but consolidated its power in the 17th century and continued with
her imperial struggle for the whole of the 18th century.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
(1) Discuss the factors which gave rise to Oyo Empire.
(2) Examine the imperial expansion of Oyo under her rulers in the 17th
century.
(3) Assess some of the problems been faced by Oyo empire after it
conquered a large territory in Yoruba land.
REFERENCES
(1) O. Ikime (1980). Groundwork of Nigerian History, Ibadan.
(2) Johnson S. (1921). The History of the Yoruba, Lagos.
SUGGESTED READINGS
S. O. Bioboke (1957) The Egba and their Neighbours, Oxford.
J. A. Atanda (1974) The New Oyo Empire, Ibadan.
40
STUDY SESSION 4: SOURCES FOR THE RECONSTRUCTION OF
HISTORY ORAL TRADITIONS
1.1 Introduction
Etymologically, the word history is a derivative of the Greek word
‘historia’ meaning ‘to learn by enquiry’ to some, history is concerned with
everything that ever happened: History – a subject which, in its broadest sense
is concerned with everything that happened: Everything and everybody that has
his history. History deals with the activities of man in the past. Its study helps
us to understand the situation in which we now live. The definition could be
endless: A close study of the above definitions reveals that history is concerned
with the systematic study of the development of peoples, politics and
institutions, from earliest times to the present. In this Session, we are
essentially concerned with sources for the reconstruction of history.
1.2 LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the Study Session, students will be able to:
1. Discuss the primary, secondary and tertiary sources for the reconstruction and
reinterpretation of Nigerian history.
2. They will also appreciate the significance of oral traditions as an
indispensable source for the reconstruction and interpretation of Nigerian
history.
41
1.3 IN - TEXT
Sources for the reconstruction of Nigerian history include primary
sources as well as secondary sources. There are also tertiary sources; primary
sources include oral testimonies eye-witness accounts, archival sources,
Unpublished works which include projects, dissertations and thesis, Seminar,
workshop and symposium papers. Secondary sources on the other hand, include
published works which include government publication, journal articles, books,
monographs and chapters from books.
Tertiary sources include internet materials. All these sources can be used
to reconstruct the history of Nigeria. It is not advisable for students of history to
depend on only one source of history in the reconstruction of the Nigerian past
but that all available sources must be utilized in history research.
Oral Traditions
Oral traditions simply mean oral testimonies transmitted from one person
to the other and spanning several generations. This is particularly useful in non-
literate societies; these are societies with no writings. In this situation, the
source of information is through oral traditions collected from the elders of such
societies.
A lot of information can be obtained from oral traditions; for example,
information on the establishment of villages or towns. The reign of kings in the
community, the death of an important personality in society, events such as
42
droughts, wars migrations etc can be obtained from oral accounts provided by
elders who serve as custodians of history in non-literate societies.
Some scholars have argued that oral traditions are not history because
precise dates on happenings in the past cannot be ascertained. That it relies on
human memory which cannot be accurate. In spite of these limitations,
however, oral traditions, if properly used, can be an indispensable source for the
reconstruction of the history of Nigeria.
1.4 SUMMARY
History cannot be written without sources. All sources, primary,
secondary and tertiary must therefore be adequately utilized for the
reconstruction and interpretation of the past.
1.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
(1) Define history and discuss any two sources of history.
(2) How important is oral traditions in the reconstruction of history.
1.6 REFERENCES
O. Ikime ed (1980) Groundwork of Nigerian History, Ibadan.
M. Crowder, (1966) The story of Nigeria, London.
43
1.7 SUGGESTED READINGS
Fayana & Biggs, (1965). History of Nigeria, London.
History of Nigeria Series, Nigeria upto 1800AD, Vol.I, Lagos.
Jan Vansina (1972) Oral Traditions in Africa, London.
44
STUDY SESSION 5: THE MICROSTATES AND STATELESS
SOCIETIES
1.1 Introduction
Scholars have classified states into two broad classification namely large
states and small states. The large states are the states which had well organized
political structures while the small state had a low level of political
centralization and therefore, described as stateless states or societies. We shall
consider the characteristics of these states and with few examples from the
Nigerian area illustrate them.
1.2 LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the Study Session, students should be able to:
1. Identify the centralized states from the non centralized states.
2. Explain and provide relevant examples of centralized and non-centralized
states in the Nigerian area.
1.3 IN-TEXT
The centralized states of the Nigerian area include Kanem-Borno, Hausa
States, the Sokoto Caliphate, Oyo, Benin while the non centralized or stateless
societies are made up of small states or societies such as the Igbo, the Ibibio, the
Efik, the Ijaw, the Urhobo, the Itsekiri, etc. some of the major characteristics of
the centralized or powerful states include:
45
1. These states occupied large territories covering thousands of
kilometers.
2. They were monarchical; meaning that the system of government
in these states was based on individuals i.e. kings who
commanded respect from their subjects. This also means that
authority in the centralized states was centralized power and
authority was centralizing in the hands or in the person of the
king.
3. There was always a strong military force in the centralized
states. There was always standing army to defend the state.
4. Political institutions in the centralized states were complex and
offices were hereditary in nature.
5. Slaves played an important role in the development of
centralized states.
In the stateless societies, there were no kings; and, therefore, power and
authority were not centralized in an individual king rather it was decentralized.
This means that everybody in the stateless societies participated in the decision
making process in the society. Men, women, hunters, blacksmith, youth, secret
societies all participated in the decision making process in these societies.
In addition to the above, stateless societies, occupied small territories and
the political institutions were not as complex as the ones found in the
centralized states.
46
There was not standing army in the stateless societies. The army in these
societies is called levees enmasse. This means that whenever there was a need
for warfare, all able bodied men were recruited and once the war was over, they
were disarmed. There was no military sophistication in the stateless societies.
1.4 SUMMARY
The centralized states were the dominant states and empires of the
Nigerian area while the stateless societies are the small states. One thing is,
however, clear and that is the stateless societies, like the powerful state have
succeeded in regulating their political economic and social aspect of life and
this is what governance is all about.
1.5 Self-Assessment Exercises
1. Define a state.
2. Examine the major characteristics of centralized states and stateless
societies of the Nigerian area.
1.6 References
J. F. Ade Apaji & M. Crowder (1971) History of West Africa vol. I, London.
History of Nigeria series: Nigeria from the Earliest Times to 1800AD.
1.7 Suggested Readings
47
G.I.C. Eluwa et all (1987) A history of Nigeria.
Alan Burns, (1969) History of Nigeria, London.
48
STUDY SESSION 6: INTERNAL TRADE RELATIONS WITH NORTH
AFRICA, THE COMING OF ISLAM AND FIRST CONTACT WITH
EUROPE
1.1 Introduction
In this Session, we are concerned with the nature and extend of internal
trade in the Nigerian area and the subsequent relations established between the
peoples of the Nigerian area and the Barbers and Arabs of North Africa
resulting into the penetration of Islam into our study area. The last aspect or
theme to be considered is the early contact of the Nigerian peoples with Europe
and the benefits accrued from this contact will also be analyzed.
1.2 Learning Outcomes
At the end of the Study Session, students should be able to:
1. Discuss the internal as well as the long distance trade between the Nigerian
peoples on one hand and between foreign traders such as the Berbers and the
Arabs on the other hand.
2. Discuss the coming of Islam into the Nigerian area and its impact on the
people.
ii. Explain the historical contact between the coastal Nigerian peoples
and the European.
49
1.3 IN-TEXT
INTERNAL TRADE
It is observed that different Nigerian peoples interacted through trade as
far back as from 14th and 15th centuries or even before these periods. Several
trade routes became prominent linking Hausaland with Borno, Borno with
Fombina (Adamawa) and the Benue valley; Hausaland with Nupe and the
confluence; Hausaland with Yorubaland; Yorubaland with Benin. In addition
there was constant traffic on the Niger Benue waterway and on the creeks and
Lagoons. There were many branch routes and networks of local routes linking
various periodic markets. The Jukun, the Nupe and the Igalla made extensive
use of the Niger Benue waterways in exchanging their trading items with their
neighbor.
In the forest areas, river system provided communication; in the savannah
areas pack animals camels, horses, donkeys provided the much needed
communication or transport than of goods currencies were used by cowries
shells were the widely accepted currency in pre-colonial trade. Copper, iron
bars, piece of paper, piece of cloth also served as currencies in this period.
The trade in slaves itself was a source of inter-group relations or
interaction by the end of the 18th century; these were slaves in various parts of
50
the Nigerian area. Nupe slaves in Lagos, Hausa slaves in different parts of
Yorubaland Awka slaves in Benin, Igho slaves in Calabar.
An important aspect of the slave trade was that a great economic
development took place; and, this was the introduction of new food crops from
the new world.
The coming of Islam into the Nigerian area
Before Islam came to North Africa, West Africa had maintained long
contact through the trans-Saharan trade with the countries, states and peoples of
North Africa (Maghreb). So, from North African cities of Egypt, Tunisia,
Algeria, Libya and Morocco, the Arabs and Arabised Berbers came to West
Africa to trade and spread the religion of Islam.
It is difficult to date precisely the coming of Islam into the area or the
central Sudan or the present day Nigeria; It is however, known that Kanem-
Borno empire was the first to receive Islam and from there it spread to other
parts of the central – Bilad al Sudan.
It is difficult to date precisely the coming of Islam into the areas of the
central Sudan or the present day Nigeria. it is, however, known that the Kanem-
Borno Empire was the first to receive the religion in about the 11th century A.D.
It was also known that the first king of Borno to accept Islamic religion was Mai
Humai Jilmi who reigned in the 11th century AD. It has been suggested that it
51
was possible that the religion came to Borno earlier than the 11th century AD,
but was accepted by the ruling dynasty by the eleventh century.
The Muslim preachers who came to West Africa were Traders. It is
believed that both the Arabs and the desert Berbers carried Islam to Borno
Empire from the 11th century AD, the rulers of Borno paid serious attention to
the practice of Islam. Many of the Borno kings are said to have performed
pilgrimages while some of them are said to be learned scholars in Arabic
education or were pious and generous Muslims.
Another area in the present day Nigeria to which Islam spread is
Hausaland. Islam was introduced to this area by the Wangarawa – a group of
Dyula muslim merchants and teachers from Mali in the 14th century. Islam was
first officially introduced to the Sarkin Kano ie (king of Kano) who in turn
appointed several of the Muslim teachers and preachers to offices where the
practice of Islam was necessary. This included the Imam, the Muezzin and
others. Also, the king ordered all his subjects to accept Islam. After the
traditional religionists had unsuccessfully opposed the new religion, the Kano
kings made it a state religion. Islam was, however, firmly established in
Hausaland only in the fifteenth century particularly in Kano and Katsina.
Other groups helped the peaceful spread of Islam in Hausaland and Borno
were the Muslim Fulani. The kings of Kano and Katsina supported the Islamic
teachers and preachers, who completely Islamized these states. By the 17th
52
century, the Islamic religion was strong not only in Kano and Katsina but also in
Gobir, Zazzau, Kebbi and Yawuri.
Other areas in Nigeria where Islam penetrated before 1800 AD were
Nupe and Yoruba land. As in Borno and Hausaland, Islam came to Nupe and
Yorubaland through trade. Through Hausaland and Borno, trade routes, Nupe
and Yorubaland were linked to the trans-saharan trade. Yoruba was connected
to hausaland and Borno through the same trade routes via Borgu and Nupe. It
was Nupes early trade with Hausaland, Borno, Bendi areas, Songhai and Mali
empires that brought Islam to Nupe. Yoruba historian including Samuel
Johnson believed that Islam came to Yorubaland in the 18th century. But there
are records which suggest that Islam entered the area during the 17th century, a
time when Alaafin Ajagbo was said to have embraced Islam. By the 18th
century, Islam had spread to many Yoruba areas including Bagri, Ketu,
Ogbomosho, Owu, Ijara Igboho, Kisi, Saki, Iseyin and Ikoyi.
Early European Contacts
West Africa had from remote period long contacts with North Africa, the
Arabs and the peoples of Europe through long distance trade - the trans-Saharan
trade. But from the 15th century or so, the old trading system whereby the Arabs
were the only middlemen linking the west and East no longer satisfied the
Europeans. In addition, wars and counter wars which took place around the two
sides of the Mediterranean coasts in the 15th century compelled the Europeans,
53
particularly Spain and Portugal, to look for alternative routes to the East.
Between the 15th and 16th century, attempts were made by the European to find
a new trade route to the East Indies.
The Greeks, the Romans, the Phoenician had, before the 15th explored
Africa. By the 15th century, the Portuguese also came to West Africa. The
desire of the European was to find the sources of gold, Ivory and slaves and
many other agricultural products needed by the European.
The European also wanted to covert Africans to Christianity and wanted
to stop the advance of the Muslim into the sub-saharan Africa.
Another reason was that European countries including Portugal wanted to
acquire colonies in Africa and Asia.
The Early European – Nigerian Trade
Trade was at first conducted between the Africans and the Europeans at
the coast. The coastal trade was beneficial to both sides but the benefits of the
trade mostly benefited the Europeans. From the 16th century onward, however,
the trade shifted away from the exchange of raw materials and manufactured
goods to trade in slaves. In the trade, the Africans supplied slaves, gold, ivory,
pepper, gum Arabic and ostrich feathers in exchange for European goods like
cloths, beads, cowry shells and other manufactured goods.
So many trading ports developed along the West African Coast. Some of
the most important parts that flourished during the Portuguese period were Cape
54
Blanco, Cape Verde, Arguin, all in the upper Guinea area. Others were Sao
Tome, Gwala, Princepe and Fernando Po in the Niger Delta area.
In the Nigerian area, the Portuguese were fairly successful. They
obtained the articles they needed from the middlemen at the Coast; as a result,
they did not venture into the hinterland. The Portuguese missionary activities
were not very successful. This is partly because the Portuguese did not get the
necessary man power for evangelical work in the interior. Portuguese
missionary teachers were few because mosquitoes and other deadly diseases
prevented them from coming in large numbers.
Reasons for the Decline of Portuguese – Nigeria Trade
By the middle of the sixteenth century, Portuguese trade with Nigeria was
decreasing because of the following reasons. In the first place, trade was no
longer promising. The slaves, pepper and ivory were no longer obtained in
large commercial quantity as expected. Secondly, the Portuguese discovered
that Nigerians were only interested in getting arms and ammunitions from them
without giving enough local products in return. Thirdly, the Portuguese
discovered that Asian commodities were paying more than the Nigerian articles
and therefore they decided to concentrate their efforts on the more profitable
trade. Fourthly, Portugal did not have the materials to tap the natural revenues
of the vast areas under their control. Finally, the presence of other European
merchants and companies in West Africa destroyed their monopoly. With time
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the French, Dutch and English Competitors gradually displaced the Portuguese
in West Africa.
Results of the Early European Contacts
Early European contacts with Nigeria had for-reaching results. In the
first place, trade developed between the Europeans and Nigerians and the
people living at the coast benefited immensely from this trade. The trade
introduced to Nigerians goods which later became symbols for measuring the
wealth of an individual. These goods included knives, hoe, gun-power, beads,
glassware cloth and others.
In the second place, the coastal trade attracted large numbers of people
from the hinterland. These settled permanently with the coastal communities.
Many inland kingdom, states and empires like Dahomey tried to participate in
the coastal trade transferring their seats of administration nearer the coast. The
coastal trade also expanded many existing centers of large populations of city-
states like Bonny, Calabar, Okrika, Nembe and others. Thirdly the coastal trade
greatly reduced the volume of trade across the Sahara to North Africa. This led
to the economic decline of many Nigerian states and Empires in the north and a
halt in the trans-saharan trade.
Fourthly, the Portuguese language phrases and expressions were used in
the coastal states.
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Finally, the European introduced a variety of crops to the Nigerian area.
The crops came mostly from Asia and South America. They include sugar
cane, Maize, pawpaw, guava, sweet potatoes, tobacco, plantain, banana,
pineapples, cassava and others. By introducing new crops, however, the
Europeans helped to improve the quality and quantity of Nigerian food.
The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade
The Atlantic trade became important in the 15th century with the arrival of
the Portuguese to the Nigerian coast. By the 18th century, it had grown
tremendously both in extent and volume. Slaves from West Africa and from
Nigeria in particular had been sent to North Africa and southern Europe through
the Sahara before the beginning of the trans-Atlantic trade. Moreover, slaves as
an institution had existed as part of the African rural system particularly in the
large Empires. Some of the slaves exported worked as domestic servants and
by the fourteenth century many were used on sugar plantation in Sicily and
southern Spain.
The demand for slaves from the Nigerian coast on a large scale could be
traced to the introduction of plantation system of agriculture. The Spaniard had
established Sugar plantation system of agriculture in the Canary Islands in
1455. The Portuguese did the same on Madeira and by the close of the century
they had colonized Sao-Thome and Principe where they also established sugar
plantations. During the sixteenth century, the plantation system moved from the
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Canaries to Hispaniola and from Madrid to Brazil. The revolution reached the
Carribean in the seventeenth century and by the 18th century; Jamaica St.
Domingo and Haiti had sugar plantations.
Sugar plantation demanded plenty of labour to cultivate and harvest the
cane to extract the juice and to reduce it to semi-refined sugar. In 1441,
Gonzalves, a Potuguese Voyager, returned to Portugal with ten African slaves
as a present to Prince Henry the Navigator. By 1460 when Henry died 700-800
slaves were being exported annually to Portugal from West Africa.
The middlemen such as the Ijaw, the Urhobo, the Biri, the Kalobari
bought slaves and sold to the European at the coast. The European included not
only the Portuguese but the Spaniards, the French, the British and others.
Three categories of people were involved in the slave trade and they
performed different functions.
1. There were men who captured and sold the slave, a function performed
by Nigerians.
2. Nigerians who brought the slaves from the Nigerian coastal sold them to
the coastal chiefs and Merchant: and,
3. European merchant who bought slaves from Nigeria coastal chiefs and
merchants and transported the slaves to Europe or the New World.
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DECLINE OF THE SLAVE TRADE
The slave trade lasted for more than four centuries declined by the 19th
century. The British industrialization was responsible for the decline of the
slave trade. The industrial revolution produced industries, machinery and
factories which came to replace human labour. Slave labour by about this
period was no more needed by the industrialized European nations spearheaded
by Britain. It is for this reasons that the British took all sorts of measures to
abolish the slave trade.
EFECTS OF THE TRANS-ATLANTIC TRADE
The Trans-Atlantic trade had far reaching effects. The effects were felt
more in the Niger Delta. Other areas affected included Benin, Oyo, Ijebu, Hausa
land etc.
1. The trade depopulated Nigeria. It reduced man power of the Nigerian
area. Thousands of the able bodied men and women who could be used for
productive purpose in Nigeria were forcibly transported annually to the New
World. The young men and boys were sent to work on the tobacco and sugar
plantations while the women worked as domestic servant. Nobody can give a
precise number of Nigerians taken away as slaves to the New World and
Europe.
2. The slaves trade led to the killing of Nigerian local industries weaving,
blacksmithing, pottery, crafts were seriously hampered.
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3. It led to food insecurity; there were famine, hunger and disease.
4. It led to warfare and inter-tribal wars. Some communities were
completely wiped out.
5. New crops from Europe were introduced but item such as guns, gun
powder, razorblade, mirrors all sorts of assorted rubbish were introduced into
Nigerian area.
6. Finally, the slave trade developed Europe and America and
underdeveloped Nigeria.
SUMMARY
Trade can be conveniently divided into short distance or local trade and
long distance trade which included the Trans-Saharan trade and the Trans-
Atlantic slave trade.
The people of Nigeria participated in both forms of trade and benefited
economically but the Trans-Atlantic slave trade brought far reaching and
negative effect to the people of the Nigerian area. It led to the
underdevelopment of the country and developed the European.
Self – Assessment Exercises
(1) What do you understand by the term short distance trade?
(2) How important was the Trans-Saharan trade to the peoples of the
Nigerian area?
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(3) Assess the effects of the Trans-Atlantic slave trade on the empires,
states and people of the Nigerian area?
(4) What benefits did Nigerians get from their contact with the
Europeans?
References
(1) O. Ikime (1980). Groundwork of Nigerian History, Ibadan.
(2) Michael Crowder and G. Abdullahi (1979). Nigeria: an introduction
to its history, London, Longman Group Ltd.
Further Readings
(1) Elizabeth Isichei (1983). A history of Nigeria, London Longman
Group Ltd.
(2) Alan Burns (1969). History of Nigeria, London, George Allen and
Unwin Ltd.
(3) Michael Crowder (1966). The story of Nigeria: London, Faber and
Faber.