Motivation, Emotion, and Motivation, Emotion, and StressStress

MotivationMotivation

• What are motives?What are motives?o Needs or desires that prompts an Needs or desires that prompts an

individual into action and directs individual into action and directs behaviorbehavior

o Reflects biological or psychosocial needsReflects biological or psychosocial needs

• Stimulus motivesStimulus motiveso Based on needs to interact with Based on needs to interact with

environmentenvironment• CuriosityCuriosity• Intellectual activityIntellectual activity• EntertainmentEntertainment

• Secondary motivesSecondary motiveso Based on group acceptanceBased on group acceptance

• ApprovalApproval• Individual achievementIndividual achievement

MotivationMotivation

MotivationMotivation

• Intrinsic motivationIntrinsic motivationo Internal drives to perform a task for its own Internal drives to perform a task for its own

sakesake• More open to demands of the taskMore open to demands of the task• Individual is more willing/eager to learnIndividual is more willing/eager to learn• Enjoyment of the task often serves as the rewardEnjoyment of the task often serves as the reward

• Extrinsic motivationExtrinsic motivationo Money, good grades, other “external” rewardsMoney, good grades, other “external” rewardso ““Carrot on a stick”Carrot on a stick”o Can produce good outcomes (in the short-term)Can produce good outcomes (in the short-term)

MotivationMotivation

• Physiological motivesPhysiological motiveso Based on the body’s need for survivalBased on the body’s need for survival

• HungerHunger• ThirstThirst• SleepSleep• Pain avoidancePain avoidance

MotivationMotivation

• Many goals/motivations in life are to achieve Many goals/motivations in life are to achieve and maintain (physical, mental, emotional) and maintain (physical, mental, emotional) homeostasishomeostasis

o Approach-approach conflictApproach-approach conflicto Avoidant-avoidant conflict Avoidant-avoidant conflict o Approach-avoidant conflictApproach-avoidant conflict

MotivationMotivation

• Behaviorist perspectiveBehaviorist perspectiveo Drives arise from unfulfilled needsDrives arise from unfulfilled needs

o Drive-reduction theory Drive-reduction theory • We do things in order to satiate our We do things in order to satiate our

needs/reduce drivesneeds/reduce drives

o Behaviors (including motivation) Behaviors (including motivation) governed by stimuli in environmentgoverned by stimuli in environment

Motivation and MaslowMotivation and Maslow

EatingEating• HomeostasisHomeostasis

o State of equilibrium/body’s set-pointState of equilibrium/body’s set-pointo Hypothalamus involved with regulationHypothalamus involved with regulation

• Lateral hypothalamus – “on” switch for eatingLateral hypothalamus – “on” switch for eatingo Stimulation = eating inducedStimulation = eating inducedo Damage/lesions = immediately lose desire to eatDamage/lesions = immediately lose desire to eat

• Ventromedial hypothalamus – “off” switch for Ventromedial hypothalamus – “off” switch for eatingeating

o Stimulation = inhibition of eating (satiety center Stimulation = inhibition of eating (satiety center activated)activated)

o Damage/lesions = leads to overeating, satiety Damage/lesions = leads to overeating, satiety centercenter receives no “off” message receives no “off” message

EatingEating

• What influences hunger?What influences hunger?o Palatability/taste preferences Palatability/taste preferences o Variety – exposure to same/different foodsVariety – exposure to same/different foodso Presence of others – bigger group = eat Presence of others – bigger group = eat

moremore

• Eating disordersEating disorderso Anorexia NervosaAnorexia Nervosao BulimiaBulimiao Orthorexia NervosaOrthorexia Nervosao Pica? Pica?

Sexual MotivationSexual Motivation

• Kinsey Kinsey (1948)(1948)o ““Father of sexology”Father of sexology”

o Explored motives for widely varied Explored motives for widely varied human sex practiceshuman sex practices

o Surveyed 5,000 men and over 6,000 Surveyed 5,000 men and over 6,000 womenwomen

o The Kinsey Report had a profound The Kinsey Report had a profound impact on social awareness of sexuality impact on social awareness of sexuality in the 1950sin the 1950s

Psychosocial MotivationPsychosocial Motivation

• Esteem motivationEsteem motivation o The need to view one’s self in a positive The need to view one’s self in a positive

lightlighto Self-enhancement motivesSelf-enhancement motiveso Self-consistency motivesSelf-consistency motives

• Achievement motivationAchievement motivationo To do well, succeed, avoid failureTo do well, succeed, avoid failureo Take pleasure in completing Take pleasure in completing

difficult/challenging tasksdifficult/challenging taskso Often highly motivated to avoid failureOften highly motivated to avoid failure

EmotionEmotion

• What is emotion?What is emotion?o ““Affect”Affect”o Mood, feeling, preferencesMood, feeling, preferenceso Is this a good definition? Is this a good definition?

EmotionEmotion

• Limbic systemLimbic systemo Plays a role in transferring information into Plays a role in transferring information into

memorymemory

o HippocampusHippocampus – – main location for this main location for this transfer transfer

o AmygdalaAmygdala – strongly implicated in – strongly implicated in attaching emotional attaching emotional significance significance to stimuli/information/eventsto stimuli/information/events

EmotionEmotion

• Cognitive levelCognitive levelo Having conscious sense of emotion (i.e., Having conscious sense of emotion (i.e.,

being afraid)being afraid)

o Emotions are perceived as having some Emotions are perceived as having some level of (un)pleasantness and strengthlevel of (un)pleasantness and strength

o Over 400 words in the English language Over 400 words in the English language refer to emotions refer to emotions

EmotionEmotion

• Physiological levelPhysiological level o Emotions contribute to changes in heart Emotions contribute to changes in heart

rate, blood pressure, etc. (i.e, rate, blood pressure, etc. (i.e, physiological arousal)physiological arousal)

o Some physiological changes too small to Some physiological changes too small to noticenotice

• Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) -Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) - measures measures fluctuations in fluctuations in electrical conductivity of the electrical conductivity of the skin that occur when sweat skin that occur when sweat glands increase glands increase activityactivity

• Polygraph - "lie detector" -Polygraph - "lie detector" - used to measure used to measure subtle variations subtle variations in muscle tension, heart rate, in muscle tension, heart rate, etc.etc.

EmotionEmotion• Behavioral LevelBehavioral Level

o Facial expressions of emotion - smiling, Facial expressions of emotion - smiling, frowning, clenching fists frowning, clenching fists

o ““Facial-feedback” hypothesisFacial-feedback” hypothesis

o Ekman showed photos to people and Ekman showed photos to people and asked them to identify what emotion was asked them to identify what emotion was being expressedbeing expressed

• People from different cultures recognize People from different cultures recognize common facial features common facial features

• 6-7 basic emotions6-7 basic emotions

o Use of facial expression to convey Use of facial expression to convey emotion appears to be innate (Ekman)emotion appears to be innate (Ekman)

Theories of EmotionTheories of Emotion

1) James-Lange theory of emotion1) James-Lange theory of emotion

• Subjective emotions arise from Subjective emotions arise from physiological arousal (emotion is the physiological arousal (emotion is the result of behavior)result of behavior)

• ““I yelled (behavior) which got my I yelled (behavior) which got my adrenaline pumping (physiological arousal) adrenaline pumping (physiological arousal) and this intensified my anger (emotion).”and this intensified my anger (emotion).”

• Therefore, controlling behavior controls Therefore, controlling behavior controls emotions emotions

o Make yourself smile and you will be Make yourself smile and you will be happy!happy!

2) Cannon-Bard theory of emotion2) Cannon-Bard theory of emotion • Emotions and physiological arousal Emotions and physiological arousal

often occur simultaneouslyoften occur simultaneously

• The arousal of one emotion often the The arousal of one emotion often the same as arousal of another emotion same as arousal of another emotion

• People cry when happy or when sad People cry when happy or when sad (same behavior) yet these emotional (same behavior) yet these emotional states are markedly differentstates are markedly different (different (different emotions) emotions)

Theories of EmotionTheories of Emotion

3) Schachter-Singer cognitive theory of 3) Schachter-Singer cognitive theory of emotionemotion

• Two components are necessary to Two components are necessary to experience emotion:experience emotion:

1) physiological arousal1) physiological arousal

2) cognitive labeling of the arousal2) cognitive labeling of the arousal

• We don't automatically know when we are We don't automatically know when we are happy, angry, or jealous - instead we label happy, angry, or jealous - instead we label our emotions by considering situational our emotions by considering situational cuescues

• Labeling depends on social settings and Labeling depends on social settings and cultural normscultural norms

Theories of EmotionTheories of Emotion

Theories of EmotionTheories of Emotion

3) Schachter-Singer cognitive theory of emotion 3) Schachter-Singer cognitive theory of emotion (con’t)(con’t)

• Independent variables:Independent variables:1) Manipulating arousal through injections1) Manipulating arousal through injections

2) Manipulating labeling of emotion by 2) Manipulating labeling of emotion by placing subjectsplacing subjects with confederates who are with confederates who are either “angry” or “happy”either “angry” or “happy”

• Results:Results:o Informed subjects reported no change in emotional Informed subjects reported no change in emotional

statestateo Uninformed subjects happier w/happy confederateUninformed subjects happier w/happy confederateo Uninformed subjects angrier w/angry confederate Uninformed subjects angrier w/angry confederate

EmotionEmotion

• Positive and negative affectPositive and negative affect + affect processed in left frontal lobe+ affect processed in left frontal lobe - affect processed in right frontal lobe- affect processed in right frontal lobe

• High inter-correlation within each typeHigh inter-correlation within each typeo People frequently experiencing one People frequently experiencing one

negative emotion (guilt) also more likely negative emotion (guilt) also more likely to feel others (anxiety, sadness, self-to feel others (anxiety, sadness, self-loathing)loathing)

EmotionEmotion

• AngerAngero ““A short madness” vs. “Making a coward A short madness” vs. “Making a coward

brave” (Virgil)brave” (Virgil)

o Anger can feel unpleasant but can also Anger can feel unpleasant but can also have pleasurable components have pleasurable components

o Anger shown to be an approach-oriented Anger shown to be an approach-oriented emotionemotion

• Anger creates EEG activity in left frontal Anger creates EEG activity in left frontal lobe (location of positive affect?)lobe (location of positive affect?)

EmotionEmotion

• JealousyJealousyo Relationship jealousy Relationship jealousy

• A reaction to a perceived threat (real or A reaction to a perceived threat (real or imagined) to a valued relationship or to its imagined) to a valued relationship or to its quality quality

o ““Normal” vs. “delusional” jealousy Normal” vs. “delusional” jealousy

o Sexual jealousy leading cause of Sexual jealousy leading cause of homicide and assaulthomicide and assault

• This effect is cross-cultural (Daly & Wilson, This effect is cross-cultural (Daly & Wilson, 1988)1988)

EmotionEmotion

• Jealousy (con’t)Jealousy (con’t)o Mate poaching?Mate poaching?

• 62% of men and 40% of women say they've 62% of men and 40% of women say they've attempted to entice another’s mate (“poachers”)attempted to entice another’s mate (“poachers”)

• 47% of men and 32% of women report succumbing 47% of men and 32% of women report succumbing to such advances (“poachees”)to such advances (“poachees”)

• The more sexual equality in a culture, the closer The more sexual equality in a culture, the closer women come to matching men in # of mate women come to matching men in # of mate poaching attempts poaching attempts

• Mate poachers reportedly more open to new Mate poachers reportedly more open to new experiences, highly sexual, more likely to be experiences, highly sexual, more likely to be narcissistic, and prone to feelings of intense narcissistic, and prone to feelings of intense jealousy jealousy

How do crazy people go through How do crazy people go through the forest?the forest?

They use a psychopath!They use a psychopath!

How do crazy people go through How do crazy people go through the forest?the forest?

EmotionEmotion

• Emotion regulationEmotion regulation

o Ability to intensify or maintain positive Ability to intensify or maintain positive affect and affect and practice “mood repair” practice “mood repair” when facing negative affectwhen facing negative affect

o Regulation can take place before/after Regulation can take place before/after emotion occurs emotion occurs

• ReframingReframing• Suppression Suppression

EmotionEmotion

• Emotion regulation (con’t)Emotion regulation (con’t)

o Poor emotional regulation strongly Poor emotional regulation strongly associated with increased reactivity to associated with increased reactivity to stressstress

o Disclosure leads to improved positive Disclosure leads to improved positive affect and better internalization of affect and better internalization of problems (Warner et al., 2006)problems (Warner et al., 2006)

StressStress

• What is stress?What is stress?o The process by which we perceive and The process by which we perceive and

respond to events and environmental respond to events and environmental demandsdemands

Overstimulation + demands for changeOverstimulation + demands for change StressorsStressors

• Holmes-Rahe Life Events Rating ScaleHolmes-Rahe Life Events Rating Scaleo Measures stress related to 43 common life Measures stress related to 43 common life

eventseventso Includes both negative and positive life Includes both negative and positive life

stressors stressors

StressStress

• Physiological effectsPhysiological effectso Impairs ability to focus and commit Impairs ability to focus and commit

information to memoryinformation to memory

o Causes interference with hippocampus Causes interference with hippocampus and prefrontal cortex activityand prefrontal cortex activity

o Chronic stress can lead to permanent Chronic stress can lead to permanent cell death and reduction in cell death and reduction in hippocampus sizehippocampus size

StressStress

• Stress and physical healthStress and physical healtho Headaches, heart disease, stomach Headaches, heart disease, stomach

ulcers, depression, potential vulnerability ulcers, depression, potential vulnerability to cancer(?)to cancer(?)

• PsychoneuroimmunologyPsychoneuroimmunologyo Examines influence of psychosocial Examines influence of psychosocial

factors on functioning of immune systemfactors on functioning of immune systemo Stress decreases body’s capacity to fight Stress decreases body’s capacity to fight

illnessillness

StressStress

• Personality and stressPersonality and stresso Type “A” personality linked with higher Type “A” personality linked with higher

incidence of stress-related heart diseaseincidence of stress-related heart disease

• Optimism shown to be a crucial element Optimism shown to be a crucial element in medical (and mental) recovery studies in medical (and mental) recovery studies

• Pessimism strong predictor of poor Pessimism strong predictor of poor overall health, less positive coping overall health, less positive coping behaviors, and reduced immune behaviors, and reduced immune functioningfunctioning

StressStress

• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)o Classified as an anxiety/stress disorderClassified as an anxiety/stress disordero Delay of onset common (up to six months)Delay of onset common (up to six months)o Enduring traumatic experience can lead Enduring traumatic experience can lead

to:to: a) Recurrent flashback episodes a) Recurrent flashback episodes

b) Exaggerated responses to loud b) Exaggerated responses to loud noises/sudden touchnoises/sudden touch

c) Inability to remember certain aspects of c) Inability to remember certain aspects of the trauma the trauma

d) Feelings of detachmentd) Feelings of detachment

e) Frequent irritability/outbursts of angere) Frequent irritability/outbursts of anger

StressStress

• Psychosomatic disordersPsychosomatic disorderso Real physical symptoms that begin, continue, or Real physical symptoms that begin, continue, or

are made worse by mental or emotional factorsare made worse by mental or emotional factors

o Stress in life literally translates to “a pain in Stress in life literally translates to “a pain in the neck”the neck”

o Demonstrates the influence of the mind over Demonstrates the influence of the mind over the bodythe body

o Symptoms often greatly exacerbated by stressSymptoms often greatly exacerbated by stress• Migraines, asthma, skin rashes/hives, Migraines, asthma, skin rashes/hives,

frequent illness, aches, painfrequent illness, aches, pain

StressStress

• HypochondriaHypochondriao Obsession that real (or imagined) physical Obsession that real (or imagined) physical

symptoms are signs of a serious illness symptoms are signs of a serious illness

o Preoccupation with fears of becoming ill Preoccupation with fears of becoming ill

o Direct correlation between exaggeration Direct correlation between exaggeration of symptoms and reported levels of of symptoms and reported levels of current stresscurrent stress

o Typically chronic – tied to underlying Typically chronic – tied to underlying mood mood disordersdisorders