Presidency College

PAGE 18

Presidency College of Management SciencesBharatpur, Chitwan

Unit I

Introduction to Research and Project Work

1.1Meaning of Research

How does the researcher proceed? Few social scientists have been interested in that problem although every elementary textbook is full of advice regarding what the researcher should do: bring a theory out of his hat, formulate hypothesis in advance, test reliability and validity of his instruments, draw a representative sample, find something useful for his society report his findings so that other researchers can replicate investigation.

The literal meaning of research is investigation or to search again. The first look may not be sufficient and prone to error. The word research refers to the systematic investigation towards increasing the sum of knowledge. The word is derives from the French word researche which means to search or to seek again. Therefore research is a process of verifying and testing the old facts or theories (deductive approaches) and discovering new facts (Inductive approach). So, there are various meaning as:

A careful investigation or enquiry specially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge

Systematized effort to gain new knowledge

A research is systematic, controlled, and empirical and critically investigation of hypothetical propositions (statements of relationship between two or more variables) about the presumed relations among natural phenomenon. Fred N Kerlinger

Research is a systematic and organized effort to investigate a specific problem that needs a solution (Sekaran, 1992).

As a whole research is the application of scientific method to the study of a problem. The scientific method involves;

a. Careful logical analysis of the problem, and formulating hypothesis.

b. Formulating research design

c. Observation or data collection

d. Generalizations or drawing conclusions

Therefore, the process of investigation involves a series of well known activities gathering information, recording, analyzing and interpreting the results with the objective of answering the solution to the problem, is called research. The explanation of research has two crucial aspects. They are:

1.Firstly, it is sufficiently broad to include all types of investigations requiring solution to the problem.

2.Secondly, it explicitly recognizes the systematic nature of the research process in which data are gathered, recorded, analyzed and interpreted in an orderly manner.

We can define research as an organized, systematic, data- based, critical, scientific inquiry or investigation into a specific problem, undertaken with the objective of finding answers or solutions to it (Sekaran, 1992).

For instance, AIDS broke out in the United States; doctors did not know at all what disease it was, what cause it or how to cure it. They have only known as it seemed to attack the immune system of victim. For the purpose of research, medical researchers set out to investigate the causes of the disease and to seek a cure. At recent, a lot is known about this disease because researchers have spent considerable resources in gathering information through observing patients and conducting experiments. So, research means to investigate, repeatedly search or quest in an endeavour or resource to discover answers to problems through reliance on empirical evidences. Research activities are designed to discover knowledge to aid in answering specific questions or issues.

In general, the following activities are involved in the research process:

Define the problem and identify the variables causing it or related with it;

Get insight into the existing stock of knowledge on the issue or problem under reference and contribute to the furtherance of knowledge (reviewing);

Construct models or formulate research questions educated conjectures or hypothesis for testing;

Objectively collect and analyze the facts, evidences or information to identify the interrelationship between or among variables or multiple effects of factors; and

Build theories to understand and generalize the phenomena to throw insight into the problem under investigation to analyze, predict and control the situation

1.2Types of research

Researches conducted for - solving -existing problem and generate a new knowledge to a particular area or theory building.

1.2.1Fundamental Research

Fundamental or basic research is conducted for the purpose of increasing our knowledge of certain problems that commonly occur in organizational setting; and how to solve them.

Adding to our knowledge i.e. fundamental and generalizable.

Pure or fundamental research.

Not apply the findings to solve an immediate problem at hand but rather than to understand more about certain phenomena and problems that occur in several organizations, and how they can be solved.

Theory building or formation.

For instance, On-the-job training has great impact on the productivity of workers.

1.2.2Applied Research AR conducted to a specific problem, which requires a solution.

Practical application of knowledge, systematically acquired and validated and meet solution

Answer practical and useful questions about policies, programmes, projects, procedures, or organization.

Such research, being of practical value, may relate to current activity or immediate practical solutions.

Findings for immediate problem facing a society or business executives.

Hired researchers and consultants to study a problem of concern to them in order to find solutions that can be implemented to rectify the problem situation and immediate applications

It is also called decisional research.

e.g. curative measures for AIDS.

For instance, How to improve the productivity of Cigarette Factory? Both improving the existing brands or new brand development may be the study areas.

Factory does have the research, taking into accounts from its capabilities, know-how, resources and so on.

Both fundamental and applied research may not be mutually exclusive; and can be placed in a continuum.

Some research areas have both applied and fundamental research flavour and scientific method provides key advances in both fundamental and applied research.

Table 1: Characteristics of applied and fundamental research

Fundamental ResearchApplied research

Purpose:

Expand knowledge processes of business and management

Results in universal principles relating to the process and its relationship to outcomes

Finding of significance and value to society in generalPurpose:

Improve understanding of particular business or management problem

Results in solution to problem

New knowledge limited to problem

Findings of practical relevance and value to manager

Context:

Undertaken by people based in universities

Choice of topic and objectives determined by the researcher

Flexible time scalesContext:

Undertaken by people based in a variety of settings including organization

Objectives negotiated with originator

Tight time scales

1.3Scientific Research ProcessWhat is science?

Science as a systematized knowledge derived through observation, experimentation or any other method or procedure in order to determine the nature of phenomena being studied or the causes behind specific events.

In science, an understanding is made through logico-empirical process. The logico-empirical process means reasoning and direct experience or observation. A scientific theory is dealing with the logical aspect of science; and research is dealing with observation aspect of science.

The scientific process includes the methodology of understanding things. There are two approaches of logico- empirical process.

a.Deductive Approach

b.Inductive Approach

1.3.1Deductive Approach (General to particular)

In deductive reasoning, one starts from some general theories or laws and applies it to particular instances. In this method, conclusions are deduced from some fundamental assumptions or axioms established through other methods by logical process of reasoning. One starts with theory as a means for many concepts, specifies indicators of measurement, makes observations and tests relationships. The goal is to define or prove support the theory already known. In other words, this approach involves understanding of thing from general to particular.

Hypothesis ( Observation (Hypothesis testing (Conclusion

Deductive process

Sociologist describes the theory as a scientific study between the causes and effects. He tries to answer the question of what, when and how.

Sociologist constructs theories that have deductive structure in which conclusion from assumptions.

Checking the validity of conclusion against the real world data.

When facts are inconsistent with the theoretical conclusion, refines theories or abandon them for new theories.

Continuous interplay (interaction) of new or refine theories and their empirical verification.

For instance, parents with children spent more over without kids. How? And Why?

1.3.2Inductive Approach (Particular to general)

In this approach, one starts with observation driven by one or more research questions. In other words, generalization is made from particular or one intends to develop the theory from general to particular. This method is based on prior examinations of facts i.e. one starts with observed data and develops a generalization which explain the relationship between the objects observed.

Observation ( Findings a pattern ( tentative conclusion ( Theory

Scientific research process

There are eight steps in scientific method. They are:

1. Sensing or Realizing problems: It is the first step in scientific inquiry in observing the situation and sensing the problem. New problem are emerging in the environment. We are knowingly and unknowingly sensing these developments occurring in the environment. At this stage, we may not know exactly what is happening but we can definitely sense that things are not going on as smoothly as they should be.

2. Problem identification: Once we increase our level of awareness of what is happening in the environment; and focus on problem and associated factors through further search of information. In this step, we should try to identify what exactly are the problems in the situation.

3. Theoretical Framework: In this step of scientific research, we make an attempt to integrate the information logically so that the reason for the problem can be conceptualized. The critical variables are examined and association among them is identified. Putting all the variables and their association together, a theoretical framework is developed.

4. Hypothesis Formulation: It is the fourth step of scientific research hypotheses are formulated. Hypotheses are logically conjectured relationship between two or more variables expressed in the form of testable statements. Hypotheses for the study are drawn from the theoretical framework as developed in step third.

5. Research Design: It is the step of plan of research. After setting the hypotheses, the next step is the plan research to achieve the hypothesis. So, research design is the strategy for conducting research. It describes the general sequential steps for collecting, analyzing, and evaluating data after identifying:

a. What the researcher wants to know?

b. What has to be dealt with in order to obtained required information?

6. Collection of data: Data collection is also known as fieldwork. At this stage , researcher has to administer the research instruments ( questionnaire, interview schedules, observation schedules, etc).

7. Data analysis: After data collection, we must summarize and analyze them. Data analysis is fact the statistical analysis of data that has been edited, coded and tabulated. In most cases, we will probably calculate some descriptive statistics (mean, percentage, etc.) and inferential statistics that access the reliability of our data. With the use of these different statistical techniques, the hypotheses are tested.

8. Generalization: The final step involves interpretation and generalization of the findings into the larger body of knowledge about the phenomenon. In the case of applied research, specific implementation strategy is proposed to solve the problem identified by the study.

Characteristics of Scientific Research

1. Purposiveness

2. Testability

3. Replicability

4. Objectivity

5. Rigor

6. Generalizability

1.4 Management Research Methods:

Management of research is concerned with the systematic and objective collection and evaluation of information about specific aspect of management problems in order to assist managers make effective decisions.

The objective of Management of Research is to reduce the risk and uncertainty when strategy is in planned and operation.

The role of sound information is to guide business decisions, set strategies and monitor implementation to feedback on whether it has been successful or unsuccessful.

Managers need to ask the following questions to help to provide what research to carry out to collect the required information and solve business problem. They are:What information will help make decision- making?

What are we going to do with this information?

How should we collect this information?

What are we going to measure?

How should we analyze the results?

How much should we spend on collecting the information?

Research identifies the benefits of research knowledge to mangers as follows:Identify and solve small problems in the work setting.

Know how to discriminate good from bad research.

Appreciate and constantly remember the multiple influences and multiple effects of factors impinging on a situation.

Take calculated risks in decision- making, knowing full well the probabilities attached to the possible outcomes.

Prevent possible vested interests from operating in a situation.

Relate to hired researchers and consultants more effectively.

Stages in Management Process and Types of Information Needed

Stages of Management ProcessMajor Information Needed

1. Analysis Performance against plans

Environmental, competitive and eternal information to identify problems and opportunities

2. PlanningEvaluation of 1 and 2 in order to make a prediction or estimate of alternative courses.

3. ExecutionCommunicate details of plans and control standards.

4. ControlPerformance against plans

Type of Management Research1.4.1Policy Research

1.4.2Managerial Research

1.4.3Action Research

1.4.4Evaluation Research

1.4.1 Policy Research

The development of foundation of information to be used as the basis for making plans and decisions that will impact policy with in the context of political, social, and economical realities of time and setting.

The policy research is composed of three basic elements:This policy research studies how policy formulation occurs with a view to understanding and improving the process.

The policy research is designed to analyze situations at the strategic level and to formulate overall policy proposals.

This policy research systematically evaluates the priorities to be accorded to conflicting and complementary alternatives (Formulating major policy proposals and establishing their priorities).1.4.2Managerial ResearchRelated to the specific problem of limited scope for which management has need of additional information on which base decision.

For instance, market potential for new product, best approach of implementation of a new MIS system.

MR is seeking of solution to a given problem and implement the solution.

From the present analysis, MR is taking effective action for future.

1.4.2 Action Research

Involves continuous gather and analyzing of research data during the normal and on- going operations of an organization.

Designed to identify effective way of dealing with problems in the real world.

Concern the execution of specific management programme, feeds simultaneous results to organization; and helps in changing the mode of functioning.

AR is task- oriented form of study designed to provide continuous feedback regarding the performance of management activity and to improve that performance from investigation.

1.4.3 Evaluation Research

The process of determining the value or worth of something is called evaluation.

It is oriented toward formal and objective measurement of extent which a given action, activity and programme objective.

Evaluation Research related to policy research in which policies, objectives, strategies and programmes are examined.

It evaluates the successful and analyze the underlying causes of failure.

Methodology for Management Research

Objective/purposeData requirement and analysisResearch output

Policy Research

To formulate major policy proposals

To establish their priorities

To identify their implication Macro level data about:

a) Environmental forces

b) Overall organizational situation

c) Competitive standing of the organization

Longitudinal data

Time series data

a) Predictions (Econometric model)

b) Projections (Parameters) Policy options

Identification of policy priorities for the organization

Managerial Research

To study the on-going operation or projects

To help in improving managerial effectiveness

To help in decision making Specific and detailed data about the operations or projects

Data collection through MIS

Collection of qualitative data

Exploring the situation for in-depth understanding.

a) Survey research methods

b) Observational methods

c) Experimental methods for testing of alternatives Identification of the problem situation

Identification of decision option

Precise recommendation for actions to be taken

Action Research

To feed information into the organization to improve the functioning

To improve the managerial actions

To suggest future courses of action Continuous of gathering and analysis of data

Problem specific data:

a) Opinion survey

b) Observation

c) Satisfaction levels

d) Morale survey

e) Frustration index To recommend the actions to be taken with regard to:

a) Organizational structure

b) Rules

c) Reward and punishment system

d) Performance evaluation criteria

e) Work environment.

Evaluation Research

To measure achievements against the objectives

To identify gaps and problem areas

To suggest improvements required. Micro level data

a) Programme utilization level

b) Comparative level

Internal surveys Identification of programme strengths and weaknesses

Recommendation for programme improvement

Attribute of good Management ResearchPurpose clearly defined

Research process and work plan detailed

Research design thoroughly planned

High ethical standards applied

Limitations frankly revealed

Findings presented unambiguously

Conclusions justified

Researchers experience reflected.

1.5Project Work1.5.1Meaning of Project Work

The Project is defined as an organized, systematic, and data based investigation into a specific situation undertaken with the objective of gathering information that enables the students to gain familiarity with the situation or reality and generate more knowledge about the phenomenon under investigation.

1.5.2Objectives of Project WorkSpecific objectives are:

Expose students to business or social reality by providing them the opportunity to get first- hand information and actual knowledge about the working of an organization, a system or a situation.

Promote student- centred learning by encouraging them to take the initiate to become self- directed learners and thinkers.

Provide opportunities to students to work on those issues or problems which are of particular interest to them.

Develop interpersonal and communication skills by encouraging students to interact with the practitioners.

Develop data- processing and report writing skills to explore, analyze and describe a business situation or a social phenomenon

Processes in Project WorkActivities involved in a Project Work:

Selecting of relevant topic

Locating the sources of information

Extracting the relevant information from these sources

Identifying the various dimensions of the problem or issue

Organizing and analyzing the data effectively

Drawing conclusions

Writing report

Major activities involved in project work

Defining the Topic and research questions

The research topic should be introduce clearly raised the research questions which were not answered before. Some potential problems in this process may be:

Inexperience resulting in difficulty deciding on an appropriate and feasible topic.

Over- ambitious scale (e.g. under- estimation of time, resources).

Re-inventing the wheel resulting from ignorance of previous work done.

Project Work design

This involves selecting a methodology for obtaining the relevant and their analysis to draw inferences.

Both raw and secondary data (reviewing)

Data Collection: Some potential problemsUnder- estimation or workload

Poor planning and coordination of interviews and field trips

Making contacts and appointments

Delays caused by waiting time

Determining scope, type and relevance of data to be collected

Unpredictability of data (lack of support)

Data analysis and report preparationSome potential problems:

Misinterpretation (bias)

Being bogged down by details: inability to the woods for he trees

Insufficient care in documentation (quotations, bibliographic/ references)

Lack of discipline in structuring report framework before starting to write.

1.6Method of Project Work1.6.1Exploratory or descriptive studies

1.6.2Small- scale survey

1.6.3Case studies, and

1.6.4Feasibility studies1.6.1 Exploratory or Descriptive StudiesClear view of the subject under investigation

It is done when we do not know much about the situation

Comprehend the nature of problem and very few studies have been conducted to the related phenomena

Approaches

Examining the existing literature

Questioning the knowledgeable individuals

Examining a few selected case

For example, demographic information of employees, a profile of suppliers, complaints registered by the customers.Under descriptive studies

The demographic data of employees in term of their age, sex, education, family income, etc.

The profile of suppliers: quality of supplies, rejections, regularity, demand for advance payments, and so on.

The consumer complaints: frequency, nature of comments, causes, etc.

Descriptive studies present the data to meaningful form help to:Understand the features and aspects in a situation under study,

Offer the ideas for further investigations and research, and

Help in identifying problems and make certain simple decisions.

For instances

a.The trend of employment during the last twelve months in an organization: Gender composition, educational level, no. of absent days, ethnic groups, etc.

b.A profile of bank borrowers of outstanding of loans for six months and above: describe the defaulter's age, earnings, employment, occupation and the like. You can recommend loan payment issues for management decision to types of individuals for loan extending, etc.

c. Marketing Areas: pricing, sales, distribution method of company, etc.

Pricing methods, costing methods, pricing of related commodities, or products, price hikes and sales

A profile of sales, sales by region, etc.

Types of distribution channels used.

Advertising and sales promotion expenses

Gathered information, describe and identify the company and help recommend a strategy for its future action.

1.6.2Small- Scale SurveyA survey study is the systematic gathering of information from respondents for the purpose of understanding and predicting some aspects of the behavior of the population of interest.

Survey studies are usually more extensive and involve the careful identification of the population, selection of the sample for the study and collection of comparable data to make qualified generalizations.

For instance, survey study of the business describes location of business, employees, products, prices, and markets, other competitive business, customers, etc.

Methods of survey1.Telephone interviews- collection of information from respondents via telephone.

2.Mail surveys- collection of information from respondents via mail or similar other techniques.

3.Personal interviews- collection of information in a face-to-face situation.

Home interviews- personal interviews in the respondents or office.

Intercept interviews- personal interview in a central location like shopping certres, haat bazaar, etc.

Surveys can be done within organization and in the field.1.Surveys conducted within organizations are as following types:

Surveys of employee attitudes

Surveys of the nature of jobs

Surveys of record system

Surveys of salary scales

Surveys of visitors to an organization

2.Field level surveys are as following types:

Surveys of consumer attitudes

Surveys of shop-keepers in a haat bazaar

Surveys of dealers and retailers

Surveys of patients visiting a medical clinic

Surveys of tourists visiting a place.

1.6.3Case StudiesA case study is an intensive investigation and description of the study unit.

Appropriate method of project work

Both words and numbers description

Selected unit

Study different research methods

Collected related aspects

1.A case study may be done of a specific subject like records management system, sale unit personnel department or organization.For instances,

1.Records management system of an organization

Inputs procurement unit

Processing unit

Output supplying

Manpower

Control of records

Records inventory

Computer used

Data collected and presented in terms of efficiencies, effectiveness and future improvement in the organization.2.Section or department as a unit of analysis:Account Department of an organization to analyze the accounting system:

Structure of unit

Work procedures

Accounting manuals

Revenue and expenditure policies

Work- load of staff

Format of the books of accounts

Audit report and so on.

Analysis of above facts, the case study highlights the strengths and weakness of accounting system of the organization and recommend for improvements.3.An organization as a unit of analysisOrganization goals

Policies

Structure

Manpower

Work system

These all areas are carefully studied to analyze the situation and identify the managerial issues.Both field cases based on real life and field data; and secondary data which is library based are two types of cases. These two methods have their own features, relevance and methodology.

1.6.4Feasibility StudiesUndertaken to assess the potential of a new scheme, idea and provide base for investment decision.

Feasibility study define and analyze the critical elements such as:

operational aspects

Technical aspects

Marketing

Commercial base

Cost- benefit analyze together with alternatives scheme or ideas

Feasibility studies covers:From simple, informal observation to complex, formal analysis

Complexity and formality- directly related to nature of project or scheme.

Feasibility is simple or complex, informal or formal, but careful planning is must.

In project work, student should decide scope of the study, time- frame, information needs and methodology

For instance, Feasibility study within organization

1. Feasibility study of installing computer- based management information system in organization

2. Feasibility study of opening a branch of a business in a location

Feasibility study outside the organization1.An assessment of the feasibility of opening a stationary shop in a locality

2.Feasibility study starting a small- scale biscuit factory in a location

3.Feasibility study starting a gazal restaurant in certain location of a town

Following aspects should be studied and assess as a method of analysis:

1.Environmental factors

2.Market factors

3.Investment requirements

4.Technical aspects or issues

5.Cost- benefit estimates or analysis

Organizing and writing the Project Work report1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background Information

1.2 Problem of the study

1.3 Objective of the study

1.4 Importance of the study

1.5 Limitation of the study

1.6 Organization of the study

2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 Conceptual/Theoretical Framework

2.2 Review of related study

3. METHODOLOGY3.1 Research design

3.2 Population and sample size

3.3 Sampling procedure

3.4 Data collection technique

3.5 Statistical procedure

3.6 Data analysis procedure

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Data presentation and analysis

4.2 Major findings of the study

5. SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary

5.2 Conclusion

5.3 Recommendation

REFERENCES APPENDICESTheory

Empirical generalization

Hypothesis

Observations

INDUCTIVE PROCESS

Figure 1: The Scientific Research Process

Deduction Reasoning

Refinement of Theory (Basic Research)

Implementation (Applied Research)

Analysis of Data

Data Collection

Research Design

Hypothesis Formulation

Theoretical Framework

Problem Identification

Library search

Observation

Setting or Realizing problem