Univ. of Phoenix SCI/256

Week 4 Chapter 16,17,18(Not chapter 1 & 24)

Species Diversity and Species Diversity and Preservation IPreservation IChapter 16 pt1 Chapter 16 pt1

Factors Affecting Biological Factors Affecting Biological ResourcesResourcesNatural Processes (e.g., fires)Natural Processes (e.g., fires)

Land Use (e.g., urban development)Land Use (e.g., urban development)

Water Use (e.g., hydroelectric)Water Use (e.g., hydroelectric)

Climate Change (e.g., global warming)Climate Change (e.g., global warming)((http://observer.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,6903,1153513,00.html ))

Nonindigenous SpeciesNonindigenous Species

Environmental Contaminants (e.g., oil spills)Environmental Contaminants (e.g., oil spills)

Harvest (e.g., overfishing)Harvest (e.g., overfishing)

Species Diversity - Species Diversity - TerrestrialTerrestrial

Species Species DiversityDiversity

DefinitionsDefinitions

Extinction:Extinction: the irreversible loss or ‘death’ of a species.the irreversible loss or ‘death’ of a species.

Endangered species (ESA):Endangered species (ESA): a a species in imminent danger species in imminent danger of extinction throughout all of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its or a significant portion of its range. range. (What is a species?) (What is a species?)

Threatened species:Threatened species: a species a species

that is likely to become that is likely to become endangered in all or a endangered in all or a significant portion of its significant portion of its range.range.

Species DiversitySpecies Diversity

Characteristics of Characteristics of Endangered SpeciesEndangered Species

• Extremely small rangeExtremely small range - lily on single - lily on single hilltop near SF.hilltop near SF.

• Large territoriesLarge territories - California condor. (+ - California condor. (+ issue of Minimum Viable Populations)issue of Minimum Viable Populations)

• Living on islandsLiving on islands - endemics (living - endemics (living nowhere else); evolved in isolation from nowhere else); evolved in isolation from predators, disease, and competition.predators, disease, and competition.

• Low biotic potentialLow biotic potential - blue whales. - blue whales.• Specialized breeding areasSpecialized breeding areas - green sea - green sea

turtles.turtles.• Specialized feeding habitatsSpecialized feeding habitats - pandas and - pandas and

bamboo.bamboo.

ExtinctionExtinction

Mass ExtinctionsHistoric Period Time (MYA) Effects _

Ordovician 444 25% of all families extinctDevonian 370 19% of all families extinctPermian 250 54% of families, 90% of species extinctTriassic 210 23% of families, 50% of species extinctCretaceous 65 17% of families, 50% of species extinct (including

dinosaurs but not mammals)Quaternary present 1/3 to 2/3 of all species extinct if present trends

continue

If extinction is a natural process, why should we be If extinction is a natural process, why should we be concerned about extinction?concerned about extinction?

Human-based ExtinctionHuman-based Extinction:

Human disturbance dominates many landscapes, makingHuman disturbance dominates many landscapes, makingthe processes of many ecosystems human-dominatedthe processes of many ecosystems human-dominated.

Species Diversity - Loss of Species Diversity - Loss of EcosystemsEcosystems

Effects of Effects of Human Human

Population Population on Diversityon Diversity

Human-based ExtinctionHuman-based Extinction:

:We affect species through:We affect species through:

1.1. Habitat DestructionHabitat Destruction2.2. Hunting and FishingHunting and Fishing3.3. Predator ControlPredator Control4.4. PollutionPollution5.5. Genetic AssimilationGenetic Assimilation6.6. Diseases Diseases 7.7. Exotic SpeciesExotic Species

Introductions

Species Diversity - Health of Species Diversity - Health of EcosystemsEcosystems

Species Diversity - Loss of Species Diversity - Loss of EcosystemsEcosystems

Habitat DestructionHabitat Destruction:: conversion of wilderness into conversion of wilderness into human-based habitat; mainly for farming, range use, and human-based habitat; mainly for farming, range use, and forestry, but also for urban centers. forestry, but also for urban centers.

Iowa has lost much greater than 90% of its wetlands.Iowa has lost much greater than 90% of its wetlands.

FragmentationFragmentation can cause forests (or can cause forests (or prairies) to slowly become small islands of prairies) to slowly become small islands of wooded area that can be too small to wooded area that can be too small to maintain breeding populations. maintain breeding populations.

Fragmentation eliminates the Fragmentation eliminates the core core environmentenvironment, expanding the amount of edge , expanding the amount of edge available for weedy species to invade, and available for weedy species to invade, and eliminates the environment some species eliminates the environment some species need to survive.need to survive.

Critical Size of an EcosystemCritical Size of an Ecosystem

Amazonia example:

Thomas Lovejoy created patches of various sizes (from 1 to 1000 ha and a 10,000 ha 'mainland'). A hectare (ha) = 10,000 sq kilometers or ~ 2.5 acres

Results from Lovejoy’s Results from Lovejoy’s Amazonia StudiesAmazonia Studies

A guild of A guild of insectivorous birdsinsectivorous birds (that feed on insects (that feed on insects fleeing swarming army ants) disappeared in 1, 10 fleeing swarming army ants) disappeared in 1, 10 hectare, and some 100 ha fragments plots. hectare, and some 100 ha fragments plots.

PollinatorsPollinators, euglossine bees, would not cross 100 m , euglossine bees, would not cross 100 m cleared strips, so population biology of at least 30 plant cleared strips, so population biology of at least 30 plant families dramatically affected. families dramatically affected.

Results from Lovejoy’s Amazonia Results from Lovejoy’s Amazonia StudiesStudies

Rain forest fragments in central Rain forest fragments in central Amazonia were experienced a Amazonia were experienced a dramatic loss of above-ground tree dramatic loss of above-ground tree biomass that was not offset by biomass that was not offset by recruitment of new trees. These losses recruitment of new trees. These losses were largest within 100 meters of were largest within 100 meters of fragment edges, where tree mortality fragment edges, where tree mortality was sharply increased by was sharply increased by microclimatic changes and elevated microclimatic changes and elevated wind turbulence. Permanent study wind turbulence. Permanent study plots within 100 meters of edges lost plots within 100 meters of edges lost up to 36% of their biomass in the first up to 36% of their biomass in the first

10 to 17 years after fragmentation.10 to 17 years after fragmentation.

Results from Lovejoy’s Results from Lovejoy’s Amazonia StudiesAmazonia Studies

Dung and carrion feeding beetles responded similarly Dung and carrion feeding beetles responded similarly to other insects, so the to other insects, so the decomposition processdecomposition process slowed. slowed. Much of the Much of the primate diversityprimate diversity went almost went almost immediately extinct in the isolated fragments. immediately extinct in the isolated fragments.

Only 7 of 20 mammal species present in reserve areas Only 7 of 20 mammal species present in reserve areas persisted in the first isolated fragments, and many of persisted in the first isolated fragments, and many of those that persisted were those capable of surviving in those that persisted were those capable of surviving in disturbed areas or secondary vegetation.disturbed areas or secondary vegetation.

Minimum Viable PopulationsMinimum Viable PopulationsPopulations that are large enough that inbreeding does not Populations that are large enough that inbreeding does not cause the species to go extinct.cause the species to go extinct.

If Minimum Viable PopulationsIf Minimum Viable Populations are not maintained, the are not maintained, the species cannot survive. (Plus, chance events have a greater species cannot survive. (Plus, chance events have a greater likelihood of eliminating a species that is already reduced in likelihood of eliminating a species that is already reduced in numbers.)numbers.)

Greater Prairie Greater Prairie ChickenChicken

Planned Planned reservesreserves on an on an ecosystem basisecosystem basis. For example, in . For example, in Yellowstone National ParkYellowstone National Park (for watershed and wildlife (for watershed and wildlife resources), more land would have to be added. resources), more land would have to be added.

Protected ForestsProtected Forests

Preservation and Park Usage in Preservation and Park Usage in the U.S.A.the U.S.A.

Threats to Parks:Threats to Parks: 1.1. Islands of natureIslands of nature

surrounded by destructive surrounded by destructive land use. land use.

2. Roads2. Roads, trails (especially , trails (especially ATVs and off-road ATVs and off-road vehicles).vehicles).

3. Visitor impact:3. Visitor impact: Yosemite Yosemite National ParkNational Park - 25,000 - 25,000 visitors for a 3-day weekend visitors for a 3-day weekend (cars, laundries, concessions, (cars, laundries, concessions, guest rooms, etc).guest rooms, etc).

Habitat destruction does not Habitat destruction does not end just because land is placed end just because land is placed into a reserve/preserve/park.into a reserve/preserve/park.

CorridorsCorridorsStrips of habitat running between patches of habitat.Strips of habitat running between patches of habitat.

Used to Used to allow movement of allow movement of speciesspecies from one area to from one area to another to help maintain another to help maintain genetic exchange and prevent genetic exchange and prevent extinction. extinction.

However, corridors can also However, corridors can also be a be a riskrisk because they may act because they may act as a as a corridor forcorridor for disease, disease, invasive species, or as trapsinvasive species, or as traps for the species you are trying for the species you are trying to protect.to protect.

Hunting and FishingHunting and Fishing

Consider the large Pleistocene mammals - Consider the large Pleistocene mammals - extinctions extinctions probably caused by human hunting - mammoths, mastadons probably caused by human hunting - mammoths, mastadons wooly rhinos, and ground sloths. wooly rhinos, and ground sloths.

Hunting and FishingHunting and Fishing

In the recent past, whales have been hunted to the brink of In the recent past, whales have been hunted to the brink of extinction. Bison were once in the 10’s of millions, but extinction. Bison were once in the 10’s of millions, but were reduced to less than 1000 individuals. were reduced to less than 1000 individuals.

Passenger pigeons - now Passenger pigeons - now extinct; once over 3 billion.extinct; once over 3 billion.

Predator/Pest ControlPredator/Pest Control

American alligator: top predator - keeps gar populations in check. creates habitat diversity - islands created by nest moundsgator trails - prevent marsh establishmentgator holes - provide habitat for other species in drought

Involves top Involves top predators predators ((keystone keystone speciesspecies). ). Wolves, Wolves, mountain lions, mountain lions, gators.gators.

PollutionPollution

Amphibians as early Amphibians as early warning indicators. In warning indicators. In North America, and world-North America, and world-wide, amphibian wide, amphibian populations have drastically populations have drastically declined and deformities declined and deformities have increased.have increased.

PollutionPollution

Environmental estrogensEnvironmental estrogens: (DDT, PCBs, Dioxins) : (DDT, PCBs, Dioxins) disrupt hormones; impact fish, reptilian, and disrupt hormones; impact fish, reptilian, and amphibian reproduction. amphibian reproduction.

Acid precipitation: Acid precipitation: alters pH of water, thereby affecting alters pH of water, thereby affecting

species. species.

Ozone depletionOzone depletion (due to CFCs): cause increased UV (due to CFCs): cause increased UV light penetration and so cause higher mutation rates, light penetration and so cause higher mutation rates, thereby affecting populations. thereby affecting populations.

Global warming: temperature alterations can Global warming: temperature alterations can cause cause population declines.population declines.

Species Diversity - Loss of Species Diversity - Loss of EcosystemsEcosystems

Genetic AssimilationGenetic Assimilation

Classic definition is that genes of species at low population numbers are at risk of being swamped if they hybridize with close relatives.

With the use of genetically modified (GM) species in farming, for example, could include the assimilation of native species into closely related GM species.

Genetic AssimilationGenetic Assimilation

Red wolf: predator control and destruction of mature woodland caused a reduction in range and population size.

By 1970s, the species had dwindled to a single population in eastern Texas, and this population is threatened by interbreeding with the close relative, the coyote (Canis latrans).

DiseaseDisease

Dutch elm disease was first found in the United States in Dutch elm disease was first found in the United States in Ohio in 1930. It has now spread throughout North Ohio in 1930. It has now spread throughout North America and has destroyed over half the elm trees in the America and has destroyed over half the elm trees in the

northern United States.northern United States. Dutch elm disease is caused by the Dutch elm disease is caused by the fungus fungus Ophiostoma ulmi Ophiostoma ulmi which is transmitted by two which is transmitted by two species of bark beetles or by root grafting.species of bark beetles or by root grafting.

Dutch elm disease owes its name to Dutch elm disease owes its name to the fact that it was first identified in the fact that it was first identified in the Netherlands in 1921. the Netherlands in 1921.

Powdery Mildew on Powdery Mildew on Dogwoods Dogwoods (Dogwood (Dogwood

Anthracnose)Anthracnose)Powdery mildew, which is caused by the fungus Powdery mildew, which is caused by the fungus Microsphaeria penicillataMicrosphaeria penicillata..

Probably introduced into the United Probably introduced into the United States near Connecticut and Washington States near Connecticut and Washington State simultaneously in the mid-1970s. State simultaneously in the mid-1970s. Although it entered the U.S.A. at two Although it entered the U.S.A. at two separate points, genetic analysis has separate points, genetic analysis has shown that the causal organism is the shown that the causal organism is the same. However, the origin of this same. However, the origin of this pathogen remains unknown, as it has yet pathogen remains unknown, as it has yet to be identified on any species of to be identified on any species of dogwood occurring outside the U.S. dogwood occurring outside the U.S.

DiseaseDiseaseAmerican chestnutAmerican chestnut trees were once 1/4th of all trees in the trees were once 1/4th of all trees in the Appalachian Mountains. Infection by a fungal blight Appalachian Mountains. Infection by a fungal blight destroyed all chestnuts of reproductive sizedestroyed all chestnuts of reproductive size.

Introduced SpeciesIntroduced Species

The fungus that destroys The fungus that destroys the American chestnut was the American chestnut was introduced with a introduced with a shipment of nursery stock shipment of nursery stock from China in 1904, so it from China in 1904, so it was in actuality an was in actuality an introduced exotic introduced exotic speciesspecies..

Introduced SpeciesIntroduced Species

Species Diversity and Species Diversity and Preservation IIPreservation IIChapter 16 pt 2Chapter 16 pt 2

TerminologyTerminology

AlienAlien species - refers to a species that is transported or species - refers to a species that is transported or established outside of its native range. This transport established outside of its native range. This transport may or may not be intentional.  may or may not be intentional.  

IntroducedIntroduced species - is an alien species that was species - is an alien species that was transported intentionally.   transported intentionally.   

InvasiveInvasive species - is an alien species that disrupts the species - is an alien species that disrupts the normal functioning and/or structure of an ecosystem.normal functioning and/or structure of an ecosystem.

A A naturalizednaturalized species is one that has become established species is one that has become established and is self-sustaining in a new area.  and is self-sustaining in a new area.  

Invasive Species - USAInvasive Species - USA

The current environmental, economic, and health costs of The current environmental, economic, and health costs of invasive species could exceed $138 billion per year, invasive species could exceed $138 billion per year, more than all other natural disasters combined. more than all other natural disasters combined.

West Nile virus and Purple loosestrife (northeast) Kudzu, water hyacinth, nutria, and fire ants (southeast) Zebra mussels and leafy spurge, (Midwest) Salt cedar, Russian olive, and Africanized bees (southwest) Yellow star thistle, Asian clams, and sudden oak death

(California) Cheatgrass, knapweeds and thistles (Great Basin) Whirling disease of salmonids (northwest) Hundreds of species (microbes to mammals) (Hawaii) Brown tree snake (Guam)

Factors that Contribute to Community Vulnerability to

Invasion

Vacant nichesVacant niches

Escape from biotic constraintsEscape from biotic constraints

Community species richnessCommunity species richness

Disturbance before or upon immigrationDisturbance before or upon immigration

Exotic Species Introductions (Biotic Exotic Species Introductions (Biotic Pollution)Pollution)

Other than habitat loss (and possibly exploitative Other than habitat loss (and possibly exploitative hunting/fishing practices), the introduction of exotic hunting/fishing practices), the introduction of exotic species has caused the greatest threat to biodiversity.species has caused the greatest threat to biodiversity.

Introduced competitors and predators have a greater Introduced competitors and predators have a greater negative effect on local organisms than do native negative effect on local organisms than do native competitors or predators because exotic species have not competitors or predators because exotic species have not coevolved with those native species. Therefore, the native coevolved with those native species. Therefore, the native species have no adaptations to the introduced species.species have no adaptations to the introduced species.

Islands (e.g., Hawaii, Australia) are particularly susceptible Islands (e.g., Hawaii, Australia) are particularly susceptible to introductions because predators are often rare on islands.to introductions because predators are often rare on islands.

Introduced Species in HawaiiIntroduced Species in HawaiiWith the arrival of Captain James Cook in 1778, the With the arrival of Captain James Cook in 1778, the environment of Hawaii began to change dramatically.  These environment of Hawaii began to change dramatically.  These first European settlers brought a number of new species first European settlers brought a number of new species including; pigs, goats, sheep, and many ornamental and including; pigs, goats, sheep, and many ornamental and horticultural plants.horticultural plants.    

It is now estimated that an It is now estimated that an average of 20-50 new species average of 20-50 new species arrive annually in Hawaii.arrive annually in Hawaii.

The subsequent loss of native The subsequent loss of native species has decreased the species has decreased the diversity and produced diversity and produced economic problems.economic problems.

Introduced Introduced Species in the Species in the Continental Continental

USAUSAKudzuKudzu: Introduced in the : Introduced in the southeastern U.S. in the southeastern U.S. in the 1930s as a control for 1930s as a control for erosion. Has overgrown erosion. Has overgrown everything in its path, everything in its path, causing millions of dollars causing millions of dollars in damage annually.in damage annually.

Introduced Introduced Species in the Species in the

Continental USAContinental USAPurple loosestrifePurple loosestrife: : Cultivated for its beautiful Cultivated for its beautiful purple flowers, this wetland purple flowers, this wetland plant escaped into New plant escaped into New England marshes a century England marshes a century ago. ago.

It now fills the wetlands It now fills the wetlands across much of the northern across much of the northern U.S. and southern Canada, U.S. and southern Canada, reducing wetland reducing wetland biodiversity.biodiversity.

Introduced Introduced Species in the Species in the Continental Continental

USAUSAJapanese honeysuckle: Japanese honeysuckle: This aggressive vine This aggressive vine seriously alters or destroys seriously alters or destroys the understory and the understory and herbaceous layers of herbaceous layers of communities it invades, communities it invades, including prairies, glades, including prairies, glades, floodplains, and upland floodplains, and upland forests.forests.

Introduced Introduced Species in the Species in the

Continental USAContinental USA

Cane toads:Cane toads: Bufo Bufo marinusmarinus is the is the most introduced most introduced amphibian in the amphibian in the world. It world. It outcompetes native outcompetes native amphibians and amphibians and also causes also causes predator declines predator declines because they have because they have no natural no natural immunity to the immunity to the bufotoxin it bufotoxin it secretes.secretes.

Great Great Lakes Lakes

IntroductiIntroduction of on of

SpeciesSpecies

Zebra MusselsZebra MusselsIntroduced from the ballast water of cargo ships from the Introduced from the ballast water of cargo ships from the Caspian Sea. They glue themselves to any solid surface.Caspian Sea. They glue themselves to any solid surface.

These mussels clog These mussels clog intake pipes, cover the intake pipes, cover the bottom of lakes, and bottom of lakes, and invaded the Hudson invaded the Hudson and Mississippi and Mississippi Rivers. They Rivers. They cost cost $400 million/year$400 million/year in in removal costs, and removal costs, and exclude other, native exclude other, native mussels.mussels.

Zebra MusselsZebra Mussels

Each female can produce one million Each female can produce one million eggs a year. Being colonial, as many as eggs a year. Being colonial, as many as 500 000 mussels may be attached as a 500 000 mussels may be attached as a solid mass on each square meter of solid mass on each square meter of substance, encrusting and clogging substance, encrusting and clogging various utilities like the intake ducts various utilities like the intake ducts and pipes of power stations and and pipes of power stations and industries, drains, etc. industries, drains, etc.

The estimated cost to industry, shipping and sport fishing was $5 billion in the Great Lake region alone by the year 2000.

LampreysLampreys

LampreysLampreysThe impact of lamprey on commercial fishing in the The impact of lamprey on commercial fishing in the Great Lakes.Great Lakes.

Protecting SpeciesProtecting SpeciesHabitat Protection:

Placement of habitats into Preserves, Reserves, and Placement of habitats into Preserves, Reserves, and National Monuments, can protect both endangered National Monuments, can protect both endangered species, as well as provide ecosystem stability. species, as well as provide ecosystem stability.

Risks:Risks:

Multiple useMultiple use (recreation, timber extraction, grazing use, (recreation, timber extraction, grazing use, mineral extraction) can often conflict with preservation of mineral extraction) can often conflict with preservation of a habitat.a habitat.

““Paper” parksPaper” parks are often logged, farmed, mined, or are often logged, farmed, mined, or poached. Poaching is a common practice, even in U.S. poached. Poaching is a common practice, even in U.S. protected areasprotected areas.

Protecting SpeciesProtecting Species

Sometimes the Sometimes the protection of a protection of a specific habitat specific habitat (e.g., freshwater (e.g., freshwater river) involves river) involves monitoring of monitoring of other other ecosystems ecosystems (e.g., riparian (e.g., riparian environment).environment).

Protecting SpeciesProtecting Species

Debt for Nature Swaps:Debt for Nature Swaps:

The purchase of debt by organizations at a much lower The purchase of debt by organizations at a much lower rate (10 cents on the dollar), and then forgiveness of that rate (10 cents on the dollar), and then forgiveness of that debt in return for that countries efforts to make reserves debt in return for that countries efforts to make reserves in certain areas.in certain areas.

The largest of the “debt for nature swap” organization is The largest of the “debt for nature swap” organization is the World Wildlife Fund (WWF). Since its inception in the World Wildlife Fund (WWF). Since its inception in 1961, WWF has invested in over 13,100 projects in 157 1961, WWF has invested in over 13,100 projects in 157 countries. The annual budget is about $20 million, countries. The annual budget is about $20 million, almost all from private donations.almost all from private donations.

Examples of Non-governmental Examples of Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs) Involved in Organizations (NGOs) Involved in

Defending Species and HabitatsDefending Species and Habitats

Nature ConservancyNature ConservancyConservation InternationalConservation InternationalWorld Wildlife FundWorld Wildlife FundEnvironmental Defense FundEnvironmental Defense FundSierra ClubSierra ClubGreenpeace.Greenpeace.

Protecting Species by LawsProtecting Species by Laws

Hunting and Fishing Laws - Hunting and Fishing Laws - Limit number of animals that Limit number of animals that can be ‘harvested’ on a yearly basis. can be ‘harvested’ on a yearly basis.

Usually animal populations are monitored so that hunting Usually animal populations are monitored so that hunting pressures do not limit the populations. pressures do not limit the populations.

For some animals, such as For some animals, such as deerdeer, management practices , management practices favor them, so they may be even more abundant than favor them, so they may be even more abundant than prior to settlement of the U.S. prior to settlement of the U.S.

In these cases, the species can be more of a problem for In these cases, the species can be more of a problem for habitat integrity than a species that needs protection.habitat integrity than a species that needs protection.

Zoos, Botanical Gardens, Captive Zoos, Botanical Gardens, Captive Breeding ProgramsBreeding Programs

Breeding of endangered animals Breeding of endangered animals (Cheetahs, other big cats, rhinos, (Cheetahs, other big cats, rhinos, other large game animals), other large game animals), conservation of plant species conservation of plant species (sometimes through the storage (sometimes through the storage of seeds in banks), may provide of seeds in banks), may provide a haven from which to a haven from which to reestablish very endangered reestablish very endangered species. species.

Costs are prohibitive.Costs are prohibitive.

Restoration EcologyRestoration Ecology

Restoration Ecology Restoration Ecology means to bring back a habitat to a means to bring back a habitat to a former condition. When overexploited, ecosystems former condition. When overexploited, ecosystems degenerate and services decline. Ultimately we need degenerate and services decline. Ultimately we need the capture of renewable resources while sustaining the the capture of renewable resources while sustaining the global ecosystems that convert sunlight into ecosystem global ecosystems that convert sunlight into ecosystem services.services.

Principles and Goals: Principles and Goals:

Need to consider several levels - genes, populations, Need to consider several levels - genes, populations, ecosystems at the same time. Ongoing research to ecosystems at the same time. Ongoing research to collect data on the restored site to monitor changes.collect data on the restored site to monitor changes.

Restoration Restoration EcologyEcology

Curtis Prairie in Curtis Prairie in Wisconsin: Wisconsin:

In 1934, seeds were In 1934, seeds were collected from collected from remnants along remnants along railroad right-of-railroad right-of-ways and in pioneer ways and in pioneer cemeteries and cemeteries and cultivated in an old cultivated in an old field. Periodic fires field. Periodic fires helped to establish helped to establish the prairie; it now the prairie; it now serves as a seed serves as a seed source for other source for other prairies.prairies.

Restoration Restoration EcologyEcology

Guanacaste National Park (Guanacaste National Park (Tropical dry forest): Tropical dry forest): In an attempt to restore a tropical dry forest in Costa In an attempt to restore a tropical dry forest in Costa Rica, used existing livestock to germinate seeds, fire Rica, used existing livestock to germinate seeds, fire control to help establish forests, and intensive labor to control to help establish forests, and intensive labor to eliminate weedy plants.eliminate weedy plants.

Restoration Restoration EcologyEcology

Rivers - Rivers - The Army Corp of Engineers straightened and The Army Corp of Engineers straightened and drained naturally occurring meanders in rivers. Now, drained naturally occurring meanders in rivers. Now, after realizing the value of wetlands along rivers as a after realizing the value of wetlands along rivers as a flood control (and for groundwater recharge), they are flood control (and for groundwater recharge), they are trying to restore wetlands.trying to restore wetlands.

Endangered Species Act of 1973.Endangered Species Act of 1973.

Regulate activities involving endangered species, Regulate activities involving endangered species, including taking, selling, or transporting any endangered including taking, selling, or transporting any endangered animal. Protecting these species animal. Protecting these species often involves often involves preserving habitatspreserving habitats that are also endangered, as well as that are also endangered, as well as the other unidentified species using that habitat. the other unidentified species using that habitat.

Recovery Plans: Recovery Plans: Several success stories, Several success stories, 1.1. American Alligator, which was overhunted American Alligator, which was overhunted

for for meat and skinmeat and skin

2. 2. Eagles, hawks, and falcons which were Eagles, hawks, and falcons which were decimated by DDT.decimated by DDT.

Definitions Resulting from Endangered Species Act

Federal EndangeredFederal Endangered - animal or plant species, - animal or plant species, subspecies or varieties in danger of extinction subspecies or varieties in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of their range. throughout all or a significant portion of their range. These are considered "Federally-listed" or "listed" These are considered "Federally-listed" or "listed" because a final rule was published in the because a final rule was published in the Federal Federal RegisterRegister..

Federal ThreatenedFederal Threatened - species, subspecies or varieties - species, subspecies or varieties likely to become endangered within the foreseeable likely to become endangered within the foreseeable future throughout all or a significant portion of their future throughout all or a significant portion of their range. range.

Policy ResponsesPolicy ResponsesPopulation:Population:

Governments can help to Governments can help to create the conditions create the conditions where having fewer where having fewer children will make sense, children will make sense, and where people have and where people have the means to reach their the means to reach their desired fertility. desired fertility.

And if fertility can be reduced, there will usually be And if fertility can be reduced, there will usually be environmental benefits.environmental benefits.

Policy ResponsesPolicy Responses

Consumption:Consumption:

Realistic approach is to divert Realistic approach is to divert consumption into channels with lower consumption into channels with lower environmental costs, while ensuring environmental costs, while ensuring that people still enjoy the end products that people still enjoy the end products or services they need for dignity and or services they need for dignity and comfort. comfort.

The balance of taxes and subsidies can be shifted so as to The balance of taxes and subsidies can be shifted so as to make environmental "bads" like excessive car or fossil-fuel make environmental "bads" like excessive car or fossil-fuel use less attractive to consumers, and environmental "goods" use less attractive to consumers, and environmental "goods" such as energy-saving technology more attractive.such as energy-saving technology more attractive.

Policy ResponsesPolicy Responses

Technology:Technology:

The heaviest burden will fall on the The heaviest burden will fall on the technology element of the equation. technology element of the equation. If, as is quite likely, the scale of the If, as is quite likely, the scale of the world economy triples by 2050, world economy triples by 2050, then technological changes will then technological changes will have to reduce the environmental have to reduce the environmental impact of our activities by two impact of our activities by two thirds - just to prevent the present thirds - just to prevent the present

rate of damage from increasing.rate of damage from increasing.

Land and Food Resources ILand and Food Resources IChapter 17/18 pt 1Chapter 17/18 pt 1

Ecosystem Services of Natural Areas:Ecosystem Services of Natural Areas:

1.1. Wildlife habitat (protect species)Wildlife habitat (protect species)2.2. Flood and erosion controlFlood and erosion control3.3. Soil formation/maintenanceSoil formation/maintenance4.4. Groundwater recharge Groundwater recharge 5.5. Recycle wastes (nutrient cycles) Recycle wastes (nutrient cycles)

and break down pollutantsand break down pollutants

Pasture and Open RangelandPasture and Open Rangeland

Predominantly grasses Predominantly grasses with a fibrous root with a fibrous root system. Rangelands system. Rangelands occupy about 26% of occupy about 26% of the world’s land the world’s land surface.surface.

Pasture and Open RangelandPasture and Open RangelandThere is twice as much permanent grazing land as area There is twice as much permanent grazing land as area given to agricultural crops in the world. Much of the given to agricultural crops in the world. Much of the western Great Plains and the Prairie provinces of western Great Plains and the Prairie provinces of Canada fall in this category.Canada fall in this category.

Pasture and Open Rangeland:Pasture and Open Rangeland:

Carefully managed, grazing can be sustained in grasslands Carefully managed, grazing can be sustained in grasslands (with the loss of a few grazing-intolerant plant species), (with the loss of a few grazing-intolerant plant species), because because most species are tolerant of being grazedmost species are tolerant of being grazed..

For the U.S., For the U.S., rangeland/prairies have more rangeland/prairies have more species of plants, and more species of plants, and more threatened speciesthreatened species of plants, of plants, than any other biome type.than any other biome type.

Pasture and Open Rangeland:Pasture and Open Rangeland:

Benefits of grazing include:Benefits of grazing include:

Hooves create seed-to-soil contactHooves create seed-to-soil contact

Natural grazers break soil crusts that keep seeds from Natural grazers break soil crusts that keep seeds from growinggrowing

Grazers trample standing vegetation into mulchGrazers trample standing vegetation into mulch

Grazers act like living compost piles, turning Grazers act like living compost piles, turning vegetation vegetation into high-quality fertilizerinto high-quality fertilizer

By pruning stale growth, they keep forage plants at By pruning stale growth, they keep forage plants at peak peak productionproduction

Pasture and Open Rangeland:Pasture and Open Rangeland:

Effects of overgrazing grazing Effects of overgrazing grazing include:include:

Compacting soil thus Compacting soil thus preventing seeds from preventing seeds from germinating and water from germinating and water from seeping into soil.seeping into soil.

Overfeeding on plants not Overfeeding on plants not allowing them time to allowing them time to

recover and adequately root.recover and adequately root.

OvergrazingOvergrazingOvergrazingOvergrazing is when plants are consumed such that the is when plants are consumed such that the plant community does not quickly recoverplant community does not quickly recover.

1/31/3rdrd of the world’s of the world’s range is severely range is severely degraded by degraded by overgrazingovergrazing, making it , making it the largest cause of soil the largest cause of soil degradationdegradation.

OvergrazingOvergrazingThe first symptom of overgrazing is the loss of palatable The first symptom of overgrazing is the loss of palatable species of herbs and grasses. species of herbs and grasses. Continued overgrazing Continued overgrazing compacts the soil, strips the ground bare, and leads to compacts the soil, strips the ground bare, and leads to erosionerosion. .

DesertificationDesertification

Continued degradation leads to a fertile land becoming more Continued degradation leads to a fertile land becoming more desert-like.desert-like.

Without plants to Without plants to hold soil moisture, hold soil moisture, surface runoff surface runoff increases, wells increases, wells dry, the dry, the microclimate microclimate becomes becomes inhospitable for inhospitable for plants, and deserts plants, and deserts occur.occur.

DesertificationDesertificationIn Africa, deserts have increased by 50 million hectares, In Africa, deserts have increased by 50 million hectares, and humid or semiarid lands have decreased by that and humid or semiarid lands have decreased by that amount. Is human activity responsible?amount. Is human activity responsible?

Remember the Remember the Tragedy of the Tragedy of the

CommonsCommons

Any commonly held Any commonly held resource becomes degraded resource becomes degraded or destroyed because the or destroyed because the narrow self-interests of narrow self-interests of individuals tend to outweigh individuals tend to outweigh the public interests.the public interests.

U.S. RangelandsU.S. Rangelands

Bureau of Land Management (BLM): Bureau of Land Management (BLM): 200 million acres200 million acresU.S. Forest Service (USFS):U.S. Forest Service (USFS): 50 million acres 50 million acres

60% of rangeland is privately owned. 60% of rangeland is privately owned.

55% of public rangelands are in poor condition (sage, 55% of public rangelands are in poor condition (sage, mesquite, cheatgrass, and cactus).mesquite, cheatgrass, and cactus).

Grazing feesGrazing fees: grazing permits on : grazing permits on BLM or USFS land BLM or USFS land was was $1.35 $1.35 per animal. It costs them per animal. It costs them $3.21 $3.21 per animal to per animal to administer grazing. This equals a administer grazing. This equals a lossloss ofof of $32 million. of $32 million.

Few people hold most of these permits = welfare for rich Few people hold most of these permits = welfare for rich cattlemen.cattlemen.

Forests and Forest ProductsForests and Forest Products

The amount of fuel wood consumed by each person in The amount of fuel wood consumed by each person in developing countries is developing countries is roughly equal to that used as roughly equal to that used as paper products by each American.paper products by each American.

Demand for fuel woodDemand for fuel wood will be twice the available will be twice the available supply in just 25 years.supply in just 25 years.

The Rates of Deforestation Are IncreasingThe Rates of Deforestation Are Increasing

Consider Consider Costa RicaCosta Rica, an environmental success story. , an environmental success story. Lost 75% of its primary forests in the last 60 years due to Lost 75% of its primary forests in the last 60 years due to timber harvest, Del-Monte plantations, cattle grazing timber harvest, Del-Monte plantations, cattle grazing (mostly for export).(mostly for export).

Costa Rica (the “Green Costa Rica (the “Green Republic”)Republic”)

Costa Rica contains more biological diversity than all Costa Rica contains more biological diversity than all of North America combined.of North America combined.

Costa Rica encompasses only.03% Costa Rica encompasses only.03% of the world’s landmass, but it of the world’s landmass, but it contains and supports 5-6% of the contains and supports 5-6% of the entire world’s biodiversity.entire world’s biodiversity.

Costa Rica PoliciesCosta Rica Policies

Costa Rican Government has been a front runner in Costa Rican Government has been a front runner in conservation policy - 90% of its remaining forest is conservation policy - 90% of its remaining forest is protected, and it has the largest percentage of land protected, and it has the largest percentage of land dedicated to national parks in the world. dedicated to national parks in the world.

Emphasis has been on sustainability.Emphasis has been on sustainability.

Along with a strong conservation policy, the Costa Along with a strong conservation policy, the Costa Rican Government has enacted incentive programs to Rican Government has enacted incentive programs to promote reforestation projects. These incentive promote reforestation projects. These incentive programs include such things as residency status and programs include such things as residency status and various tax exemptions.various tax exemptions.

Causes of Tropical Rainforest DestructionCauses of Tropical Rainforest Destruction

Commercial Logging:Commercial Logging: tropical forests harvested for tropical forests harvested for timber.timber.

Subsistence agriculture:Subsistence agriculture: “slash and burn tacticsslash and burn tactics” (also ” (also called called swiddenswidden or or milpa agriculturemilpa agriculture).).

Cattle ranching:Cattle ranching: After commercial harvesting or after After commercial harvesting or after subsistence agriculture, or on its ownsubsistence agriculture, or on its own.

““Slash and Burn” (Swidden or Milpa Slash and Burn” (Swidden or Milpa Agriculture.Agriculture.

Farmers clear a small plot (2 acres), burn the dried plants Farmers clear a small plot (2 acres), burn the dried plants to provide a burst of nutrients (and ash is basic, to provide a burst of nutrients (and ash is basic, increasing the release of minerals from clay).increasing the release of minerals from clay).

On field, they practice On field, they practice polyculturepolyculture (using some (using some perennials). Banana/plantain, papayas, cassava and sweet perennials). Banana/plantain, papayas, cassava and sweet potato (root crops), beans (increase nitrogen), and maize potato (root crops), beans (increase nitrogen), and maize (plots hold the soil because there is a variety of roots).(plots hold the soil because there is a variety of roots).

In time, the plot is given over to encroaching forest In time, the plot is given over to encroaching forest because the fertility has decreased, and the farm begins in because the fertility has decreased, and the farm begins in a new area.a new area.

Milpa AgricultureMilpa Agriculture

Depends on land to rotate Depends on land to rotate through. through. If the farm remains If the farm remains long term, the productivity long term, the productivity of the land declines. of the land declines.

Higher populations are Higher populations are increasing the pressure on the increasing the pressure on the land and not allowing enough land and not allowing enough time for recovery.time for recovery.

Cattle RanchingCattle RanchingRanching often introduced after commercial harvesting or Ranching often introduced after commercial harvesting or after subsistence agriculture, or on its own.after subsistence agriculture, or on its own.

Tropical soils are Tropical soils are Oxisols Oxisols and and ultisols - ultisols - soils that are soils that are highly highly leachedleached and nutrient poor. and nutrient poor.

Minerals are locked up in the Minerals are locked up in the vegetation; if vegetation is lost, vegetation; if vegetation is lost, minerals are lost. minerals are lost.

So, it is hard to go from a pasture So, it is hard to go from a pasture back to a forest again.back to a forest again.

Logging in the Logging in the U.S.A.U.S.A.

Clear cuttingClear cutting:: removal of all wood in a compartment.removal of all wood in a compartment.

Strip cutting:Strip cutting: harvesting strips within a compartment on a harvesting strips within a compartment on a rotational basis.rotational basis.

Selective cuttingSelective cutting:: planned removal of individual trees or planned removal of individual trees or small groups of trees within a forest stand.small groups of trees within a forest stand.

Kinds of cuttingKinds of cutting: :

Clear CuttingClear Cutting:

Cost effective because large machines can be used, making Cost effective because large machines can be used, making it easier to fell, trim and skid logs. it easier to fell, trim and skid logs.

But: But: 1. 1. Eliminates almost all habitatEliminates almost all habitat 2. 2. Increases soil erosion greatlyIncreases soil erosion greatly 3. 3. Favors early succession tree species and deer (game) Favors early succession tree species and deer (game) 4. 4. Increases soil and water temperatures. Increases soil and water temperatures.

Sometimes seed trees or nurse plants leftSometimes seed trees or nurse plants left

Clear CuttingClear Cutting:

Clear CuttingClear Cutting:

Strip CuttingStrip Cutting

1. R1. Reduces erosion compared to clear cuttingeduces erosion compared to clear cutting2. P2. Provides seed sources for establishment, rovides seed sources for establishment,

But strip But strip cutting still cutting still favors early favors early successional successional tree species tree species and edge and edge animals.animals.

Selective CuttingSelective Cutting• FFavors the more shade-tolerant trees like red spruce, avors the more shade-tolerant trees like red spruce,

sugar maple and hemlock because the shade is not sugar maple and hemlock because the shade is not broken.broken.

2.2. Provides a continuing supply of food and cover for Provides a continuing supply of food and cover for wildlife throughout the life of the forest. wildlife throughout the life of the forest.

3.3. An uneven-aged stand is particularly favorable to birdsAn uneven-aged stand is particularly favorable to birds.

Selective CuttingSelective CuttingNeed intensive skilled management to prevent degradation Need intensive skilled management to prevent degradation of the remaining stand (genetically superior trees are likely of the remaining stand (genetically superior trees are likely to be removed).to be removed).

Management and skidding costs are likely to be higher, Management and skidding costs are likely to be higher, road construction and maintenance must be more road construction and maintenance must be more extensive.extensive.

High gradingHigh grading - taking out - taking out the few choice trees for the few choice trees for profit and leaving the rest. profit and leaving the rest. Lowest impact, but Lowest impact, but requires other skidding requires other skidding techniques.techniques.

Land and Food Resources IILand and Food Resources IIChapter 17/18 pt 2Chapter 17/18 pt 2

Review of Logging MethodsReview of Logging Methods

Menominee Forestlands as a Menominee Forestlands as a ModelModel

Menominee tribal people once controlled about 1 million Menominee tribal people once controlled about 1 million acres of land in Northeast Wisconsin and Michigan's acres of land in Northeast Wisconsin and Michigan's Upper Peninsula; treaties in the 1850s confined the tribe Upper Peninsula; treaties in the 1850s confined the tribe to their current Reservation lands, totaling 235,000 acres. to their current Reservation lands, totaling 235,000 acres.

Longest running operation for sustained-yield forestry in the nation. Densest, most diverse forests in Great Lakes.

Menominee Forestlands as a Menominee Forestlands as a ModelModel

Tribe recognized that their future depended on the Tribe recognized that their future depended on the forest and embarked on a course of sustained yield forest and embarked on a course of sustained yield management to avoid forest exploitation and preserve management to avoid forest exploitation and preserve Tribal existence. Tribal existence.

In order to survive off of their limited land base, the In order to survive off of their limited land base, the Tribe decided that it must harvest timber, but must Tribe decided that it must harvest timber, but must maintain and perpetuate the forest resources for future maintain and perpetuate the forest resources for future generations. generations.

Menominee Forestlands as a Menominee Forestlands as a ModelModel

Long-term yields: 1. Maintain the mix of hardwoods (sugar maple, beech, hemlock, basswood).2. Mimicking fire-succession.3. Cutting the worst first.

The basic concept used was to harvest timber from one The basic concept used was to harvest timber from one end of the reservation to the other in such a manner that end of the reservation to the other in such a manner that when done, the first areas cut would be ready for cutting when done, the first areas cut would be ready for cutting again. again.

Menominee Forestlands as a ModelMenominee Forestlands as a ModelTribe considers itself a part of the ecosystem and the Tribe's survival depends on managing and protecting the forest ecosystem. The Tribe's land ethic and management philosophy contain the 3 components of a sustainable system.

1. It must be sustainable for future generations. Must cut trees across the Reservation at a rate that there will always be timber ready to cut.

2. The forest must be cared for properly to provide for the needs of people. Must conserve the productive capacity of the land in order to sustain the Tribe's economy.

3. Keep all the pieces of the forest. Must maintain diversity.

U.S. Forest Service (USFS)U.S. Forest Service (USFS)

USFS supplies cheap logs to the nations timber industry.USFS supplies cheap logs to the nations timber industry.

Charges for timber sales have not been enough to repay Charges for timber sales have not been enough to repay management costs, cleanup of logging debris, and management costs, cleanup of logging debris, and replanting of forests. replanting of forests.

In 1997, the net loss on U.S. Forest Service timber sales In 1997, the net loss on U.S. Forest Service timber sales was $1.2 billion. (This estimate includes road-building was $1.2 billion. (This estimate includes road-building costs.) costs.)

Of 104 National Forests, 83 lost money on timber sales.Of 104 National Forests, 83 lost money on timber sales.

U.S. Forest Service (USFS)U.S. Forest Service (USFS)

In the past 40 years, USFS has made 340,000 miles of roads In the past 40 years, USFS has made 340,000 miles of roads ((10 times the interstate highway system10 times the interstate highway system). ).

Value of Road-less Areas:Value of Road-less Areas: 1. Supply clean drinking water1. Supply clean drinking water2. Decreases habitat fragmentation (lynx, wolverines, and 2. Decreases habitat fragmentation (lynx, wolverines, and

marten, pygmy owls, trillium).marten, pygmy owls, trillium).3. Provide habitat that is 3. Provide habitat that is resistant to invasion resistant to invasion by exotic by exotic

species.species.4. Provides 4. Provides unique recreationalunique recreational opportunities opportunities.

National National Protected Protected

AreasAreas

Butterfly Butterfly HabitatsHabitats

Butterfly Butterfly HabitatsHabitats

Pacific Pacific Northwest - Northwest - Temperate Temperate RainforestRainforest

Include Redwoods, Red Cedar, Include Redwoods, Red Cedar, Douglas fir, Hemlock, and Sitka Douglas fir, Hemlock, and Sitka spruce. spruce.

Forests are complex and diverse. Forests are complex and diverse. Vaux’s swiftVaux’s swift and and marbled marbled murreletmurrelet live nowhere else. Now, live nowhere else. Now, less than 10% of the forest less than 10% of the forest remains, with 80% scheduled to remains, with 80% scheduled to be cut. be cut.

In 1989 environmentalists sued, using the Endangered In 1989 environmentalists sued, using the Endangered Species Act and the Species Act and the Spotted OwlSpotted Owl as their defense. as their defense.

150,000 people150,000 people in Pacific Northwest are employed because in Pacific Northwest are employed because of forest products. of forest products.

Logging jobs are disappearing (recreation jobs may provide Logging jobs are disappearing (recreation jobs may provide more jobs). Loss mainly due to mechanization, shipping of more jobs). Loss mainly due to mechanization, shipping of raw lumber to Japan mill, and harvested of raw lumber to Japan mill, and harvested of 90%90% of forests. of forests.

WetlandsWetlandsWetlands are Wetlands are transitional areas transitional areas between terrestrial between terrestrial and aquatic and aquatic ecosystems.ecosystems.

Wetlands provide not Wetlands provide not only habitat for only habitat for wildlife but also aid wildlife but also aid in the recharging of in the recharging of the groundwater and the groundwater and reducing the effects reducing the effects of changes in river of changes in river level by providing level by providing flood zones.flood zones.

Wetlands and ForestsWetlands and Forests

Wetlands - EconomicsWetlands - Economics

Wetlands are important from an economic standpoint. Wetlands are important from an economic standpoint. It is estimated that the bottomland hardwood and It is estimated that the bottomland hardwood and cypress swamps of the Southeastern part of the United cypress swamps of the Southeastern part of the United States are worth over $8 billion. States are worth over $8 billion.

Waterfowl hunters spend over $600 million annually Waterfowl hunters spend over $600 million annually in pursuit of wetland-dependent birds, with a large in pursuit of wetland-dependent birds, with a large percentage of this money going directly to wetland percentage of this money going directly to wetland habitat protection.habitat protection.

Wetlands – Flood ControlWetlands – Flood Control

Wetlands play an important role in flood control. It is Wetlands play an important role in flood control. It is estimated that storm and flood damage exceeds $1 estimated that storm and flood damage exceeds $1 billion annually in the United States. Wetlands billion annually in the United States. Wetlands intercept storm waters, thereby moderating sharp intercept storm waters, thereby moderating sharp runoff peaks to slower discharges over longer periods runoff peaks to slower discharges over longer periods of time. Wetland vegetation serves to stabilize of time. Wetland vegetation serves to stabilize landforms and protect development. landforms and protect development.

Wetlands – Water QualityWetlands – Water Quality

Wetlands have been shown to remove organic and Wetlands have been shown to remove organic and inorganic nutrients and toxic materials from the water inorganic nutrients and toxic materials from the water that flows across them.that flows across them.

Wetlands remove sediments, and remove or filter Wetlands remove sediments, and remove or filter excess nutrients. These wetlands improve water excess nutrients. These wetlands improve water quality just as a water treatment plant costing millions quality just as a water treatment plant costing millions of dollars to build.of dollars to build.

Wetlands - DestructionWetlands - DestructionWetlands are most endangered by agriculture, fossil fuel Wetlands are most endangered by agriculture, fossil fuel exploration and exploitation, construction of energy exploration and exploitation, construction of energy projects (e.g., dams), and development.projects (e.g., dams), and development.

Wetlands are Wetlands are shrinking in the shrinking in the USA at about USA at about 117,000 acres per 117,000 acres per year.year.

About 75% of About 75% of remaining USA remaining USA wetlands in private wetlands in private ownership.ownership.

How is Land Distributed How is Land Distributed Globally?Globally?

Not that long ago, Not that long ago, natural areas were natural areas were considered essentially considered essentially limitless. Now, limitless. Now, emphasis is on emphasis is on preservation of natural preservation of natural areas. How much of areas. How much of that 37% is enough?that 37% is enough?

What Is To Be Done?What Is To Be Done?

1.1. Encourage reassessment of taxes on private Encourage reassessment of taxes on private agricultural land near urban centers.agricultural land near urban centers.

2.2. Require thorough public review and planning of Require thorough public review and planning of land use. Review procedures of long-standing.land use. Review procedures of long-standing.

3.3. Balance interests in management of Federal lands.Balance interests in management of Federal lands.Wise-use movementWise-use movementEnvironmental movementEnvironmental movement

Food Crops and BiodiversityFood Crops and Biodiversity

Human beings have used about five thousand species of plants as food, but only 150 or so have entered world commerce.

Fifteen crops provide most of the world's food, and three crops - wheat, rice, and maize - account for roughly 60 percent of the calories and 56 percent of the protein that humans consume directly from plants.

Food Crops and BiodiversityFood Crops and Biodiversity

Forty percent of an estimated 2,300 species of cultivated Forty percent of an estimated 2,300 species of cultivated plants belong to just four families: Graminae (grasses), plants belong to just four families: Graminae (grasses), Leguminosae (legumes), Rosaceae (apples, pear, etc.), and Leguminosae (legumes), Rosaceae (apples, pear, etc.), and Solanaceae (potatoes).Solanaceae (potatoes).

The grass family - including The grass family - including such crops as wheat, rice, such crops as wheat, rice, maize, barley, sorghum, maize, barley, sorghum, millet, oats, and rye - provides millet, oats, and rye - provides some 80 percent of calories some 80 percent of calories consumed by humans.consumed by humans.

Origins of Major Food CropsOrigins of Major Food Crops

Many of the major food crops originated in regions that Many of the major food crops originated in regions that are not particularly species rich. Crops were are not particularly species rich. Crops were domesticated in warm temperate and subtropical zones domesticated in warm temperate and subtropical zones and in tropical mountainous regions. and in tropical mountainous regions.

Wheat and barley were first grown in the steppes and Wheat and barley were first grown in the steppes and woodlands of southwestern Asia, and the origin of maize woodlands of southwestern Asia, and the origin of maize has been traced to the seasonally dry central highlands of has been traced to the seasonally dry central highlands of Mexico. The highlands of Peru contributed the tomato Mexico. The highlands of Peru contributed the tomato and potato (though the tomato was probably first and potato (though the tomato was probably first cultivated in Mexico). cultivated in Mexico).

Origins of Major Food CropsOrigins of Major Food Crops

Most important food crops appear to have originated Most important food crops appear to have originated where seasons are pronounced. In part this is due to the where seasons are pronounced. In part this is due to the tendency of plants in seasonal environments to store tendency of plants in seasonal environments to store nutrients during the growing season. Often, these nutrients during the growing season. Often, these reserves are what human eat. reserves are what human eat.

Much of the Much of the world's world's agriculture is agriculture is based on based on introduced introduced crops.crops.

Origins of Major Food CropsOrigins of Major Food Crops

In developing countries in the Americas, only 32 percent In developing countries in the Americas, only 32 percent of production is of crops of American origin.of production is of crops of American origin.

The comparable figure for African developing countries The comparable figure for African developing countries is 30 percent of crop production is native plants. is 30 percent of crop production is native plants.

Only in Asian developing countries is most production - Only in Asian developing countries is most production - 70 percent - by native species. 70 percent - by native species.

Origins of Major Food CropsOrigins of Major Food Crops

Dependence on introduced species reaches its extreme in Dependence on introduced species reaches its extreme in Australia, the Mediterranean, northern Europe, northern Australia, the Mediterranean, northern Europe, northern Asia, and the United States and Canada. In these Asia, and the United States and Canada. In these regions, more than 90 percent of production is derived regions, more than 90 percent of production is derived from introduced species. None of the world's fifteen from introduced species. None of the world's fifteen most important food crops are native to Australia or to most important food crops are native to Australia or to North America north of Mexico.North America north of Mexico.

World Food IssuesWorld Food Issues

Amounts (famine)Amounts (famine)

DistributionDistribution

PovertyPoverty

Types of food available (malnourishment Types of food available (malnourishment compared to undernourishment)compared to undernourishment)

Grain Grain ProductionProduction

Conclusion – at the Conclusion – at the moment supply moment supply keeping up with keeping up with population growth.population growth.

World World Production Production

Major Major Food Food CropsCrops

Regional Differences in Food Regional Differences in Food ProductionProduction

Regional Differences in Food Regional Differences in Food AvailabilityAvailability

Distribution of FoodDistribution of Food

Most of the 183 countries of the world are now to some Most of the 183 countries of the world are now to some degree dependent on food imports. These imports come degree dependent on food imports. These imports come from cereal surpluses produced in only a few countries from cereal surpluses produced in only a few countries that have a relatively low population density and intensive that have a relatively low population density and intensive agriculture. agriculture.

For instance, in the period 1989-1991, the United States, For instance, in the period 1989-1991, the United States, Canada, Australia and Argentina provided about 81% of Canada, Australia and Argentina provided about 81% of net cereal export on the world marketnet cereal export on the world market

Differences in Food UsageDifferences in Food Usage

Rice, which has origins in either India or China, is the Rice, which has origins in either India or China, is the eighth most important crop in the developed world (by eighth most important crop in the developed world (by weight). weight).

However, rice is by However, rice is by a factor of two the a factor of two the leading crop in the leading crop in the developing world, developing world, and it is the most and it is the most important source of important source of calories in tropical calories in tropical developing developing countries.countries.

Cassava is a high-Cassava is a high-yield, starchy, low yield, starchy, low protein (<1%) protein (<1%) staple.staple.

Similarly to rice, cassava (manioc) - native to tropical Similarly to rice, cassava (manioc) - native to tropical America - is not grown in developed countries but is the America - is not grown in developed countries but is the fourth most important crop in the developing world (by fourth most important crop in the developing world (by weight) and provides more than half of the caloric weight) and provides more than half of the caloric requirements for over 420 million people in 26 tropical requirements for over 420 million people in 26 tropical countries. countries.

Differences in Food UsageDifferences in Food Usage

Food Resources - FiguresFood Resources - Figures

Over the past 20 years World food production has Over the past 20 years World food production has increased by 2.1% per year. increased by 2.1% per year.

There is enough food globally to give everyone 2,700 There is enough food globally to give everyone 2,700 calories per day. The minimum requirement is 2,100 calories per day. The minimum requirement is 2,100 calories per day and malnourishment is considered to calories per day and malnourishment is considered to be anything lower than 1,800 calories per day.be anything lower than 1,800 calories per day.

In the developing countries of the world one in five In the developing countries of the world one in five people do not have enough food to meet their daily people do not have enough food to meet their daily requirements.requirements.

Take Home MessageTake Home Message

One person dies each and every One person dies each and every second from starvation and its related second from starvation and its related diseases. Three-quarters of those are diseases. Three-quarters of those are children under the age of five. Three children under the age of five. Three children died in the time it took you children died in the time it took you to read this short paragraph.to read this short paragraph.

Global food production outstrips the population!!!!!Global food production outstrips the population!!!!!

Yet, 800 million people are malnourished!!!!!Yet, 800 million people are malnourished!!!!!

Number of Undernourished Number of Undernourished People (1969-1997)People (1969-1997)

Undernourished people (millions)Undernourished people (millions)

1969-711969-71 1979-811979-81 1990-92 1995-971995-97

Sub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan Africa 8989 126126 164164 180180

Near East & North AfricaNear East & North Africa 4545 2222 2626 3333

East & South-East AsiaEast & South-East Asia 504504 406406 283283 241241

South AsiaSouth Asia 267267 338338 299299 284284

Latin America & CaribbeanLatin America & Caribbean 5454 4646 5959 5353

Industrialized countriesIndustrialized countries n/an/a n/an/a 99 88

Countries in transitionCountries in transition n/an/a n/an/a 2020 2626

TOTALSTOTALS 959959 938938 860860 825825

Source: FAO (1999)Source: FAO (1999)

Distribution of Distribution of MalnourishmentMalnourishment

FarmingFarming

General Types of AgricultureGeneral Types of Agriculture

In highly developed countries the main type of agriculture In highly developed countries the main type of agriculture is is high-input agriculturehigh-input agriculture (i.e., lots of energy, fertilizers, (i.e., lots of energy, fertilizers, pesticides) which produces high yields.pesticides) which produces high yields.

In developing countries In developing countries practice practice subsistence subsistence agricultureagriculture, which does , which does not produce enough not produce enough surplus crops to sell or to surplus crops to sell or to store for later need.store for later need.

USA Grain YieldsUSA Grain Yields

Types of Subsistence Types of Subsistence AgricultureAgriculture

Slash and burn (aka shifting agriculture)Slash and burn (aka shifting agriculture)

Nomadic herding - mainly in the areas of Nomadic herding - mainly in the areas of Northwest Asia, the Middle East, North Africa Northwest Asia, the Middle East, North Africa and the Arctic Tundra. and the Arctic Tundra.

PolyculturePolyculture

Genetic Diversity in Food Genetic Diversity in Food CropsCrops

Genetic diversity can enhance crop production. Several Genetic diversity can enhance crop production. Several varieties can be planted in the same field to minimize crop varieties can be planted in the same field to minimize crop failure, and new varieties can be bred to maximize failure, and new varieties can be bred to maximize production or adapt to adverse or changing conditionsproduction or adapt to adverse or changing conditions

As important as genetic diversity is to increasing yields, it As important as genetic diversity is to increasing yields, it is at least as important in maintaining existing productivity is at least as important in maintaining existing productivity because of factors like coevolution.because of factors like coevolution. Over 400 species of Over 400 species of pests now resist one or more pesticides, and the proportion pests now resist one or more pesticides, and the proportion of U.S. crops lost to insects has approximately doubled - to of U.S. crops lost to insects has approximately doubled - to 13 percent - since the 1940s, even though pesticide use has 13 percent - since the 1940s, even though pesticide use has increased. increased.

History of Plant BreedingHistory of Plant Breeding

An Assyrian relief carving from 870 B.C. showing artificial pollination of date palms.

For several thousand years, For several thousand years, farmers have been altering farmers have been altering the genetic makeup of the the genetic makeup of the crops they grow. Human crops they grow. Human selection for features such as selection for features such as faster growth, larger seeds or faster growth, larger seeds or sweeter fruits has sweeter fruits has dramatically changed dramatically changed domesticated plant species domesticated plant species compared to their wild compared to their wild relatives. relatives.

Genetically Modified (GM) Genetically Modified (GM) CropsCrops

Most new genetic engineering techniques initially Most new genetic engineering techniques initially involve single-gene modifications of species, and in involve single-gene modifications of species, and in many cases such modifications are less useful than the many cases such modifications are less useful than the multiple-gene changes that result from traditional multiple-gene changes that result from traditional breeding programs.breeding programs.

MaizeMaize Maize genetically Maize genetically modified to produce modified to produce 

Bt proteinBt protein

Bt protein kills Bt protein kills the the 

corn borer insectcorn borer insect

BiodiversiBiodiversity of Foodty of Food

Risks of High-Yielding Crop Risks of High-Yielding Crop VarietiesVarieties

Whereas traditional mixed farming systems produce Whereas traditional mixed farming systems produce modest but reliable yields, planting a single modern crop modest but reliable yields, planting a single modern crop variety over a large area can result in high yields but the variety over a large area can result in high yields but the crop may be extremely vulnerable to pests, disease and crop may be extremely vulnerable to pests, disease and severe weather. The results may be substantial loss of severe weather. The results may be substantial loss of yield (e.g., the 1970 loss of more than 15% of corn crop yield (e.g., the 1970 loss of more than 15% of corn crop to a fungus). to a fungus).

Single crop agriculture has a history of producing Single crop agriculture has a history of producing famines when an organism of opportunity destroys that famines when an organism of opportunity destroys that crop.crop.

Loss of Crop DiversityLoss of Crop Diversity

Problems with Genetic Problems with Genetic UniformityUniformity

Genetic diversity provides the variation within Genetic diversity provides the variation within species that allows populations to adapt to changes species that allows populations to adapt to changes in climate and other local environmental conditions.in climate and other local environmental conditions.

Without a constant infusion of new hardy genes Without a constant infusion of new hardy genes into our crop species, pests and diseases could into our crop species, pests and diseases could quickly get out of hand. Already more than 400 quickly get out of hand. Already more than 400 species of crop pests have developed resistance to species of crop pests have developed resistance to one or more of the pesticides used to control them.one or more of the pesticides used to control them.

National Plant Germplasm National Plant Germplasm

System (NPGS)System (NPGS) NPGS is a cooperative effort by public (State and NPGS is a cooperative effort by public (State and Federal) and private organizations to preserve the Federal) and private organizations to preserve the genetic diversity of plants.genetic diversity of plants.

The NPGS acquires, preserves and distributes crop The NPGS acquires, preserves and distributes crop germplasm.germplasm.

There is also a National Animal Germplasm Program There is also a National Animal Germplasm Program under development.under development.

Approximately 99% of the world food Approximately 99% of the world food supply is derived from terrestrial supply is derived from terrestrial ecosystems with the percentage from ecosystems with the percentage from aquatic systems shrinking. aquatic systems shrinking.

The availability of arable land at world The availability of arable land at world level is less than 0.27 ha per capita, lower level is less than 0.27 ha per capita, lower than it has ever been in history, and much than it has ever been in history, and much less than the average of 0.7 ha per capita less than the average of 0.7 ha per capita in the United States. Note that 0.5 ha per in the United States. Note that 0.5 ha per capita has been suggested as the capita has been suggested as the minimum requirement for a diverse diet minimum requirement for a diverse diet of animal and plant food productsof animal and plant food products

Sources of FoodSources of Food

FisheriesFisheries

Basic problem Basic problem with ocean with ocean fisheries is the fisheries is the issue of the issue of the tragedy of the tragedy of the commons. No commons. No single nation single nation may legislate or may legislate or enforce policies.enforce policies.

Fish Farms (Aquaculture)Fish Farms (Aquaculture)

Are fresh water and marine water facilities.Are fresh water and marine water facilities.

Approximately 1/3 of the shrimp consumed globally are Approximately 1/3 of the shrimp consumed globally are from aquaculture sources.from aquaculture sources.

More than 50% of salmon More than 50% of salmon consumed is raised on fish consumed is raised on fish farms.farms.

Fish Farms (Aquaculture)Fish Farms (Aquaculture)

Farmed fish are frequently fed Farmed fish are frequently fed on meal made from wild-caught on meal made from wild-caught fish. In 2000, Goldburg co-fish. In 2000, Goldburg co-authored a paper revealing that authored a paper revealing that 1.9 kilograms of wild fish were 1.9 kilograms of wild fish were on average required to produce on average required to produce every 1 kg of fish farmed in every 1 kg of fish farmed in

1997.1997.

the end