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UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA
PERFORMANCE OF CELLULOSE PALM FIBER AS AN ADDITIVE IN ASPHALT BLENDS
HOSSEIN JAFARIAHANGARI
FK 2008 61
PERFORMANCE OF CELLULOSE PALM FIBER AS AN ADDITIVE IN ASPHALT BLENDS
By
HOSSEIN JAFARIAHANGARI
Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, in Fulfilment of the Requirement for the Degree of Master of Science
November 2008
i
Abstract of thesis presented to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Science
PERFORMANCE OF CELLULOSE PALM FIBER AS AN ADDITIVE IN ASPHALT BLENDS
By
HOSSEIN JAFARIAHANGARI
November 2008 Chairman : Associate Professor Ratnasamy Muniandy, PhD Faculty : Engineering Due to the high oil prices, the cost of asphalt binder has increased tremendously.
This scenario has warranted demand for higher viscosity and less expensive asphalt
for pavement construction. A study was conducted to take advantage of the empty
fruit bunch (EFB) of date and oil palm trees (which are considered as wastes) to
produce cellulose fiber to be used as additives in the asphalt binder. If these EFBs
could be beneficially utilized in any application, it would reduce the load on the
nation’s landfills. This study comprises three stages. At the first stage of the study
the EFBs went through chemical and mechanical pulping to produce cellulose fibers,
to be used for blending with asphalt binder. The date palm EFB chemical
composition revealed alpha cellulose content of 36.1%, which is a very good source
of cellulose. At the second stage a total of 11 blends of bio-mastic asphalt (BMA)
were prepared. They consisted of 5 blends with chemically pulped date palm fibers,
5 blends with mechanically pulped oil palm fibers and one control sample that
contained no fiber. At the third stage of the study, the rheological properties of the
bio-mastic asphalt blends were evaluated with the Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR)
iii
equipment in accordance with the SUPERPAVE Strategic Highway Research
Program (SHRP) requirements. The neat asphalt binders (unaged), Rolling Thin
Film Oven (RTFO) aged and Pressure Ageing Vessel (PAV) samples were then
measured for complex shear modulus, phase angle, shear strain and viscosity with
the Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR) equipment and then evaluated with the SHRP
requirements. The results indicated that the fibers obtained from the date palm EFB
showed the best performance and all BMA blends performed very well compared to
the control sample. The control sample which was categorized as PG58 was
enhanced to PG76 with an addition of 0.375% date palm fiber. The oil palm has also
improved the asphalt binder rheological properties from PG58 up to PG70 with the
addition of 0.3% oil palm fiber.
iv
Abstrak tesis yang dikemukakan kepada Senat Universiti Putra Malaysia sebagai memenuhi keperluan untuk ijazah Master Sains
PRESTASI GENTIAN SELULOSA PALMA SEBAGAI BAHAN CAMPURAN DIDALAM ASFALT
Oleh
HOSSEIN JAFARIAHANGARI
November 2008
Pengerusi . : Profesor Madya Ratnasamy Muniandy, PhD Fakulti : Kejuruteraan Disebabkan oleh kenaikan harga minyak, secara tidak langsung harga asfalt juga
turut meningkat. Keadaan ini menjadikan permintaan keperluan aspal likat yang
murah bagi kerja-kerja penurapan. Kajian ini dibuat untuk melihat kepentingan
bahan buangan daripada tandan buah palma (EFB) dan pokok kelapa sawit
menghasilkan serat selulosa untuk kegunaan bahan campuran tambahan bagi asfalt.
Sekiranya bahan EFB ini dimanfaatkan dan digunakan, bahan ini akan dapat
mengurangkan beban negara. Kajian ini tertumpu kepada tiga tahap. Tahap pertama
ialah kajian EFB untuk menghasilkan selulosa melalui proses kimia dan pulpa yang
akan digunakan dalam campuran simen asfalt. Kandungan bahan kimia yang
terdapat dalam tandan buah palma (EFB) mengandungi alfa selulosa sebanyak
36.1% , ini merupakan bahan yang sangat baik bagi selulosa. Tahap kedua kajian
ialah menyediakan 11 sebatian Asfalt Bio Mastik (BMA) iaitu 5 sebatian serat
kimia pulpa buah palma, 5 sebatian serat pulpa pokok kelapa sawit dan satu contoh
bahan yang tidak mengandungi serat untuk bahan kontrol. Tahap ketiga kajian ialah
kandungan rheologikal (rheological) Asfalt Bio Mastik likat di nilai menggunakan
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alat Dynamic Shear Rhometer (DSR) berdasarkan keperluan penurapan yang dibuat
oleh Strategic Highway Research Program (RTFO). Contoh turapan asfalt (unaged),
Rolling Thin Film Oven (RTFO) aged dan Pressure Ageing Vessel (PAV) diukur
untuk shear modulus, shear angle, shear strain menggunakan DSR kemudian dinilai
berdasarkan keperluan SHRP. Keputusan kajian memperlihatkan bahawa serat yang
diperoleh daripada tandan palma (EFB) sangat baik bagi semua sebatian BMA
dibandingkan dengan sampel kontrol. Sampel kontrol di kategorikan sebagai PG58
telah berubah kepada PG76 dengan penambahan 0.375% serat buah palma. Minyak
sawit juga meningkatkan kandungan rheologikal gabungan asfalt daripada PG58
kepada PG 70 dengan penambahan 0.3% minyak serat palma.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
In the name of Allah, the Most Compassionate, the Most Merciful. All praise is due
to Allah, Lord of the Worlds, The Most Compassionate, the Most Merciful.
Sovereign of the Day of Judgment. You alone we worship, and to you alone we turn
for help. Guide us to the straight way; the way of those whom you have favored, not
of those who have incurred your wrath, Nor of those who have gone astray (Al-
Fatiha, the Opening chapter of the Holy Quran).
I would like to express my sincere appreciation to all who have contributed in this
research. My greatest gratitude’s forwarded to my project supervisor, Assoc. Prof.
Dr. Ratnasamy Muniandy for his guidance, constructive comments, untiring support,
invaluable advices and suggestions in completing this research successfully.
I would like to thank the Ministry of Science, Technology and the Environment,
Malaysia for the IRPA research fund. It has enabled me to complete the study
without encountering any financial difficulties.
I would like to express my deep appreciation to all the staff member of the Chemical
Laboratory. Forest Research Institute of Malaysia (FRIM) Kepong, who were of
great help during the fiber-processing phase. In particular, special thanks go to Dr.
Mohd. Noor Mohd. Yusoff (Head of Chemical Laboratory) and his colleagues.
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I would like to express my deep appreciation to Dr Meor Othman bin Hamzah and
the technical staff of the Pavement Engineering lab in Universiti Sains Malaysia
(USM), who were of great help during the third phase of this study.
Last but not least, may my family be blessed with good health, long life and
happiness for all the love and care they have given me all this while. Thanks also for
always having faith in me.
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I certify that an Examination Committee has met on 12th November 2008 to conduct the final examination of Hossein Jafariahangari on his Master of Science thesis entitled “Performance of Cellulose Palm Fiber as an Additive in Asphalt Blends” in accordance with Universiti Pertanian Malaysia (Higher Degree) Act 1980 and Universiti Pertanian Malaysia (Higher Degree) Regulations 1981. The Committee recommends that the candidate be awarded the relevant degree. Members of the Examination Committee are as follows: Jamalodin b. Noorzaei, PhD Associate Professor Faculty of Engineering Universiti Putra Malaysia (Chairman) Hussain Hamid, PhD Associate Professor Faculty of Engineering Universiti Putra Malaysia (Internal Examiner) Husaini Omar, PhD Associate Professor Faculty of Engineering Universiti Putra Malaysia (Internal Examiner) Vernon Ray Schaefer, PhD Professor Faculty of Engineering IOWA State University, USA (External Examiner)
HASANAH MOHD. GHAZALI, PhD Professor and Deputy Dean School of Graduate Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia Date:
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This thesis submitted to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia has been accepted as fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Science. The members of the Supervisory Committee are as follow: Ratnasamy Myniandy, PhD Associate Professor Faculty of Engineering Universiti Putra Malaysia (Chairman) Ir. Salihudin b. Hassim Lecturer Faculty of Engineering Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member) Robiah bt. Yunus, PhD Associate Professor Faculty of Engineering Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member)
HASANAH MOHD. GHAZALI, PhD Professor and Dean School of Graduate Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia Date: 15 January 2009
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DECLARATION I hereby declare that the thesis is based on my original work except for quotation and citations, which have been duly acknowledged. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently submitted for any other degree at UPM or other institutions.
HOSSEIN JAFARIAHANGARI
Date:
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page DEDICATION iiABSTRACT iiiABSTRAK vACKNOWLEDGEMENTS viiAPPROVAL ixDECLARATION xiLIST OF TABLES xvLIST OF FIGURES xviiLIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xxi
CHAPTER
1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background 1.1 1.2 Research Problem Statement 1.3 1.3 Scope of the Study 1.6 1.4 Assumptions and Limitations 1.7 1.5 Organization of the Thesis 1.8
2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Bio Mass Characteristics 2.1 2.1.1 Date and Oil Palm Morphology 2.2 2.1.2 Physical and Chemical Properties of Date and Oil
d Palm Fibers 2.5
2.1.3 Availability and Distribution of Date and Oil d Palm Empty Fruit Bunches
2.9
2.2 Fiber Pulping Processes 2.15 2.2.1 Kraft Pulping Process 2.15 2.2.2 Recycle Pulping Process 2.16 2.2.3 Thermo Mechanical Pulping (TMP) Process 2.16 2.3 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) Study 2.17 2.3.1 Types and Functionality of SEM 2.17 2.3.2 Major Use of SEM in Research 2.19 2.3.3 SEM Adaptation in Bio-Mass 2.22 2.4 Asphalt Binder Types and Physical Properties 2.23 2.4.1 Asphalt Binder Grading Systems and
ddddSpecifications 2.23
2.4.2 Types of Asphalt Binder being used in Road ddddMixtures
2.26
2.5 Blending Additives in Asphalt 2.26 2.5.1 Natural Fibers 2.28 2.5.2 Non Biological Additives 2.34 2.5.3 Blending Methods 2.36
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2.6 Determination of Asphalt Binder Rheological Properties
2.38
2.6.1 Measuring Equipments for Rheological ddddProperties
2.39
2.6.2 Measuring Parameters using Dynamic Shear Rheometer
2.41
2.6.3 Evaluation of RTFO Aged Binder Rheological ddddProperties
2.47
2.6.4 Evaluation of PAV Aged Binder Rheological ddddProperties
2.49
2.7 Summary 2.51
3 METHODS AND MATERIALS 3.1 Introduction 3.1 3.2 Production of Cellulose Fiber 3.3 3.2.1 Fiber Production by RMP Method 3.3 3.2.2 Fiber Production by Chemical Pulping Method 3.5 3.3 Oil-Fiber Draindown Test 3.6 3.4 Analysis of Fiber Mechanical and Chemical Properties 3.6 3.4.1 EFB Chemical Composition Analysis 3.7 3.4.2 Mesh Screen Analysis 3.8 3.4.3 Scanning Electron Microscope Analysis 3.9 3.5 Asphalt Binder Physical Property Analysis 3.10 3.5.1 Penetration 3.10 3.5.2 Softening Point 3.11 3.5.3 Viscosity 3.11 3.6 Blending of Asphalt Binder and Cellulose Fiber 3.12 3.7 Rheological Property Evaluation of Bio Mastic
Asphalt 3.14
3.7.1 BMA Complex Shear Modulus Analysis 3.16 3.7.2 BMA Phase Angle Analysis 3.16 3.7.3 BMA Shear Strain Analysis 3.17 3.7.4 RTFO Aged BMA Rutting Behavior 3.17 3.7.5 PAV Aged BMA Fatigue Behavior 3.18 3.7.6 BMA Viscosity Behavior in Various
Temperatures 3.20
3.8 Analysis of BMA According to SHRP Requirements 3.20 3.9 Summary 3.22
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1 Introduction 4.1 4.2 Fiber Production and Suitability Analysis 4.2 4.2.1 Fiber Production by RMP 4.2 4.2.2 Fiber Production by Chemical Pulping (KRAFT) 4.2 4.3 Selection of Fiber Pulp 4.3 4.4 Analysis of Fiber Mechanical and Chemical Properties 4.5 4.4.1 Mesh Screen Analysis 4.5
xiii
4.4.2 Fiber Chemical Composition Analysis 4.6 4.4.3 Scanning Electron Microscope Analysis 4.9 4.5 Physical Property Analysis of Asphalt Binder 4.12 4.5.1 Penetration 4.12 4.5.2 Softening Point 4.12 4.5.3 Viscosity 4.13 4.6 Blending Analysis of Cellulose Fiber and Asphalt
Binder 4.14
4.7 Rheological Property Analysis of the Bio Mastic Asphalt
4.17
4.7.1 BMA Complex Shear Modulus Analysis 4.17 4.7.2 BMA Phase Angle Analysis 4.28 4.7.3 BMA Shear Strain Analysis 4.36 4.7.4 BMA Viscosity Behavior in Various
Temperatures 4.45
4.7.5 Neat BMA Rutting Behavior Analysis 4.53 4.7.6 RTFO Aged BMA Rutting Behavior 4.54 4.7.7 PAV Aged BMA Fatigue Behavior 4.56 4.8 BMA Classification According to SHRP Requirements 4.57 4.9 Summary 4.59
5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Recommendation 5.2 REFERENCES R.1 APPENDICES A.1 BIODATA OF AUTHOR B.1
xiv
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
2.1 Morphology of Oil Palm Trunk, Frond and Empty Fruit Bunches 2.4
2.2 Physical Characteristics of EFB 2.4
2.3 Composition of Fibrous Date Palm Parts 2.6
2.4 Oil Palm EFB Chemical Composition 2.7
2.5 Draindown Results of Cellulose Fibers 2.8
2.6 Date Palm Production 2.10
2.7 Production Record of a Californian Date Grower 2.11
2.8 Oil Palm Production 2.12
2.9 Oil Palm EFB Bio-Mass Supply in Malaysia (1996-2020) 2.14
2.10 ASTM Requirements for Penetration Graded Asphalt Binder 2.24
2.11 SUPERPAVE PG System 2.25
2.12 Cellulose Oil Palm Fiber (COPF) Size Distribution 2.29
2.13 Summary of Physical Properties of Cellulose Fiber Modified Asphalt
2.29
2.14 Unconfined Compressive Repeated Load Test Results 2.32
2.15 Rutting Characteristics of SMA Mixtures 2.32
2.16 Particle Size Distribution of Cellulose Fibers 2.34
2.17 Average Indirect Tensile Strength and Tensile Strength Ratio Results
2.35
2.18 SUPERPAVE Asphalt Binder Testing Equipment and Purpose 2.39
2.19 Target Shear Stress and Strain Values 2.42
3.1 Chemical Composition Measuring Standards 3.8
4.1 CDPF RMP Draindown 4.2
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4.2 CDPF KRAFT Draindown 4.3
4.3 COPF Draindown 4.3
4.4 Result of Oil-Draindown for Various Fibers 4.4
4.5 Average Percentage Passing for Fiber Sieve Analysis 4.5
4.6 CDPF Chemical Composition 4.7
4.7 Penetration Test Results of 80/100 Penetration Grade Asphalt Binder
4.12
4.8 Softening Point Test Results of 80/100 Penetration Grade Asphalt Binder
4.12
4.9 Viscosity of 80/100 Penetration Grade Asphalt Binder 4.12
4.10 Summary of 80/100 Penetration Grade Asphalt Binder Physical Properties
4.13
4.11 BMA Blending Procedure 4.15
4.12 Weight of Fiber Blended with 250g Binder 4.16
4.13 Complex Shear Modulus Master Curves 4.26
4.14 Phase Angle Master Curves 4.35
4.15 Shear Strain Master Curves 4.44
4.16 Viscosity Master Curves 4.52
4.17 Neat-Aged BMA Rutting Behavior 4.53
4.18 RTFO-Aged BMA Rutting Behavior 4.55
4.19 PAV-Aged BMA Fatigue Behavior 4.56
4.20 BMA Performance Grading 4.58
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1.1 Crude Oil Price 1.2
2.1 Schematic Picture of the Date Palm during a One-Year Production Cycle
2.2
2.2 Major Parts of the Date Palm 2.3
2.3 Motor Oil Retention by Type of Fiber 2.8
2.4 Percentages of Draindown for Various Fiber Contents 2.8
2.5 Places Where Date Palms are Grown 2.9
2.6 Oil Palm EFB 2.13
2.7 Thermo Mechanical Pulping Setup 2.16
2.8 SEM Setup 2.17
2.9 Schematic View of SEM 2.18
2.10 SEM Images of Geopolymeric Paste Without Fly Ash 2.19
2.11 SEM Images of Geopolymeric Paste With 50% Fly Ash 2.19
2.12 SEM Image Showing Boundary Between GSLA and Asphalt Binder
2.20
2.13 SEM Micrographs Showing Interface Characteristics Between BOF Slags and Asphalt Binder
2.21
2.14 SEM Morphological Image of Polyester Fiber 2.22
2.15 SEM Close-Up View of COPF 2.22
2.16 Comparison of Penetration Grades and Viscosity Grades of Asphalt Binders
2.25
2.17 Rheological properties of COPF Modified Binder 2.31
2.18 Date Palm Fiber in Open Graded Friction Course Mixture 2.33
2.19 Draindown Results at Varying Binder Contents 2.34
xvii
2.20 Evolution of the Softening Point of Processed Bitumen Against the Mixing Time
2.37
2.21 The Evolution of Penetration of Processed Bitumen as a Function of Mixing Time
2.37
2.22 Mechanical Response of Elastic, Viscous, and Viscoelastic Materials
2.38
2.23 Asphalt Binder Rheology Measuring Equipments 2.41
2.24 Schematic Configuration of the DSR Equipment 2.42
2.25 Configuration and Load Cycle of DSR 2.43
2.26 Relationship Between Complex Modulus and Phase Angle 2.46
2.27 RTFO Equipment 2.49
2.28 PAV Equipment 2.51
3.1 Flowchart for the Research Methodology 3.3
3.2 RMP Method 3.4
3.3 Kraft Pulping Apparatus 3.5
3.4 Sieve Analysis Setup 3.9
3.5 SEM Setup 3.10
3.6 Brookfield Viscometer Setup 3.11
3.7 Asphalt Binder Preparation for Blending with Cellulose Fiber 3.12
3.8 Blending Process 3.13
3.9 HAAKE DSR Equipment 3.15
3.10 RTFO Equipment 3.18
3.11 PAV Equipment 3.19
3.12 Methodology Flowchart 3.21
3.13 Research Experimental Design 3.22
4.1 Percentage of Oil Draindown by Type of Fiber 4.4
xviii
4.2 Percentage Passing of Various Fibers 4.6
4.3 SEM View of CDPF at 500x Magnification 4.9
4.4 SEM View of CDPF at 1000x Magnification 4.10
4.5 SEM View of CDPF Cross Section at 5000x Magnification 4.10
4.6 SEM View of CDPF Surface at 10000x Magnification 4.11
4.7 Viscosity-Temperature Curve 4.14
4.8 Neat BMA Complex Shear Modulus 4.18
4.9 Neat BMA G* Performance at Various Testing Time 4.21
4.10 RTFO-Aged BMA Complex Shear Modulus 4.23
4.11 PAV-Aged BMA Complex Shear Modulus 4.25
4.12 Complex Shear Modulus at 60°C 4.27
4.13 Neat BMA Phase Angle 4.29
4.14 RTFO-Aged BMA Phase Angle 4.31
4.15 PAV-Aged BMA Phase Angle 4.34
4.16 BMA Phase Angle Performance at 60°C 4.36
4.17 Neat BMA Shear Strain 4.38
4.18 RTFO Aged BMA Shear Strain 4.40
4.19 PAV Aged BMA Shear Strain 4.42
4.20 Shear Strain at 60°C 4.43
4.21 Neat BMA Viscosity 4.46
4.22 RTFO Aged BMA Viscosity 4.48
4.23 PAV Aged BMA Viscosity 4.50
4.24 Viscosity at 60°C 4.51
4.25 Neat BMA Rutting Behavior 4.54
xix
4.26 Maximum RTFO-Aged BMA Rutting Failure Temperature 4.55
4.27 Minimum PAV-Aged BMA Fatigue Failure Temperature 4.57
4.28 BMA PG System 4.59
xx
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
AB Asphalt Binder
AC Asphalt Cement
Agg Aggregate
AR Aged Residue
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
av Average
AOH Absorbable Organic Halides
AI Asphalt Institute
BMA Bio Mastic Asphalt
BOF Basic Oxygen Furnace
BBR Bending Beam Rheometer
CDPF Cellulose Date Palm Fiber
COPF Cellulose Oil Palm Fiber
CP Chemical Pulping
CRMB Crumb Rubber Modified Bitumen
DSR Dynamic Shear Rheometer
DTT Direct Tension Tester
P SBR Polymer
PF Date Palm Fiber
PMB Polymer Modified Binder
DSR Dynamic Shear Rheometer
xxi
EFB Empty Fruit Bunch
ECF Elemental Chlorine Free
EVA Ethylene Vinyl Acetate
FRIM Forest Research Institute of Malaysia
FELDA Federal Land Development Authority
g gram
GSLA Granulated Synthetic Lightweight Aggregate
ha Hectare
HMA Hot Mix Asphalt
HWTD Hamburg Wheel Tracking Device
ITS Indirect Tensile Strength
JKR Jabatan Kerja Raya
LVE Linear Viscoelastic
Max Maximum
min Minute
Min Minimum
NAPA National Asphalt Pavement Association
OAC Optimum Asphalt Content
PAV Pressure Aging Vessel
PG Performance Grade
PFP Date Palm Fiber and Polymer
RMP Refinery Mechanical Pulping
RPM Revolutions Per Minute
RTFO Rolling Thin Film Oven
xxii
xxiii
RTFOT Rolling Thin Film Oven Test
RV Rotational Viscometer
SHRP Strategic Highway Research Program
SMA Stone Mastic Asphalt
SEM Scanning Electron Microscope
SBR Styrene Butadiene Rubber
TAPPI Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry
TMP Thermal Mechanical Pulping
TCF Total Chlorine Free
t Ton
T Temperature
TF Textile Fiber
TFP Textile Fiber and Polymer
TSR Tensile Strength Ratio
USM Universiti Sains Malaysia
UPM Universiti Putra Malaysia
U.S United States
U.S.A United States of America
WA Western Australian
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Asphalt binders have been widely used in flexible pavements because of their good
adhesion to mineral aggregates and viscoelastic properties (Akmal and Usmani
1999). Unfortunately, asphalt mixture or coating layer shows severe temperature
susceptibility such as high-temperature rutting, medium-temperature fatigue and
low-temperature cracking damage. Therefore, asphalt mixtures should be modified
in some way to improve their rheological properties.
According to Roberts et al. (1996) an estimate of 500 million tons of hot mix asphalt
was produced and placed in pavement in the United States alone, costing about
$10.5 billion. Scientists and engineers are constantly trying to improve the
performance of these pavements through programs such as the Strategic Highway
Research Program (SHRP); SHRP began developing new performance related tests
for measuring the physical properties of asphalt binder.
Modification and stabilization of the asphalt binder is one approach to improve the
pavement performance especially for gap-graded mixtures such as Stone Mastic
Asphalt (SMA) which require higher viscosity asphalt binder. A common method
for asphalt binder modification is by adding polymer, although rubber and other oil
based materials are being used to enhance the viscosity of the base binder. The
rheological performance of the traditionally 80/100 penetration-graded asphalt
1.1