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Canadian International Model United Nations 2016United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

UNITED NATIONS FRAMEWORK CONVENTION

ON CLIMATE CHANGE

BACKGROUND GUIDE13TH EDITION OF THE CANADIAN INTERNATIONAL

MODEL UNITED NATIONS

United Nations Association in CanadaAssociation canadienne pour les Nations Unies

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A WELCOME FROM THE DAIS

Dear Delegates,

Welcome to the 2016 Canadian International Model United Nations Conference (CANIMUN). We are pleased to introduce you to our committee, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The staff serving on this committee are: Director Derek Orosz, Chair Jessica Powell, and Rapporteur Britanie Bernard. Derek is a graduate student in the Global Governance program at the Balsillie School of International Affairs in Waterloo, Ontario. Jessica is also a student at the Balsillie School, in the International Public Policy program. Britanie Bernard, originally from Poitiers, France, is graduate student in Political Science and International Relations at the University of Ottawa.

The topics under discussion for the UNFCCC are:1. Mitigation and adaptation to climate change 2. Implementation and compliance to the Paris Agreement

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was opened for signature at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro. On 12 June 1992, 154 nations signed the UNFCCC, that upon ratification committed signatories’ governments to reduce atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases with the goal of “preventing dangerous anthropogenic interference with Earth’s climate system.” The twenty-first session of the Conference of the Parties (COP) and the eleventh session of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (CMP) took place from 30 November to 11 December 2015, in Paris, France – this will be the focus of the committee for CANIMUN 2016

This Background Guide is designed with you in mind. We hope you find it helpful in your preparation for CANIMUN 2016. This Guide will serve to introduce you to the topics of discussion for this year’s UNFCCC committee. You are highly encouraged to conduct in-depth research on your countries’ policies. In addition, feel free to use the Bibliography as a stepping stone to further your understanding of these topics.

In preparation for the conference, each delegation will be submitting a position paper. Delegates must submit their position paper by March 2, 2016. For more information about this assignment, please consult the CANIMUN website.

If you have any questions concerning your preparation for the Committee or the Conference itself, feel free to reach out to us at [email protected]. We are more than happy to help. All the best as you prepare for the Conference. We look forward to meeting you in March at CANIMUN 2016. Sincerely,

Derek OroszDirector

Canadian International Model United Nations

March 3 - 6, 2016

Lord Elgin HotelOttawa, Ontario

www.canimun.org

CANIMUN is an initiative of the United Nations Association in Canada

300 - 309 Cooper StreetOttawa, Ontario K2P 0G5

Jessica PowellChair

Britanie BernardRapporteur

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COMMITTEE OVERVIEW

Introduction to Climate Change

Climate change is widely recognized as one of the most significant environmental, social, and economic threats facing the planet. Recent scientific evidence from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Working Group 1 contribution to the Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) concludes that climate change is real and can be substantially attributed to human activities over the past century, such as industrialization, clear cutting of trees, and certain agricultural techniques.1 For example, between 1880 and 2012 the average global temperature has increased by 0.85°C and by the end of the century it is projected to exceed 1.5°C, in all but one scenario.2 The worldwide impacts of climate change are complex and varied, including decreased snow cover, changing patterns of rain and drought, rising temperatures, extreme weather events, changes in physical processes and biological species.3 To address the global causes and consequences of climate change, universal cooperation and coordination in a comprehensive international governance framework is necessary.

Introduction and Committee History

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an intergovernmental treaty established as the central multilateral forum to combat the impact of climate change on humanity and ecosystems.4 The Convention, which sets out an agreed upon framework for dealing with the issue, was negotiated and opened for signature at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro.5 On 12 June 1992, 154 nations signed the UNFCCC, that upon ratification on 21 March 1994, committed signatories’ governments to reduce atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases with the goal under Article 2 of “preventing dangerous anthropogenic interference with Earth’s climate system.”6 The UNFCCC has near universal membership, with 195 countries (+ the EU) currently Party to the Convention.7

1 “Feeling the Heat: Climate Science and the Basis of the Convention,” United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, accessed February 10, 2016, http://unfccc.int/essential_background/the_science/items/6064.php.2 Ibid. 3 Ibid. 4 “Climate – Get the big picture,” United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, accessed February 10, 2016, http://bigpicture.unfccc.int.5 “Introduction to the UNFCCC and Kyoto Protocol,” International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD), accessed February 10, 2016, http://www.iisd.ca/process/climate_atm-fcccintro.html.6 Ibid. 7 “Status of Ratification of the Convention,” United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, accessed February 10, 2016, http://unfccc.int/essential_background/convention/status_of_ratification/items/2631.php.

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Mandate, Functions, and Powers

The UNFCCC does not have a mandate to place binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions and contains no explicit enforcement mechanisms. Its purpose is instead to set out a framework and process for agreeing to specific actions over time, operating as a starting point for further action in the future.8 It establishes a framework of general principles and institutions and sets up a process through which governments regularly discuss climate change action.9

According to the UNFCCC, governments under the auspices of the Convention:

• Gather and share information on GHG emissions, national policies, and best practices

• Cooperate in preparation for taking mitigation measures (actions to reduce the flow of GHG emissions into the atmosphere) and adaptation measures (actions needed to respond to the impacts of climate change)

• Launch national strategies and measures for reducing GHGs and adapting to the expected adverse impacts of climate change, including developing financial and technical support to developing countries10

Critical to the functioning of the UNFCCC is Article 3(1) of the UNFCCC, which states that Parties should “protect the climate system for the benefit of present and future generations of humankind, on the basis of equity and in accordance with their common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities.”11

This fundamentally recognizes the historic contribution of developed countries to climate change as well as their unique capacity to address it. The principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities” maintains a fundamental position in the operation and functioning of the UNFCCC.

Governance, Structure, and Membership

The UNFCCC is composed of various bodies and organizations (see diagram on Page 6).

The Conference of Parties (COP) is the supreme body of the Convention, tasked to “review the implementation of the Convention and any related legal instruments that the Conference of the Parties may adopt, and shall make, within its mandate, the decisions necessary to promote the effective implementation of the Convention.”12 The COP fulfills this task through annual meetings dedicated to stock taking, implementation, and the negotiation of new agreements for future action.

8 “Climate – Get the big picture.”9 Ibid.10 Ibid.11 “United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change,” United Nations, accessed February 10, 2016, http://unfccc.int/files/essential_background/background_publications_htmlpdf/application/pdf/conveng.pdf.12 Ibid.

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The Secretariat has various duties outlined under Article 8 of the UNFCCC, including arranging sessions of the COP, compiling submitted reports, facilitating assistance to developing countries, preparing reports on its activities, and ensuring coordination with other bodies.13 Since 1996, the Secretariat has been headquartered in Bonn, Germany, after accepting an offer to host it by the Parties to the first meeting of the COP in 1995.14

Other bodies include, but are not limited to: the permanent Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA) and the Subsidiary Body for Implementation (SBI), as well as the Adaptation Committee (AC), the Standing Committee on Finance (SCF), the Technology Mechanism, Expert Groups, and financial mechanisms including the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and the Green Climate Fund (GCF).15

13 “United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.”14 “Introduction to the UNFCCC and Kyoto Protocol.”15 “Bodies,” United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, accessed February 10, 2016, http://unfccc.int/bodies/items/6241.php.

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Source: http://unfccc.int/files/inc/graphics/image/png/unfccc_bodies_large.png

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16 “Making those first steps count: An Introduction to the Kyoto Protocol,” United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, accessed February 10, 2016, http://unfccc.int/essential_background/kyoto_protocol/items/6034.php.17 Ibid.18 Ibid.19 Ibid.20 Ibid.21 “Status of Ratification of the Kyoto Protocol,” United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, accessed February 10, 2016, http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/status_of_ratification/items/2613.php.22 “International Emissions Trading,” United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, accessed February 10, 2016, http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/mechanisms/emissions_trading/items/2731.php.23 “Clean Development Mechanism (CDM),” United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, accessed February 10, 2016, http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/mechanisms/clean_development_mechanism/items/2718.php.24 “Joint Implementation (JI),” United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, accessed February 10, 2016, http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/mechanisms/joint_implementation/items/1674.php.25 “Guidelines under Articles 5, 7 and 8: Methodological Issues, Reporting and Review under the Kyoto Protocol,” United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, accessed February 10, 2016, http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/reporting/items/3879.php.

Kyoto Protocol

One of the most significant outcomes of the UNFCCC is the Kyoto Protocol, which was negotiated and adopted on 11 December 1997 at COP3 in Kyoto, Japan.16 Due to its complex ratification process, it did not come into force until 16 February 2005.17 The Kyoto Protocol “operationalizes” the Convention by creating a legal framework to commit industrialized countries to greenhouse gas emissions reductions based on the principles of the UNFCCC, which is aspirational in nature.18

The Kyoto Protocol sets binding emissions reductions targets for 37 developed, or Annex I countries.19 On average, these reductions add up to a 5% reduction in emissions from 1990 levels in the first commitment period, which began in 2008 and ended in 2012. The December 2010 Doha Amendment launched the second commitment period, which began 1 January 2013 and will end in 2020.20 As of February 2016, there are 192 Parties and 83 Signatories to the Kyoto Protocol.21

The Kyoto Protocol only places binding emissions targets on Annex I, and not Annex II developing countries, based on principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities” (outlined above). In addition, Parties can utilize a number of market-based mechanisms which were established by the Protocol. These include emissions trading, which is outlined in Article 17 of the Kyoto Protocol. This enables Parties who are below their emissions targets, or “assigned amount units” (AAUs), to trade them to Parties above their targets, in what is referred to as the “carbon market.”22 Further, The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) under Article 12 of the Protocol, permits industrialized countries to implement an emission reduction project in a developing country, generating certified emission reduction (CER) credits which count towards the overall reduction targets of the industrialized country.23 Joint Implementation (JI) is also established under Article 6 of the Protocol. This allows industrialized countries to earn emission reduction unfits (ERUs) from an emission-reduction project undertaken in another industrialized country which is Party to the Protocol.34

The Kyoto Protocol established rigorous monitoring and compliance mechanisms beyond what were demanded by the UNFCCC. Article 5, 7, and 8 of the Kyoto Protocol deal with reporting and reviewing of information by Annex I countries, demanding Parties submit annual emissions inventories and national reports.25

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There is a also a compliance mechanism in place which ensures transparency as well as facilitation and enforcement of the Party commitments under the Protocol.26 Finally, an Adaptation Fund (AF) was established in 2001 to finance adaptation efforts in developing countries, and is largely financed by the proceeds of the CDM.27

Since the Kyoto Protocol, subsequent COPs have resulted in outcomes including Bali Road Map in 2007, as well as Cancun in 2010, Durban in 2011, Doha in 2012, and Warsaw in 2013. Delegates are encouraged to undertake additional research on these outcomes.28

The Paris Agreement

The most recent annual meeting of the UNFCCC, COP21 in Paris, France concluded in the adoption of the Paris Agreement through Decision 1/CP.21 on 12 December, 2015. The UNFCC states that this agreement represents the latest step in the evolution of the UN climate change regime, building upon work already undertaken and charting a new course for action.29

The Paris Agreement attempts to further simulate the necessary action and investment to achieve a “sustainable low carbon future.”30 Article 2(a) of the Agreement endeavours to hold the global increase in temperature to at least 2°C, while also including the aspirational target of limiting it to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels.31 Article 2(b) stresses the importance of adaptation measures to strengthen the ability of countries to deal with climate change. Article 2(b) highlights the importance of financial flows to mitigation and climate-resilient development strategies.32 Specifically, this involves setting a new goal on the provision of finance from the USD 100 billion floor by 2025 as well as enhancing the capacity building framework through the Initiative for Capacity Building.33 There are also references to increased transparency throughout the Agreement.34

Article 2(2) of the Agreement affirms it is in line with principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities,” considering respective capabilities “in light of different national circumstances” and in attempting to support the most vulnerable countries in addressing the issue of climate change.35

26 “Background (Compliance),” United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, accessed February 10, 2016, http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/compliance/items/3026.php.27 “Adaptation Fund,” United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, accessed February 10, 2016, http://unfccc.int/cooperation_and_support/financial_mechanism/adaptation_fund/items/3659.php.28 “Background on the UNFCCC: The international response to climate change,” United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, accessed February 10, 2016, http://unfccc.int/essential_background/items/6031.php.29 Ibid.30 Ibid.31 “Paris Agreement (as contained in the report of the Conference of the Parties on its twenty-first session, FCCC/CP/2015/10/Add.1),” United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, accessed February 10, 2016, http://unfccc.int/files/home/application/pdf/paris_agreement.pdf.32 Ibid.33 “Background on the UNFCCC: The international response to climate change.”34 “Paris Agreement.”35 Ibid.

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However, the Paris Agreement signals that the interpretation of this principle is subject to change over time with changes in economic development, capacity, and overall emissions.

Mitigation efforts under the Paris Agreement differ from the Kyoto Protocol because emissions reductions targets are voluntary and based on Intended National Determined Contributions (INDCs). In addition to the Ad Hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action (ADP), the COP invited Parties through 1/CP.19 to submit pledges intended to meet the objectives of Article 2 of the Convention in preparation for the adoption of a new protocol or agreement. The Paris Agreement strengthened the need for these INDCs, and each party is expected to submit a pledge based on their differing capacity, as well as report regularly on emissions and implementation efforts.36 These INDCs are submitted every five years in accordance with decision 1/CP.21.37

Broadly, the Agreement covers long-term temperature goals (Article 2), global peaking (Article 4), mitigation (Article 4), sinks and reservoirs (Article 5), markets and non-markets (Article 6), adaptation (Article 7), loss and damage (Article 8), support (Article 9, 10, and 11), transparency (Article 14), and global stocktaking (Article 14).38

The Paris Agreement will be open for signature on 22 April 2016, which is Earth Day, at the UN Headquarters in New York. It will enter into force 30 days after 55 countries that account for 55% of global emissions have completed the ratification process.39 In the mean time, the Ad Hoc Working Group on the Paris Agreement is preparing for its entry into force and the first session of the governing body of the Agreement, the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement (CMA).40

The negotiation of the Paris Agreement should be understood not as end, but as a beginning. As delegates, your primary task is to begin implementation of the recently agreed Paris Agreement. This will require a sustained commitment from the Parties to innovative mitigation and adaptation and financing solutions to address climate change. The science is clear and the framework is in place. Now it is your task to act, understanding that implementation failures will have significant consequences for the ecosystem and humanity.

For greater detail, delegates are encouraged to review the full text of the Paris Agreement at: http://unfccc.int/files/home/application/pdf/paris_agreement.pdf

36 “Climate – Get the big picture.”37 “Paris Agreement.”38 “Climate – Get the big picture.”39 “The Paris Agreement: Next steps,” United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, accessed February 10, 2016, http://unfccc.int/files/meetings/paris_nov_2015/application/pdf/paris_agreement_next_steps_post_adoption.pdf.40 “Climate – Get the big picture.”

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TOPIC A: MITIGATION AND ADAPTION TO THE THREAT OF CLIMATE CHANGE

The UNFCCC has been working towards climate change mitigation and adaptation since its formation in 1992. In 2001, at COP7 in Marrakesh, countries established the Least Developed Countries (LDC) Work Programme, which was meant to develop national climate change mechanisms and build capacity through National Adaptation Programmes of Action. These activities are still ongoing today.41 In 2006, at COP12 in Nairobi, the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA) was mandated, and formed the Nairobi Project: a five-year project to address impacts, vulnerability and adaptation in relation to climate change.42 In 2010, at Cop 16 in Cancun, the Cancun Adaptation Framework (CAF) was formed.43 The CAF targets the implementation of national adaptation plans, work programmes to consider approaches to address loss and and damage, the establishment of an Adaptation Committee (AC) at a global level, as well as regional and national level arrangements and stakeholder engagement.44 Most recently, COP21 in Paris this past year, led to an agreement to combat climate change and unleashed activities and investment towards low carbon and sustainable futures. The agreement will focus on mitigation strategies with an important focus on adaptation opportunities.45

Definitions

Climate Change Mitigation: Mitigation refers to steps taken in efforts to reduce impacts of climate change, by reducing or preventing emissions of greenhouse gases (i.e. fossil fuels for electricity, heat and transport) or improving natural sinks that store the gases (oceans, forests and soils).46 The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change defines climate change mitigation as efforts to “stabilize greenhouse gas levels in a timeframe sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, ensure that food production is not threatened and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner.”47 Mitigation must be anticipatory of what might arise out of climate change and involves using new technologies and renewable energies, innovating old technologies to be more efficient or changing management practices or consumer behavior.48

41 “FOCUS: Adaptation,” United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, accessed February 12, 2016, http://unfccc.int/focus/adaptation/items/6999.php.42 Ibid.43 Ibid.44 Ibid.45 “Historic Paris Agreement on Climate Change: 195 Nations Set Path to Keep Temperature Rise Well Below 2 Degrees Celsius,” UN Climate Change Newsroom, accessed February 12, 2016, http://newsroom.unfccc.int/unfccc-newsroom/finale-cop21/.46 “Responding to Climate Change,” NASA, accessed February 12, 2016, http://climate.nasa.gov/solutions/adaptation-mitigation/.47 Ibid.48 “Climate Change Mitigation,” United Nations Environment Programme, accessed February 12, 2016, http://www.unep.org/climatechange/mitigation/.

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Climate Change Adaptation: Adaptation refers to adjustments in ecological, social or economic systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli and their effects or impacts. It refers to changes in processes, practices, and structures to moderate potential damages or to benefit from opportunities associated with climate change. Adaptation involves reducing our vulnerabilities to the harmful effects of climate change such as rising sea-levels, intense weather events and food insecurity. It also encompasses utilizing the beneficial aspects of climate change such as longer growing seasons in some regions.

Working Towards Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation

Climate change will have significant adverse effects on all of humanity, including threats to water and food security, agricultural production, nutrition, public health, environmental refugees and extreme weather events. Failing to avoid these threats will result in global insecurity, irreparable environmental degradation, conflict over scarce resources, spread of disease, and wide-scale migration. Addressing the impacts of climate change will require a two-step process of both mitigation and adaptation. Even if we reduced greenhouse gas emissions to zero, climate change impacts would still persist, especially as some impacts are already being felt today. Although many climate change experts point to the importance of mitigation strategies, countries must be prepared to adapt to climate change to a certain degree, as this is unavoidable.

As such, countries must begin preparing comprehensive decarbonization strategies in which cover a wide range of policy areas and target all sources of greenhouse gas emissions, including energy, industry, agriculture, forest, fisheries and water systems, transport, coastal zones and other sectors. These strategies should be diverse and transparent and detail which policies are effective to achieve mitigation and adaptation, how strategies will be paid for and how they will be implemented at a local and national level. Adaptation is about more than just accepting the realities of climate change, and instead is about building resilience, reducing vulnerabilities for the poorest populations, utilizing local resources and reducing risks associated with climate change. Least Developed Countries and Small-Island States will be hit the hardest by climate change. As a result, developed countries should work closely alongside these states to provide immediate support in adaptation strategies via financial and technical assistance.

Priority areas for adaptation include the agriculture/forestry/fisheries, water supply, coastal zones, infrastructure and extreme weather. The water supply is of particular importance, where key activities should focus on increasing water supply, water conservation, water demand management, establishing flood and drought management, forecast control, improving watershed management, ensuring long-term integrated water management

51 “Responding to Climate Change.”52 Ibid.53 Ricardo Lagos and Timothy E. Wirth. Facilitating an International Agreement on Climate Change: Adaptation to Climate Change, Global Leadership for Climate Action, June 2009, accessed February 12, 2016, http://www.unfoundation.org/assets/pdf/adaptation_to_climate_change.pdf.54 Ibid.55 Ibid.56 Ibid.

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with land use and improving water monitoring.57 Delegates should consider what technologies are needed for water supply management and how to integrate regional, national and local level water supply priorities. For example, see the 2015 UN report titled “Water in the World We Want,” which suggests that water related investments will be necessary in the future to prevent resource conflict, economic instability, disrupted climate patterns, and other unforeseen consequences.58

Effective mitigation and adaptation strategies will also require comprehensive engagement with a range of stakeholders including multilateral, international, regional, and national organizations, public and private sectors, and civil society.59 The Nairobi Work Programme (NWP), established in 2006 at COP12, provides one example of a platform for stakeholders and a range of organizations to collaborate on adaptation strategies in various sectors, levels and regions, and to build and manage knowledge.60

Delegates should therefore research and consider both domestic and international technological and policy options to address mitigation and adaptation demands under the Paris Agreement. Consideration must also be given to innovative partnerships and initiatives as well as technology transfer.

Guiding questions for this topic include:

1. What literature surrounds mitigation and adaptation policy internationally and in your country? 2. How will your country plan to build resilience and reduce vulnerabilities? 3. How will your country finance adaptation strategies? 4. How will your country engage stakeholders at every level?

57 “Priorities for Mitigation and Adaptation as Reported by Developing Countries Under the Convention,” United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, accessed February 12, 2016, https://unfccc.int/files/cooperation_and_support/financial_mechanism/application/pdf/priorities_for_mitigation_and_adaptation_as_reported_by_developing_countries_under_the_convention.pdf.58 “World Must Achieve International Water Goals to Preempt Looming Conflicts Born of Desperation,” United Nations University, accessed February 12, 2016, http://inweh.unu.edu/invest-water-prevent-conflict-new-report/.59 “Climate – Get the big picture.” 60 Ibid.

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TOPIC B: FACILITATING IMPLEMENTATION AND COMPLIANCE OF THE PARIS AGREEMENT

Introduction

Following the unprecedented commitment among states established by the Paris Agreement, it is the task of the Parties to facilitate its implementation and ensure compliance. It is widely recognized that doing so will require not only sustained symbolic commitment, but also concrete action and policy implementation at both the domestic and national level. Once adaptation and mitigation strategies are established, their implementation will no doubt be financially demanding. Keeping in mind the foundational principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities,” developed states will have to take a leading role in financing and assisting in capacity building and resiliency in developing countries, as per Article 9(1) of the Paris Agreement.

Climate Finance

One fundamental consideration for the implementation of major agreements and policies of the Convention is the flow of finances for climate change related action. Climate finance refers to “local, national or transnational financing, which may come from public, private and alternative sources of financing.”61 The UNFCCC suggests it is necessary because large-scale investment are required to reduce emissions, for example in sectors that currently emit large quantities of greenhouse gasses.62 It is also critical to facilitate the financing of adaptation measures.

The role of climate finance is recognized in the Paris Agreement under Article 2(1) as well as Article 9(1), which states that “as part of a global effort, developed country Parties should continue to take the lead in mobilizing climate finance from a wide variety of sources, instruments and channels, noting the significant role of public funds, through a variety of actions, including supporting country-driven strategies, and taking into account the needs and priorities of developing country Parties.”63

Under Article 11 of the Convention, the mechanism for the flow of financial resources should be accountable to the COP, “which shall decide on its policies, programme priorities and eligibility criteria related to this Convention.”64 While it is clearly states that the financial mechanisms “shall be entrusted to one or more existing international entities,” the primary body trusted by the UNFCCC, among other organizations, with managing these flows is the Global Environment Facility (GEF). Established in 1992 at UNCED along with the UNFCCC, the GEF has since provided $14.5 billion in grants and mobilized $75.4 billion in additional financing for almost 4000 projects.65

61 “FOCUS: Climate Finance,” United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, accessed February 15, 2016, http://unfccc.int/focus/climate_finance/items/7001.php#intro.62 Ibid.63 “Paris Agreement.”64 “United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.”65 “What is the GEF,” Global Environment Facility, accessed February 15, 2016, https://www.thegef.org/gef/whatisgef.

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Another critical mechanism for climate finance is the Green Climate Fund (GCF), which was established at COP16 in Cancun in 2010 through decision 1/CP.16 as an entity of the Financial Mechanism of Article 11 of the Convention.66 The CGF serves a similar function to the GEF, namely to “make significant and ambitious contributions to global efforts towards achieving the goals set by the international community to combat climate change and, in the context of sustainable development, to promote the paradigm shift towards low-emission and climate-resilient development pathway,”67 through the provision of finance for projects, programmes, policies, and other activities in developing countries.68

The difference however, is in the extent of the financing. Whereas the GEF countries have pledged $4.43 billion to the “GEF-6” cycle of 2014-2018,69 developed states have agreed to “jointly mobilize USD 100 billion per year by 2020,” part of which would flow into the GCF.70 If this target is met, it provides an exceptional opportunity for the financing of the significant adaptation and mitigation strategies necessary to achieve the goals of the Paris Agreement. Delegates are urged to recognize that only part of this $100 billion goal is run directly through the GCF, and there are a diversity of other funding forums including multilateral or regional organizations, direct government contributions, and bilateral institutions such as development agencies.71

Despite these ambitious targets, and the recognition in Article 9(3) of the Paris Agreement that “mobilization of climate finance should represent a progression beyond previous efforts,” early indications suggest that the concrete financial flows through the GCF remain far below target. As of February 2016, the GCF has raised 10.2 billion in pledges from 42 governments, a fraction of the goal set for 2020.72 The nature of this money is also a source of contention, specifically regarding whether it should be given in the form of a grant or a loan, and also whether to ‘on the ground’ resources and projects or more lucrative renewable energy deals which may have less direct impact.73

One of the most critical functions of this committee is for delegates to provide not only more ambitious financial contributions in line with individual state capacity, but also a realistic and concrete time frame in which to achieve this pledge. However, in doing so, delegates should carefully consider what percentage should come from member countries, private sources, or other alternative sources and what the specific purpose the financing should be mobilized towards.

66 “Green Climate Fund,” United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, accessed February 15, 2016, http://unfccc.int/cooperation_and_support/financial_mechanism/green_climate_fund/items/5869.php.67 “An overview of the mandates, as well as the progress of work under institutions, mechanisms and arrangements under the Convention: Note by the secretariat,” United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, accessed February 15, 2016, http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2013/adp2/eng/inf02.pdf.68 “Green Climate Fund.”69 “GEF Replenishment,” Global Environment Facility, accessed February 15, 2016, https://www.thegef.org/gef/GEF_Replenishment.70 “Pledge Tracker,” Green Climate Fund, accessed February 15, 2016, http://www.greenclimate.fund/contributions/pledge-tracker.71 “One hundred billion dollars,” United Nations conference on climate change (COP21/CMP11), accessed February 15, 2016, http://www.cop21.gouv.fr/en/one-hundred-billion-dollars/.72 “Pledge Tracker.”73 Eduardo Porter, “Getting to $100 Billion in Climate Change Aid,” New York Times, February 15, 2016, accessed February 28, 2010, http://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/30/business/getting-to-100-billion-in-climate-change-aid.html?_r=1.

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Carbon Pricing

As mentioned previously, the Article 17 of the Kyoto Protocol specifically allows International Emissions Trading (IET).74 However, cap and trade only covers 9% of global GHG emissions and 40% of global GDP.75 The Paris Agreement is far vaguer in its outlining of the use of market-based mechanisms for mitigation. Article 6(2) outlines that “Parties shall, where engaging on a voluntary basis in cooperative approaches that involve the use of internationally transferred mitigation outcomes towards nationally determined contributions, promote sustainable development and ensure environmental integrity and transparency, including in governance, and shall apply robust accounting to ensure, inter alia, the avoidance of double counting.”76 Despite this rather vague language and lack of elaboration, almost half of INDCs indicated support for utilizing international carbon markets to reach their pledges, and there are already many sub-national and domestic carbon markets either intended or already in place.77

Carbon pricing in the form of international and domestic markets for cap and trade is therefore allowed by the Paris Agreement and supported by many Parties. However, the many forms that this may take have yet to be comprehensively outlined. Delegates are therefore encouraged to research innovative finance strategies though carbon pricing including cap and trade and other strategies such as a financial transaction tax or a carbon tax. Further, consideration should be give to the past effectiveness of these market-based mechanism and their potential viability in the future.

Monitoring and Compliance

The mechanism for the implementation and promotion of compliance with the Paris Agreement is found within Article 15. According to Article 15(2), the mechanism will consist of “committee that shall be expert-based and facilitative in nature and function in a manner that is transparent, non-adversarial and non-punitive. The committee shall pay particular attention to the respective national capabilities and circumstances of Parties.”78 It has been recognized that monitoring, reporting, and verification generate trust and allow for information sharing and transparency in climate change strategies and action.79 Given that the Paris Agreement in non-binding in nature and there are a lack of enforcement mechanisms, delegates must consider alternative compliance strategies and incentives to ensure sustained and increasing commitments over time.

74 “An overview of the mandates, as well as the progress of work under institutions, mechanisms and arrangements under the Convention: Note by the secretariat,” pg 26.75 “Report: Paris Agreement sends ‘positive signal’ for carbon markets,” Business Green, accessed February 15, 2016, http://www.businessgreen.com/bg/analysis/2448485/report-paris-agreement-sends-positive-signal-for-carbon-markets.76 “Paris Agreement.”77 Marissa Santikarn, Alexander Eden, Lina Li, William Acworth, Iurii Banshchikov, Aki Kachi, Martina Kehrer, Kateryna Stelmakh, Charlotte Unger, Kristian Wilkening, and Constanze Haug. Emissions Trading Worldwide: Status Report 2016. International Carbon Action Partnership (ICAP), Berlin, 2016. https://icapcarbonaction.com/images/StatusReport2016/ICAP_Status_Report_2016_Online.pdf.78 “Paris Agreement.”79 Romain Morel and Igor Shishlov. Ex-Post Evaluation of The Kyoto Protocol: Four Key Lessons for The 2015 Paris Agreement. Climate Report, May 2014. http://www.cdcclimat.com/IMG/pdf/14-05_climate_report_no44_-_analysis_of_the_kp-2.pdf

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Guiding questions for this topic include:

1. What is your country’s financial capability for contributions and what have they pledged before and/or after COP21?

2. What are potential strategies for raising public, private, or other alternative funds for climate related projects in developing countries? What other innovative financing strategies have been discussed so far?

3. How will your country establish incentives domestically for private actors to contribute to financing climate related projects in developing countries?

4. How will your country engage stakeholders and ensure funding goes directly to impactful projects in developed countries and small island states?

5. Is a global carbon pricing system possible and if so what would be its key features?6. Can, and should, an international emissions trading systems be concretely established? If so, how can local,

sub-national, and national emissions trading systems be linked to this global system?7. How can monitoring and compliance mechanisms of the Paris Agreement be strengthened to prevent

freeriding and backsliding on INDCs and other voluntary pledges?

For further research, delegates are strongly encouraged utilize the UNFCCC interactive e-handbook (http://bigpicture.unfccc.int) as a comprehensive research tool on global climate governance up to, and including, the Paris Agreement.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Committee Overview

International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD). “Introduction to the UNFCCC and Kyoto Protocol.” Accessed February 10, 2016. http://www.iisd.ca/process/climate_atm-fcccintro.html.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. “Adaptation Fund.” Accessed February 10, 2016. http://unfccc.int/cooperation_and_support/financial_mechanism/adaptation_fund/items/3659.php.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. “Background (Compliance).” Accessed February 10, 2016. http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/compliance/items/3026.php.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. “Background on the UNFCCC: The international response to climate change.” Accessed February 10, 2016. http://unfccc.int/essential_background/items/6031.php.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. “Bodies.” Accessed February 10, 2016. http://unfccc.int/bodies/items/6241.php.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. “Clean Development Mechanism (CDM).” Accessed February 10, 2016.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. “Climate – Get the big picture.” Accessed February 10, 2016. http://bigpicture.unfccc.int.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. “Feeling the Heat: Climate Science and the Basis of the Convention.” Accessed February 10, 2016. http://unfccc.int/essential_background/the_science/items/6064.php.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. “Guidelines under Articles 5, 7 and 8: Methodological Issues, Reporting and Review under the Kyoto Protocol.” Accessed February 10, 2016. http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/reporting/items/3879.php.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. “International Emissions Trading.” Accessed February 10, 2016. http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/mechanisms/emissions_trading/items/2731.php.

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United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. “Joint Implementation (JI).” Accessed February 10, 2016. http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/mechanisms/joint_implementation/items/1674.php.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. “Making those first steps count: An Introduction to the Kyoto Protocol.” Accessed February 10, 2016. http://unfccc.int/essential_background/kyoto_protocol/items/6034.php.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. “Paris Agreement (as contained in the report of the Conference of the Parties on its twenty-first session, FCCC/CP/2015/10/Add.1).” Accessed February 10, 2016. http://unfccc.int/files/home/application/pdf/paris_agreement.pdf.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. “The Paris Agreement: Next steps.” Accessed February 10, 2016. http://unfccc.int/files/meetings/paris_nov_2015/application/pdf/paris_agreement_next_steps_post_adoption.pdf.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. “Status of Ratification of the Convention.” Accessed February 10, 2016. http://unfccc.int/essential_background/convention/status_of_ratification/items/2631.php.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. “Status of Ratification of the Kyoto Protocol.” Accessed February 10, 2016. http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/status_of_ratification/items/2613.php.

United Nations. “United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.” Accessed February 10, 2016. http://unfccc.int/files/essential_background/background_publications_htmlpdf/application/pdf/conveng.pdf.

Topic A

Lagos, Ricardo and Timothy E. Wirth. Facilitating an International Agreement on Climate Change: Adaptation to Climate Change. Global Leadership for Climate Action, June 2009. Accessed February 12, 2016. http://www.unfoundation.org/assets/pdf/adaptation_to_climate_change.pdf.

NASA. “Responding to Climate Change.” Accessed February 12, 2016. http://climate.nasa.gov/solutions/adaptation-mitigation/.

UN Climate Change Newsroom. “Historic Paris Agreement on Climate Change: 195 Nations Set Path to Keep Temperature Rise Well Below 2 Degrees Celsius.” Accessed February 12, 2016. http://newsroom.unfccc.int/unfccc-newsroom/finale-cop21/.

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United Nations Environment Programme. “Climate Change Mitigation.” Accessed February 12, 2016. http://www.unep.org/climatechange/mitigation/.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. “FOCUS: Adaptation.” Accessed February 12, 2016. http://unfccc.int/focus/adaptation/items/6999.php.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. “Priorities for Mitigation and Adaptation as Reported by Developing Countries Under the Convention.” Accessed February 12, 2016. https://unfccc.int/files/cooperation_and_support/financial_mechanism/application/pdf/priorities_for_mitigation_and_adaptation_as_reported_by_developing_countries_under_the_convention.pdf.

United Nations University. “World Must Achieve International Water Goals to Preempt Looming Conflicts Born of Desperation.” Accessed February 12, 2016. http://inweh.unu.edu/invest-water-prevent-conflict-new-report/.

Topic B

Business Green. “Report: Paris Agreement sends ‘positive signal’ for carbon markets.” Accessed February 15, 2016. http://www.businessgreen.com/bg/analysis/2448485/report-paris-agreement-sends-positive-signal-for-carbon-markets.

Global Environment Facility. “GEF Replenishment.” Accessed February 15, 2016. https://www.thegef.org/gef/GEF_Replenishment.

Global Environment Facility. “What is the GEF.” Accessed February 15, 2016. https://www.thegef.org/gef/whatisgef.

Green Climate Fund. “Pledge Tracker.” Accessed February 15, 2016. http://www.greenclimate.fund/contributions/pledge-tracker.

Morel, Romain and Igor Shishlov. Ex-Post Evaluation Of The Kyoto Protocol: Four Key Lessons for The 2015 Paris Agreement. Climate Report, May 2014. http://www.cdcclimat.com/IMG/pdf/14-05_climate_report_no44_-_analysis_of_the_kp-2.pdf.

Porter, Eduardo. “Getting to $100 Billion in Climate Change Aid.” New York Times, February 27, 2010. Accessed February 15, 2016. http://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/30/business/getting-to-100-billion-in-climate-change-aid.html?_r=1.

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United Nations conference on climate change (COP21/CMP11). “One hundred billion dollars.” Accessed February 15, 2016. http://www.cop21.gouv.fr/en/one-hundred-billion-dollars/.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. “An overview of the mandates, as well as the progress of work under institutions, mechanisms and arrangements under the Convention: Note by the secretariat.” Accessed February 15, 2016. http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2013/adp2/eng/inf02.pdf.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. “Green Climate Fund.” Accessed February 15, 2016. http://unfccc.int/cooperation_and_support/financial_mechanism/green_climate_fund/items/5869.php.

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