unit_i transportation

Unit I

Highway Development and History of Roads

History of Transportation Engineering

Humans have migrated by their feet..

Use domesticated animals to carry them and

goods..

Built machines, vehicles and devices to help them

carry more..

Established trade routes..

Well used paths became more and more

permanent..

These paths became first roads..

Maintained the roads and look at ways in which

they can be made easier to travel

FIRST Transportation Engineers..

Transportation

Need for transportation..

Contributes to

Economic

Industrial

Social

Cultural Development

Modes of Transportation

Three Basic Environments

Land

Water

Air

Major Modes of Transportation

Roadways or Highways

Railways

Waterways

Airways

Airways

Fastest of all the modes

Comfortable

Saves lot of time for passenger and goods

transportation

Waterways

Slowest among the four modes

Needs minimum energy to haul unit load

though unit distance

Only possible between sea routes or along

rivers/canals where inland transportation

facilities are available

Railways

Advantageous for movement of goods and

passengers between stations, particularly for

long distances

Railway tracks could serve as arteries for

transportation by land and road system can

form as a feeder system to interior parts and to

the intermediate localities between stations

Energy requirement to haul unit load though

unit distance is only a fraction of that required

by road

Best for goods transfer where facilities available

thth

to6

1

4

1

Roadways

Only mode which could give maximum service to

one and all

Maximum flexibility for travel with reference to

route, direction, time and speed of travel, through

any mode of road vehicle

Only mode which provides door to door service

All the other three modes are dependent on

Roadways mode

Therefore needed to serve as feeder system to

other modes of transport as well as serves as

independent facility of road travel

Branches of Transportation Engineering

Airport Engineering

Harbor Engineering

Railway Engineering

Highway Engineering

Characteristics of Road Transport

Used by various types of road vehicles such as

cars, buses, trucks, two and three wheelers,

bicycles and animal drawn vehicles. Where as

waterways and railways have limited users

Relatively small investment to the government.

Motor vehicles are much cheaper than rail

locomotives, ships and aircrafts.

Construction and maintenance is relatively

cheaper than other modes

Complete freedom to road users

Particularly in short distances, roads save time

Characteristics of Road Transport

Due to the flexibility of the movements for the

road users, it is accident prone.

Speed is directly related to the severity of the

accident. Safety is dependent on the speed.

Air and rail transportation is also not accident

proof. Mass causalities possible and might be

more disastrous than road crashes.

Road transport is the ONLY mode that offers

itself to the whole community alike

Historical Development of Roads

Early Development

Footpaths are the oldest mode of travel

Animals usage

Simple animal drawn vehicles after the invention of wheel

Brought the necessity for hard surface for the wheeled vehicles.

Hard surface from Mesopotamia dates as old as 3500 years

First authentically recorded road: Constructed by Assyrian Empire in 1900 BC


Roman Roads

Roads were constructed on a large scale

One of the earliest constructions techniques

Constructed many roads radiating in many directions from Rome exclusively for military operations

Roads were build of stone blocks of considerable thickness

Appian Way built in 312 BC for over 580 km

Features of Roman Road: Were built straight regardless of gradient

Built after soft soil was removed and hard stratum was reached

Total thickness of 0.75-1.2 m even though loads are very low


Roman Roads Typical Cross Section


Roman Roads Construction Steps

Trench of width of carriage way was dug in straight line by removing loose soil until they reach hard stratum

One or two layers of large foundation stones with lime mortar at the bottom of thickness around 10-20 cm.

Vertical kerb stones were places at the edges

Another layer of lime concrete with large size broken stones laid over bottom layer(s) upto a thickness of 25-

40 cm

Another layer of lime concrete with small size broken stones laid over the above layer upto a thickness of 25-

40 cm

Top layer of dressed large stone blocks.


Tresaguet Construction (1716-1796 AD)

Developed an improved method of construction in 1764 AD

Developed several methods of construction which were considered to be quite meritorious.

Main feature of his proposal : construction thickness of around 30 cm

He considered subgrade drainage condition and drainage of surface water.

Served as Inspector General of Roads in France from 1775-85 and implemented his method in 1775.

During Napoleon regime, major road development in France


Tresaguet Construction Typical Cross Section


Tresaguet Construction Construction Steps

Large stones were embedded at the two edges of the pavement and a layer of large foundation stones were

laid on the edge by hand.

Corners of the heavy foundation stones are hammered and the spaces are filled with smaller stones. Broken

stones were filled upto a thickness of 8 cm and

compacted.

Top wearing course was made up of smaller stones and compacted to a thickness of 5 cm at the edges and

gradually increasing towards the center thereby giving

slope to provide surface drainage.

Shoulders are also provided with cross slope.


Metcalf Construction (1717-1810 AD)

Took charge of road construction in England same time when Tresaguet was working in France.

Was responsible of construction of 290 km of road in the northern region of England.

Metcalf was blind Much of his work is not recorded.


Telford Construction (1757-1834 AD)

Founder of Institute of Civil Engineers in London.

Also believed in using heavy foundation stones above the soil subgrade in order to keep the foundation

firm.

Insisted on providing definite slope for the top surface of the pavement by varying the thickness of

the foundation stones.


Telford Construction Typical Cross Section


Telford Construction Construction Steps

A level subgrade was prepared with design width of 9m

Large foundation stones of thickness 17 to 22 cm were laid with hand with their large face down position to

make them stable. Stones of lesser thickness at the

edge and larger thickness towards the center.

Spaces between the foundation stones were filled with small stones and chipping and properly beaten down.

Central 5.5 m was filled with two layers of angular broken stones to compacted thickness of 10 and 5 cm.


Macadam Construction (1756-1836 AD)

Entirely new method of road construction as compared to the previous methods.

Surveyor General of Roads in England and his new concept of road construction became known by 1827.

First method based on scientific method.

Realized that the stresses due to the wheel load of traffic gets decreased at the lower layers of the

pavement hence no need of heavy stones as the

lowest layer of the pavement.


Macadam Construction (1756-1836 AD)

Modifications: Importance of subgrade drainage and compaction were

recognized and so the subgrade was compacted and prepared to

a slope of 1 in 36.

First person to suggest that heavy foundation stones are not at all required at the bottom layer of the construction

Subgrade being the lowest portion of the pavement should be prepared properly and kept drained so as to carry the load

transmitted through the pavement.

Total thickness was less than the previous methods.


Macadam Construction Typical Cross Section


Macadam Construction Construction Steps

Subgrade is compacted and prepared with a cross slope of 1 in 36 upto a desired width (9 m)

Broken stones of strong variety of less than 5 cm were compacted to a uniform thickness of 10 cm

The second strong stones of less than 3.75 cm was compacted to thickness of 10 cm

Top layer consisted of stones less than 2 cm compacted to a thickness of about 5 cm and finished so that the

cross slope of pavement surface is also 1 in 36.

Highway Development in India

Existence of Roads during Indus Valley Civilization

(Harappa and Mohenjo-daro) as early as 2500 to

3500 BC.

Roads with brick drains on both sides.

Different depths of roads based on different

kinds of traffic.

Punishments for obstructing roads.

Mauryan Rule in the 4th Century AD

Rajpath (Highroads)

Banikpath (Merchant Roads)


In the beginning of 5th Century AD, Emperor

Ashoka improved roads and facilities for travelers

for every 4.8-6.4 km.

Mughal Periods:

Roads were greatly improved

Roads built or maintained, were highly appreciated from foreign visitors.

Roads were built running from North-West to Eastern areas through Gangetic plains, also linking coastal and

central parts.


Roads in 19th Century British developed roads mainly for connecting military and

business centers.

Jayakar Committee and recommendations

(1927) Road development should be made a national interest since the

provincial and local government do not have financial and

technical capacity for road development.

Levy extra tax on petrol from road users to create the road development fund called Central Road Fund

To establish a semi-official ,technical institution to pool technical knowledge, sharing of ideas and to act as an advisory body.

To create a national level institution to carry research , development works and consultation.


Central Road Fund (1st March 1929)

Extra money 2.64 paisa per liter of the petrol, was charged from all the petrol buyer in the country.

This fund was kept separate for the use in the road development in India.

About 20% of the fund was kept to be used for the expenses of the administrative meetings and the

research work of the highways of the national

importance in the country.

The rest of the 80% of the funds were distributed among the provinces at that time, according to their

road users, for the development of the roads by the

state governments.


Indian Roads Congress (1934)

A semi-government organization named, Indian Roads Congress was formed in the year December 1934

The main function of the IRC was to act as a forum for the regular pooling of the technical knowledge

and know how, from the various parts of the country.

IRC performed the various plannings and also it has become the most important agency to provide the

standards and the specifications for the road

construction in the country.

Played an important role in the formulation of three 20-year plans in India.

Published journals, research publications etc.


Motor Vehicle Act (1939)

The increased numbers of vehicle on the Indian roads demanded for the rules and regulations.

The motor vehicle act was passed in 1939, which laid down the rules for the road users and also for the

identity of the vehicles.

Act was appended with several ordinances subsequently.

Revised in 1988

It is still running in the country in almost same way as it was at that time.


Nagpur Road Conference (1943) By GoI upon the initiative of IRC

The first twenty years road network plan (1943-63) was prepared in the meeting of the Chief Engineers from the various parts of the

country at the Nagpur in 1943, (Nagpur road plan)

It was the first ever major planning which contributed a lot for the development of the roads in the country.

It classified the Indian roads according to their location and purpose, and also it laid down a target for a density of road

network of 16 km per 100 sq. Km in the country at the end of the

20 years road network in the year 1963.

After the starting of the 5 years plans in the year 1951, the first two 5 years plans also contributed to the target set by the first 20

years plan of the Nagpur so the density of 16 km per 100 sq. Km

was achieved in the year 1961, 2 years earlier to the target year.


Central Road Research Institute (1950)

The main function of the CRRI is to do the research work for the road construction and to provide the

consultation services for the state government also.

National Highway Act (1956)

An Act to provide for the declaration of certain highways to be national highways and for matters

connected therewith.


2nd 20 Year Road Development Plan 1961-81 Initiated by IRC and finalized in 1959 in a meeting of the Chief

Engineers at Bombay. Hence Known as BOMBAY Road Plan.

Target of 32 km per 100 sq. km area by 1981

Construction of 1600 km of expressways was also included.

Attained 34.8 km per 100 sq. km in 1974

By the end of 1981, road density of 46 km per 100 sq. km


3rd 20 Year Road Development Plan 1981-2001 Prepared by Road Wing of Ministry of Shipping and Transport of

GoI.

Known as Lucknow Road Plan

More concentrated on development of National Highways as the target lengths for NH fell short in both the first and second 20 yr

plans.

Highway Planning

Importance of Highway Planning

Objectives: Plan a road network for safe and efficient operation, but at a

minimum cost. Cost of construction, maintenance and renewal

AND vehicle operation costs are to be considered.

To arrive with a road system and the lengths of different categories of roads, so that they could provide maximum utility

with available resources during that plan.

To fix up date wise priorities for development of each road link based on utility for phasing of road development program.

To plan for future requirements and improvements of roads.

To work out financial system

Classification of Roads Types of Roads

Two major categories based on their usage

during different seasons of the year:

All-weather Roads

Fair-weather Roads

Classification of Roads Types of Roads

Two major categories based on the type of the

carriage way or road pavement:

Paved Roads

Unpaved roads

Classification of Roads

Two major categories based on the type of the

pavement surface provided:

Surface Roads

Un-surfaced roads

Methods of Classification of Roads

Generally classified on the basis of:

Traffic Volume

Load Transported or Tonnage

Location and Function

Nagpur Road Plan Classification

National Highways (NH)

State Highways (SH)

Major District Roads (MDR)

Other District Roads (ODR)

Village Roads (VR)



Main highways that run through length and breadth of the country connecting ports, foreign highways, capitals

of large states, large industrial and tourist centers as

well as roads for strategic movements of defense of

India.

Highways are assigned with respective numbers.


State Highways (SH)

Arterials of the state connecting with NH, district headquarters and important cities.

Mainlines for traffic to and from district roads.

They might carry heavy traffic than some NH

SH and NH have the same design speed and geometric specifications.

Lucknow Road Plan Classification

Primary Network

Expressways


Secondary System

State Highways (SH)

Major District Roads (MDR)

Tertiary system or Rural Network

Other District Roads (ODR)

Village Roads (VR)

Classification of Urban Roads

Road system within urban areas

Classification

Arterials

Sub-arterials

Collector Streets, and

Local Roads

Arterials and Sub-arterials are primarily for

through traffic on a continuous route

Collectors collect traffic from Local roads to

Arterials/Sub-arterials

Road Patterns

Rectangular or block pattern

Radial or star and block pattern

Radial or star and circular pattern

Radial or star and grid pattern

Hexagonal pattern

Minimum travel pattern

Planning Surveys

Highway Planning Phase includes

Assessment of road length requirement for an area (district or state or country)

Preparation of master plan showing the phasing of the plan in annual or 5 year

Studies in Planning Surveys

Economic Studies

Financial Studies

Traffic or Road Use Studies

Engineering Studies

Planning Surveys

Economic Studies Details to be Collected

Population and distribution in each village, town or other localities

Trends of population growth

Agricultural and industrial products area wise

Agricultural and industrial development and future trends

Existing facilities with regard to communications, recreation and education etc.

Per capita income

Planning Surveys

Financial Studies Details to be Collected

Sources of income and estimated revenue from taxation on road transport

Living standards

Resources at local level, toll taxes, vehicle registration and fines.

Future trends on financial aspects

Planning Surveys

Traffic or Road Use Studies Details to be

Collected

Traffic volume in vehicles per day, annual average daily traffic, peak and design hourly traffic volume

Origin and destination studies

Traffic flow patterns

Mass transportation facilities

Accidents, their cost analysis and causes

Future trend and growth in traffic volume and goods traffic.

Planning Surveys

Engineering Studies Details to be Collected

Topographic surveys

Soil surveys

Location and classification of existing roads

Special problems in drainage, construction and maintenance of roads

Highway Planning in India

Nagpur Road Plan

5 different road types (NH, SH, MDR, ODR, VR)

Recommendations regarding road geometric standards of roads, bridge specifications etc.

Calculation of lengths of different types of roads

Two categories


Nagpur Road Plan

First category roads (NH, SH and MDR)

A = Agricultural Area in sq. km

B = Non-agricultural Area in sq. km

N = Number of towns n villages with population 2001-

5000

T = Number of towns n villages with population over

5000

D = Development allowance (15% of RL)

R = Railway line length in km

RDTNBA

kmMDRSHNH

86.1

128)(


Nagpur Road Plan

Second category roads (ODR and VR)

V = Number of villages with population 500 or less

Q = Number of villages with population 501-1000

P = Number of villages with population 1001-2000

S = Number of villages with population 2001-5000

D = Development allowance (15% of RL)

DSPQVkmVRODR 2.36.18.032.0)(


Nagpur Road Plan Salient Features

Responsibility of construction and maintenance Central Government

20 yr plan intended for 1943-63 Add 2 lakh km of surface roads and unsurface roads (bringing

total to 5.32 lakh km @ density of 16km / 100 sq.km. By 1963)

Formula based on Star and Grid pattern of road work

First Category Roads Developed and agricultural area


Bombay Road Plan (1961-81)

Overall road length of 10.57 lakh km by 1981 @ 32 km per 100 sq.km.

Rs. 5200 crores

Five different formulae to calculate lengths of different road types



Formula for NH(km)

A = Developed & Agricultural areas, sq.km

B = Semi-developed area, sq.km

C = Undeveloped area, sq.km

D = Development allowance of 5% of road length

K = Number of towns with > 1,00,000 population

M = Number of towns with 1,00,000-50,000

DMKCBA

832968064



Formula for NH+SH (km)





N = Number of towns with 50,000-20,000 population

P = Number of towns with 20,000-10,000

DPNMKCBA

6.12.112448322420



Formula for NH+SH+MDR (km)





Q = Number of towns with 10,000-5,000 population

R = Number of towns with 5,000-2,000

DRQ

PNMKCBA

4.24.6

6.92.112448

24168



Formula for NH+SH+MDR+ODR (km)





S = Number of towns with 2,000-1,000 population

T = Number of towns with 1,000-500

DTSRQ

PNMKCBA

32.08.048.12

6.92.112448

1632

3

16

3



Formula for NH+SH+MDR+ODR+VR (km)





V = Number of towns with

Highway Alignment

What is Alignment?????

The position or layout of the centerline of the highway on the ground

Horizontal alignment

Vertical Alignment

Necessity for alignment

Increase in construction cost

Increase in maintenance cost

Increase in vehicle operation cost

Increase in accident rate (decrease in safety)

Highway Alignment

Basic requirements for an ideal highway

Alignment

Short

Easy

Safe, and

Economical

Highway Alignment

Factors controlling alignment

Shortest route Straight distance between two stations might not be practical

due to intermediate obstructions and topography

may have step gradients not good for vehicle operation

Short and easy route Might have construction and management issues

Economical aspects Which might be economical in the initial construction cost, need

not be the same in maintenance or in vehicle operation cost.

Short and easiest route for vehicle operation might not be economical

Alignment can hardly ever fulfill all the requirements at the same time; hence judicial choice is made..FACTORS

Highway Alignment

General factors controlling highway alignment

Obligatory points

Traffic

Geometric Design

Economics, and

Other considerations

Additional factors to be considered on Hill Roads

Stability

Drainage

Geometric Standards of Hill Roads, and

Resisting Length

Highway Alignment

Obligatory Points

Control points governing the alignment of highways

Two categories Points through which alignment is to pass

Points through which alignment should not pass

Highway Alignment

Points through which alignment is to pass

May cause alignment to often deviate from shortest or easiest path Mountain Pass

Highway Alignment


May cause alignment to often deviate from shortest or easiest path Bridge Site

Highway Alignment


May cause alignment to often deviate from shortest or easiest path intermediate town.

Highway Alignment

Points through which alignment should not pass

Should be avoided religious places, very costly structures, unsuitable land etc.

Highway Alignment

Traffic

Should suit traffic requirements

O-D studies should be performed and desired lines be drawn showing the trend of traffic flow

Geometric Design

Gradient

Radius of the curve

Absolute minimum sight distance

Planning Surveys???

Economic studies

Financial studies

Traffic studies

Engineering studies

Engineering Surveys for Highway Locations

Before finalizing the highway alignment,

Engineering surveys are to be carried out.

Should be carried in 4 stages

Map study

Reconnaissance

Preliminary surveys

Final location and detailed surveys

Map Study

First stage

Topographic maps possible to suggest likely routes

Several possible alternate routes

Alignment of road based on details on the map: Alignment avoiding valleys, ponds, lakes etc.

Road has to cross a row of hills, possibility of crossing through mountain pass

Approximate location of bridge


Reconnaissance

Second stage

To examine the general character of the area

Field survey

Simple instruments can be carried to collect additional details rapidly (but not accurately)

If area is large, then aerial survey might be done


Preliminary Survey

Third stage

Objectives: To survey various alternate alignments after reconnaissance

To compare the different proposals for good alignment

To estimate quantity of earthwork materials and other construction aspects and to workout the cost of alternate

proposals.

To finalize the best alignment from all considerations


Preliminary Survey conventional methods

Primary Traverse

Topographical features

Levelling work

Drainage studies and hydrological data

Soil surveys

Material survey

Traffic survey

Determination of final centerline


Final Location and Detailed Survey

Once alignment finalized after preliminary survey, the centerline needs to be established in the field

Location centerline on drawing needs to be shifted to the ground.

Transit theodolite

Wooden pegs are driven along the centerline @ 50 m intervals on plain ground or @ 20 m on hilly terrain

Detailed Survey Temporary BM are established at 250 m intervals and at all

drainage and underpass structures

Levelling work GREAT importance

Vertical alignment, earthwork quantities and drainage details


unit_i transportation

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