Dr. Nasreen Qusar Course Title:- Modern Trends in Teaching -Learning Process Course Code:- B. Ed-203

Unit-III

• Expository Strategy as approach to teaching for understanding.

Expository teaching strategy is basically direct instruction. A teacher is in the front of the room lecturing and students are taking notes. Students are being told (expository learning), what they need to know. However, expository instruction goes beyond just presenting students with the facts. It involves presenting clear and concise information in a purposeful way that allows students to easily make connections from one concept to the next. The structure of an expository lesson helps students to stay focused on the topic at hand. Often times, when students are discovering information on their own, they can get distracted and confused by unnecessary information and have difficulty determining what’s important. This is why expository instruction is one of the most common instructional strategies. Most educators believe students learn new concepts and ideas better if all of the information they need to know is laid out before them. Expository teaching is a teaching strategy where the teacher presents students with the subject matter rules and provides examples that illustrate the rules. Examples include pictorial relationships, application of the rules, context through historical information, and prerequisite information. Examples are provided to give contextual elaboration and to help students see the subject matter from many different perspectives.

In expository teaching teacher gives both the principles and the problem solutions. In contrast to his role in discovery learning, the teacher presents the student with the entire content of what is to be learned in final form; the student is not required to make any independent discoveries. The usual verbal instruction of the lecture hall exemplifies expository teaching. It is sometimes called deductive teaching because the teacher often begins with a definition of concepts or principles, illustrates them, and unfold their implications. Asubel believes that the reason for the lack of research in is that expository teaching has been identified with rote learning. The students, presumably, can only memorized the lectures by constant review and repetition. Indeed, it is possible to present a body of material so poorly that unless the students commit it to rote memory (as in the case of nonsense syllables), they have no way of remembering it. Expository teaching, however, can present a rich body of highly related facts, concepts, and principles which the students can learn and transfer. Textbooks are examples of expository teaching, and, as you very well know, they can vary in their methods of teaching subject matter and in their organization of that subject matter.

As in the case of discovery learning, it is probably difficult to find pure examples of expository teaching. In most classes we find a combination of lectures (or teacher explanation) and discussions or lectures and laboratory and field work. In these situations, although most of the instruction is under the direct guidance of the instructor, much of it is the most or less independent effort of the student.

Expository Teaching Procedure Expository teaching is a lecture, presentation or telling strategy used during instruction. The teacher is in control of presenting the subject matter and directs the students through the lesson. A rule is presented with an example and then practice is provided. The teacher focuses the students’ attention on the key points of the subject and may use graphics, diagrams, or other representations to elaborate on the subject. Generally the expository teaching begins with an introduction and overview of the topic before providing more specific information and detail. This expository strategy sets up the lesson and prepares the students for what’s to come. By moving from the general to the specific, it allows students to understand the increasingly detailed explanations of the information and link those explanations to information that was presented previously as part of the general overview.

Instructional Strategy is designed to assist students in the acquisition of relatively factual

material. This technique is facilitated by the by the use of pre-instructional verbal statements or advanced or conceptual organizers and the sequencing of the content. In the hierarchically arranged sequence, global, overarching concepts and principles of the discipline are presented first in the advanced organizer.

How the expository teaching technique works- (1) a statement in advance of the instruction (the advanced or conceptual organizer) is provided to the Students (2) the content is presented in a hierarchically arranged sequence in which the global, overarching concepts and principles are presented first. The conceptual organizer presents the content at a higher level of abstraction, generality, and inclusiveness than the content of the lesson. It is then followed by a progressive differentiation of ideas or details, concurrently integrating the new ideas with previously learned material. The explanations and clarifications made subsequent to the conceptual organizer are usually deductive arguments. Another aspect that the expository teaching strategies have in common is that they provide transitions and sometimes a storyline to lead you through the lesson. Expository instruction involves an organized teaching method where information is presented in a specific order. This helps to keep your focus and attention, and lays out all of the information you need to know in a way that helps you to remember it. Once all of the new information has been presented, lessons typically end with a summary. The summary serves as a quick review and points out the most important facts to remember. Donald Jhonson and Paul Stratton compared several methods of expository teaching with the usual inductive method of teaching concepts in three expository programs, one discovery program and one mixed program set up as follows:

1- Students were given definitions of terms, similar to those one finds in the dictionary although each term was related to higher order class. Then the students were required to write their own definitions of the terms.

2- The term was used in sentences which were part of a short story. After reading the story, the student was asked to complete a sentence which required the use of the term.

3- Students were given synonyms for the new term-“alacrity means eagerness” and “altercations means squabble.”

4- In the classification approach, students were given examples of objects and events and were asked to classify them. The students had to discover the correct categories.

5- A mixed problem was constructed out of materials in the four preceding approaches. This is an example of instruction using the mixed method.

The students who were taught with the mixed method did better than those in all the other groups. The experimenters concluded that the “superiority of the mixed program supports the common practice of teachers and textbooks”.

Programed instruction is a form of expository teaching, especially when the Ruleg sequence is used (Glaser, 1966). In the Ruleg sequence, the student is presented with an explicit statement of the rule (or principle) followed by one or more carefully chosen examples. He is then presented with one or more incomplete examples, which act as prompts to reduce the possibility of incorrect responses. The incomplete examples also provide the student with the reinforcing activity of directly employing the rule.

The rule-example technique is very frequently used in teaching. The teacher provides the student with a general statement of the principle and then offers a series of illustrations. Glaser suggests that this procedure is widely used because it leads to rapid reinforcement for both teacher and student.

Merits of expository teaching Ausbel provides a clear picture of the expository teaching merits “The art and science of presenting ideas and information meaningfully and effectively- so that clear, clear stable and unambiguous meanings emerge and are retained over a long period of time as an organized body of knowledge- is really the principal function of pedagogy. This is a demanding and creative rather than a routine and mechanical task. The job of selecting, organizing, presenting, and translating subject-matter content in developmentally appropriate manner requires more than the rote listing of facts. If it is done properly it is the work of the master teacher and is hardly a task to be disdained….Beginning in the junior high school period, students acquire most new concepts and learn most new propositions by directly grasping higher-order relationships between abstractions. To do so meaningfully, they need no longer depend on current or recently prior concrete-empirical experience, and hence are able to bypass completely the intuitive type of understanding reflective of such dependence. Through proper expository teaching they can proceed directly to a level of abstract understanding that is qualitatively superior to the intuitive level in term of generality, clarity, precision and explicitness. At this stage of development, therefore, it seems pointless to enhance intuitive understanding by using discovery techniques.”

In short we can conclude that the teachers who use expository teaching present information to their students in a purposeful way that allows students to easily make connections from one concept to the next. Students receive the information from an expert, which could be the teacher or another expert, such as a textbook author or educational video. Whenever possible, the

instructor uses an advance organizer, which is a tool used to introduce the lesson and illustrate the relationships between what the students are about to learn and the information they have already learned. The structure of an expository lesson is designed to help students stay focused on the topic at hand. Expository teaching is more popular because it is more efficient and takes less time than discovery learning. When combined with practice, it is very successful in teaching concepts and principles. Expository teaching offers the student the best opportunity to obtain an organized view of the discipline he is studying because the teacher can organize the field much more effectively for learning than the novice student can. In discovery learning the concern to teach the techniques of discovery overrides the concern for learning the unifying principles of a discipline.

Dr. Nasreen Qusar Course Title:- Modern Trends in Teaching -Learning Process Course Code:- B. Ed-203

• The Advance Organizer Model. Advance Organizer Model is given by David Ausubel who is one of the educational Psychologist. This approach deals with three concerns:-

a) How knowledge (curriculum content) is organized; b) How the mind works to process new information (learning); and c) How teacher can apply these ideas about curriculum and learning when they present

new material to students (instruction). This model is designed to strengthen student’s cognitive structure.

In this model teacher plays the role of organizer of subject matter and presents information through

lectures, readings and providing tasks to the learner to integrate what has been learned. In this

approach, teacher is responsible for organizing and presenting what is to be learned. The learner’s

primary role is to master ideas and information. The Advance Organizers provide concepts and

principles to the student’s directly. According to Ausubel whether the material is

meaningful or not depends more on the preparation of the learner and on the

organization of the material than it does on the method of presentation.

Structures Ausubel maintains that a person’s existing cognitive structure is the foremost factor governing whether new material will be meaningful and how well it can be acquired and retained. As per the views of Ausubel there is a parallel between the way subject matter is organized and the way people organize knowledge in their minds (their cognitive structures).In the present study AOM is used as a tool to help the students to attain the concepts of English Grammar with the comprehension of study material of secondary level IX grade students. COMPONENTS OF ADVANCE ORGANIZER MODEL

(a) Syntax:

The Advance Organizer Model has three phases of activity. Phase one is the presentation

of the advance organizer; Phase two is the presentation of the learning task or learning

material; and Phase three is the strengthening of cognitive organization. Phase three tests

the relationship of the learning material to existing ideas to bring about an active learning

process.

Diagram 1

Syntax of the Advance Organizer Model

Table 1

Phases of Advance Organizer Model

Phase Outline Activity

Phase one Presentation of

Advance Organizer

1. Clarify aims of the lesson. 2. Present organizer:- a. Identify defining attributes b. Give examples c. Provide context d. Repeat

3. Prompt awareness of learner’s relevant

knowledge and experience.

Phase two Presentation of

learning Task or

Material

1. Present material. 2. Maintain attention. 3. Make organization explicit. 4. Make logical order of learning material explicit.

Phase

three

Strengthening

Cognitive

organization

1. Use principles of integrative reconciliation.

2. Promote active reception learning. 3. Elicit critical approach to subject matter. 4. Clarify.

(b) Social System:

In Advance Organizer Model the teacher retains control of the intellectual

structure, to relate the learning material to the organizers and to help students

differentiate new material from previously leads to the successful acquisition

of material.

(c) Principles of Reaction:-

Negotiation of meaning and responses between the teacher and the learner

clarifies the meaning of the new learning material with existing knowledge of

the students. Mutual interaction between teacher and learner responsively

connect organizers and learning material.

(d) Support System:-

The effectiveness of the advance organizer depends on an integral and

appropriate relationship between the conceptual organizer and the content.

This model provides guidelines for recognizing structural materials.

(e) Instructional and Nurturant Effects:-

The instrumental values of this model are – the ideas themselves that are used

as the organizer are learned, as well as information presented to the students.

Diagram Instructional and Nurturant Effects af AOM

Diagram 3

A Diagrammatic Representation of Strategies of AOM

Diagram 4

Concept Attainment Model and Advance Organizer Model as the Member of

Information Processing Family

Dr. Nasreen Qusar Course Title:- Modern Trends in Teaching -Learning Process Course Code:- B. Ed-203

• Inquiry Strategy as approach to Teaching. Inquiry based teaching is also known as enquiry based learning in British English is a form of active

learning that that starts by posing questions, problems or scenarios. It contrasts with tradi6tional

education, which generally relies on the teacher presenting facts and his or her knowledge about

the subject. Inquiry-based learning is often assisted by a facilitator rather than a lecturer.

Inquirers will identify and research issues and questions to develop knowledge or solutions.

Inquiry-based learning includes problem-based learning, and is generally used in small scale

investigations and projects, as well as research. The inquiry-based instruction is principally very

closely related to the development and practice of thinking and problem solving skills

Inquiry-based learning is primarily a pedagogical method, developed during the discovery learning movement of the 1960s as a response to traditional forms of instruction—where people were required to memorize information from instructional materials, such as direct instruction and rote learning. The philosophy of inquiry based learning finds its antecedents in constructivist

learning theories, such as the work of Piaget, Dewey, Vygotsky,and Freire among others, and can be considered a constructivist philosophy. Generating information and making meaning of it based on personal or societal experience is referred to as constructivism. Dewey's experiential learning pedagogy (that is, learning through experiences) comprises the learner actively participating in personal or authentic experiences to make meaning from it. Inquiry can be conducted through experiential learning because inquiry values the same concepts, which include engaging with the content/material in questioning, as well as investigating and collaborating to make meaning. Vygotsky approached constructivism as learning from an experience that is influenced by society and the facilitator. The meaning constructed from an experience can be concluded as an individual or within a group.

In the 1960s Joseph Schwab called for inquiry to be divided into three distinct levels. This was later formalized by Marshall Herron in 1971, who developed the Herron Scale to evaluate the amount of inquiry within a particular lab exercise. Since then, there have been a number of revisions proposed and inquiry can take various forms. There is a spectrum of inquiry-based teaching methods available.

Characteristics:-

Specific learning processes that people engage in during inquiry-learning include:

• Creating questions of their own

• Obtaining supporting evidence to answer the question(s)

• Explaining the evidence collected

• Connecting the explanation to the knowledge obtained from the investigative process

• Creating an argument and justification for the explanation

Inquiry learning involves developing questions, making observations, doing research to find out what information is already recorded, developing methods for experiments, developing instruments for data collection, collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data, outlining possible explanations and creating predictions for future study.

Levels

There are many different explanations for inquiry teaching and learning and the various levels of inquiry that can exist within those contexts. The article titled The Many Levels of Inquiry by Heather Banchi and Randy Bell (2008)[16] clearly outlines four levels of inquiry.

Level 1: Confirmation Inquiry The teacher has taught a particular science theme or topic. The teacher then develops questions and a procedure that guides students through an activity where the results are already known. This method is great to reinforce concepts taught and to introduce students into learning to follow procedures, collect and record data correctly and to confirm and deepen understandings.

Level 2: Structured Inquiry The teacher provides the initial question and an outline of the procedure. Students are to formulate explanations of their findings through evaluating and analyzing the data that they collect.

Level 3: Guided Inquiry The teacher provides only the research question for the students. The students are responsible for designing and following their own procedures to test that question and then communicate their results and findings.

Level 4: Open/True Inquiry Students formulate their own research question(s), design and follow through with a developed procedure, and communicate their findings and results. This type of inquiry is often seen in science fair contexts where students drive their own investigative questions.

Banchi and Bell (2008) explain that teachers should begin their inquiry instruction at the lower levels and work their way to open inquiry in order to effectively develop students' inquiry skills. Open inquiry activities are only successful if students are motivated by intrinsic interests and if they are equipped with the skills to conduct their own research study.

An important aspect of inquiry-based learning is the use of open learning, as evidence suggests that only utilizing lower level inquiry is not enough to develop critical and scientific thinking to the full potential. Open learning has no prescribed target or result that people have to achieve. There is an emphasis on the individual manipulating information and creating meaning from a set of given materials or circumstances. In many conventional and structured learning environments, people are told what the outcome is expected to be, and then they are simply expected to 'confirm' or show evidence that this is the case.

Open learning has many benefits It means students do not simply perform experiments in a routine like fashion, but actually think about the results they collect and what they mean. With traditional non-open lessons there is a tendency for students to say that the experiment 'went wrong' when they collect results contrary to what they are told to expect. In open learning there are no wrong results, and students have to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the results they collect themselves and decide their value.

Open learning has been developed by a number of science educators including the American John Dewey and the German Martin Wagenschein. Wagenschein's ideas particularly complement both open learning and inquiry-based learning in teaching work. He emphasized that students should not be taught bald facts, but should understand and explain what they are learning. His most famous example of this was when he asked physics students to tell him what the speed of a falling object was. Nearly all students would produce an equation, but no students could explain what this equation meant. Wagenschein used this example to show the importance of understanding over knowledge.

Types of Inquiry-Based Teaching/Learning

There are different kinds of inquiry-based learning, which become decreasingly structured and suit different classrooms:

• Confirmation Inquiry — You give students a question, its answer and the method of reaching this answer. Their goal is to build investigation and critical-thinking skills, learning how the specific method works.

• Structured Inquiry — You give students an open question and an investigation method. They must use the method to craft an evidence-backed conclusion.

• Guided Inquiry — You give students an open question. Typically in groups, they design investigation methods to reach a conclusion.

• Open Inquiry — You give students time and support. They pose original questions that they investigate through their own methods, and eventually present their results to discuss and expand.

Regardless of the type, inquiry-based learning aims to develop students’ abilities to analyze, synthesize and evaluate information — indications of high-level thinking according to Bloom’s Taxonomy.

Dr. Nasreen Qusar Course Title:- Modern Trends in Teaching -Learning Process Course Code:- B. Ed-203

• Concept Attainment Model. Concept Attainment Model is given by Jerome Bruner. This model requires a student to figure out the attributes of a category that is already formed in another person’s mind by comparing and contrasting example (called exemplars) that contain the characteristics (called attributes) of the concepts with examples that do not contain those attributes.Essentially the examplars are a subset of a collection of data or a data sets. The category is the subset or collection of examples that share one or more characteristics that are missing in the others. It is by comparing the positive examplars and contrasting them with the negative ones that the concept or category is learned. In the present study CAM is used as a tool to help the students to attain the concepts of

English Grammar.

COMPONENTS OF CONCEPT ATTAINMENT MODEL

(a) Syntax In Concept Attainment Model phase one involves presenting data to the learner. Each unit of data is a separate example or non-example of the concept. The units are presented in pairs. The data may be events, people, objects, stories, pictures or any other discriminable units. In phase two, the students test their attainment of the concept, first by correctly identifying additional unlabeled examples of the concept and then by generating their own examples.In phase three, students begin to analyze the strategies by which they attain concepts. Diagram1

Syntax of the Concept Attainment Model

Table: 1

Phases of Concept Attainment Model

Phase Outline Activity

Phase

One Presentation of Data

and Identification of Concept

1.Teacher present labeled examples. 2.Students compare attributes in positive and negative example. 3.Students generate and test hypotheses. 4.Students state a definition according to

the essential attributes.

Phase

Two

Testing Attainment of the Concept

1. Students identify additional unlabeled examples as yes or no.

2. Teacher confirms hypotheses, names

concepts and re-states definitions

according to essential attributes. 3. Students generate examples.

Phase Three

Analysis of Thinking

Strategies 1. Students describe thoughts. 2. Students discuss role of hypotheses and

attributes. 3. Students discuss type and number of

hypotheses.

(b) Social System Prior to teaching with the Concept Attainment Model, the teacher chooses the concept, selects and organizes the material into positive and negative examples and sequences the example. The three major functions of the teacher during concept attainment activity are to record, prompt (cue) and present additional data.

(c)Principle of Reaction

During the flow of the lesson, the teacher needs to be supportive of the students’

hypotheses. In the later phase of the model, the teacher turn the students’ attention

towards analysis of their concepts and their thinking strategies, again being very

supportive.

(d)Support System

Concept Attainment lessons require that positive and negative examplars be

presented to the students. The data sources are known beforehand and the attributes

visible. When students are presented with an example, they describe its

characteristics (attributes), which can then be recorded.

(e)Instructional and Nurturant Effects\

Concept Attainment Model is designed for instruction on specific concepts and on

the nature of concepts. With abstract concepts, the strategies nurture an awareness

of alternative perspectives, a sensitivity to logical reasoning in communication and

a tolerance of ambiguity. The instructional and nurturant effects of Concept

Attainment Model are depicted in the following figure.

Diagram 2

Instructional and Nurturant Effects of CAM

Diagram 3

A Diagrammatic Representation of Strategies of CAM

Concept Attainment Model in Practice Introduced as a whole-class activity, this instructional strategy can be implemented using the following steps: Preparation: ▪ Choose a concept with well-defined attributes. ▪ Prepare “yes” and “no” examples. Some of the yes examples should have a high attribute

value (meaning it should be a clear representative of the concept) In the classroom: ▪ Introduce and explain the strategy. ▪ Draw two columns on the board and title them as “Yes” and “No.” ▪ Present each example and write them in the appropriate column. Start with three examples

in each column. ▪ Instruct students to analyze and compare the examples, within the group (find similar

attributes in the “yes” group) and between the groups (find how “yes” and “no” examples differ from each other). Write the attributes listed by the students on the other side of the board.

▪ Add three more examples to each column. Instruct students to refine the attribute list by analyzing the additional examples.

▪ Ask students if they are able to identify the concept, but not to say it out aloud. Students who have identified the concept can be encouraged to add more “yes” examples to the column.

Encourage other students to examine the student-generated examples to identify the concept.

▪ Teachers can assist by modeling the thought process to help other students identify the concept. Once identified, help students define it using the list of identified attributes.

▪ To test for understanding, have students suggest more “yes” and “no” examples of the concept with explanations. Or, teachers can present students with examples and instruct them to categorize them as “yes” or “no”.

Practicing the Strategy Divide the class into small groups or pairs and provide them with Concept Attainment Worksheets.(A sample is included at the end.) Instruct students to find the essential attributes of a concept, identify the concept, and define it. An additional sheet with random examples can be included which students can be instructed to categorize. At the end of the session, each group can present and discuss their findings. Teachers can combine the Concept Attainment model with the Carousel method, placing different concept worksheets at different workstations. Each group starts from one workstation and eventually visits each workstation identifying attributes and recording them. At the end of the carousel, groups return to their original workstations and using the information recorded, try to identify and define their concepts. Each group can then present their concept to the class, teaching using the Concept Attainment model. The Concept Attainment model serves as a powerful teaching and learning strategy. For teachers, it is advantageous to use the model to introduce and teach new concepts through an active, student-centric, inquiry-based approach. Simultaneously, the model as a learning strategy helps students to: ▪ Link past knowledge with new information ▪ Critically analyze, compare, and categorize information ▪ Examine and understand a concept from multiple perspectives, strengthening understanding

and retrieval of the concept.

Dr. Nasreen Qusar Course Title:- Modern Trends in Teaching -Learning Process Course Code:- B. Ed-203

• Learning/Project Based Learning. Learning/Project-based learning is an instructional approach designed to give students the opportunity to develop knowledge and skills through engaging projects set around challenges and problems they may face in the real world. Project-based learning, or PBL, is more than just projects. As the Buck Institute for Education (BIE) explains, with PBL students "investigate and respond to an authentic, engaging, and complex problem, or challenge" with deep and sustained attention. ArchForKids LLC put it even more succinctly: PBL is "learning by doing."

Why Project Based Learning? We Live in a Project-Based World The truth is, many in education are recognizing we live in a modern world sustained and advanced through the successful completion of projects. Or, as Swiss Psychologist Jean Piaget put it,

“knowledge is a consequence of experience.” It’s true! Your weekend chores, an upcoming presentation, or organizing a fundraising event—they’re all projects.For most modern workers, it will be a series of projects that mark their career rather than years of service to a specific organization. “Solving real-world issues that matter is important to us as adults—and it’s important to our students,” explain Lathram, Lenz, and Vander Ark in their ebook, Preparing students for a Project-Based World. In short, if we are to prepare students for success in life, we need to prepare them for a project-based world.

What are the Essential Elements of Project-Based Learning? Although definitions and project parameters may vary from school to school, and PBL is sometimes used interchangeably with "experiential learning" or "discovery learning," the characteristics of project-based learning are clear and constant. In essence, the PBL model consists of these seven characteristics:

• Focuses the student on a big open-ended question, challenge, or problem to research and respond to and/or solve.

• Brings what students should academically know, understand, and be able to do into the equation.

• Is inquiry-based. • Uses 21st-century skills such as critical thinking, communication, collaboration, and

creativity, among others. • Builds student choice into the process. • Provides opportunities for feedback and revision of the plan and the project. • Requires students to present their problems, research process, methods, and results.

Following fifteen years of literature review and distilled educational experience, the Buck Institute for Education also identified seven essential elements for PBL but focused them on project design. Collectively these elements are called Gold Standard PBL. According to the BIE, the key elements to project design include:

• A Challenging Problem or Question • Sustained Inquiry • Authenticity • Student Voice and Choice • Reflection • Critique and Revision • Public Product All these elements, if combined well, result in students learning key knowledge, understanding, and skills for success. An example where all these elements come together is in our high school Business Incubator class. Teams of students propose and design a product based upon a challenging need or intricate problem. These young entrepreneurs pitch their ideas to business and community leaders in an effort to gain support for launching their product. One team of students designed a mobile app providing real-time air quality readings at locations around the world. Raising awareness about air pollution, supporting health-conscious travelers, and making global connections were galvanizing real-world provocations for their project. It’s worth noting that while project-based learning may seem like some specific or isolated instructional practice, the lists above should look familiar. They are really the elements of great

learning experiences. You don’t have to subscribe to project-based learning to incorporate elements of it in your classrooms. Having said that, there are benefits that true project-based learning provides.

Benefits of Project-Based Learning

Too often, traditional learning never ventures beyond the realm of the purely academic. Project-based learning connects students to the real world. PBL prepares students to accept and meet challenges in the real world, mirroring what professionals do every day. Instead of short-term memorization strategies, project-based learning provides an opportunity for students to engage deeply with the target content, bringing about a focus on long-term retention. PBL also improves student attitudes toward education, thanks to its ability to keep students engaged. The PBL structure lends itself to building intrinsic motivation because it centers student learning around an essential central question or problem and a meaningful outcome. Daniel Pink, in his TED Talk and influential book, Drive, says people are intrinsically motivated by three things—autonomy, mastery, and purpose. Popular terms like grit and rigor become embedded dispositions when learners sink their teeth into meaningful endeavors. A recent collaborative study conducted by the University and Michigan and Michigan State University suggests the implementation of project-based learning correlated positively with student achievement, particularly in schools serving high-poverty communities. This research emphasizes the importance of projects being standards-aligned and supported with research-proven instructional strategies. Because of its focus on 21st-century skills, the PBL model also enhances students' technology abilities. Jennifer Gonzalez noted how project-based learning helps students develop teamwork and problem-solving skills, along with the ability to communicate effectively with others. The collaborative nature of projects also reinforces the social-emotional learning (SEL) programs being implemented at progressive schools around the world. These interpersonal aspects of PBL dovetail perfectly with the use of technology in the classroom. Technology-based projects are interdisciplinary, collaborative, inquiry-based, self-directed, motivating, and address the full range of student needs and learning styles, according to Christa Love of TechnoKids. Additionally, digital literacies and digital citizenship objectives become ingrained in tech-based projects. Speaking of learning objectives, a quick review of ISTE’s recently revised standards for students will disclose the relevance of PBL to modern learning. By highlighting standards including empowered learner, innovative designer, creative communicator, and global collaborator, you would think these standards were tailor-made with PBL in mind.

Challenges of Project Based Learning

The Intel Corporation identified several reasons why project-based learning can represent such a radical departure from what we are used to in education. PBL requires you to coach more and instruct less, to embrace interdisciplinary learning instead of remaining locked in single-subject silos, and to be more comfortable with uncertainty and discovery during the learning process.

For many instructors, PBL is a stark contrast to the traditional education they experienced. Change takes time and is seldom without apprehension and challenges. However, when we consider the types of educational experiences we value for our modern learners, it becomes apparent the traditional “sage on the stage” instructional model falls significantly short.

The truth is, though, you can overcome these PBL challenges. Good problems or ideas can come from your students, parents, or community members. Instead of lectures and book learning,teachers can think through the steps required to solve a problem and use those steps as project-learning activities. Instead of planning a massive project, the learning process can be made more manageable by chunking the project into smaller parts, with frequent checkpoints built into the timeline. Instead of a traditional summative exam, authentic assessments can be developed by communicating with professionals in the field regarding what a presentation would look like related to a particular project.

Examples of Project-Based Learning in Action

In one science-based project, students begin with a visit to a zoo, learning about animal habitats and forming opinions on which habitats best suit a selected animal. For this example, the project component included teams of students collaborating to develop a research-supported habitat plan for presentation to professional and student zoologists. While the sciences fit neatly into PBL environment, the instructional strategy lends itself naturally to interdisciplinary learning. In an example that blends English language arts and the social studies,, students answer the classic essential question, "What role does censorship play in society?" Following introductory instruction, students select a banned book, read it, compose a persuasive essay and take part in a censorship-related mock trial experience conducted in the presence of experts. Want to find solace from the boring, "drill and kill" Math lessons? In this example, students assume the role of a National Security Agency code breaker, with a life-or-death project scenario in which they must decode a message potentially revealing the location of a planned terror attack on the United States. Students decrypt the message, send a coded message of their own and present their work. A professional in a related field visits the class to launch the project and connect it to real-world experience. Are you looking for more examples of PBL schools? John Larmer, Editor and Chief for the Buck Institute for Education PBL Blog , shares several shining examples of schools making a commitment to deeper learning through PBL instruction. Larmer suggests investigating schools belonging to the Deeper Learning Network . These innovative schools include the essential elements frequently mentioned in BIE’s Gold Standard PBL.

Dr. Nasreen Qusar Course Title:- Modern Trends in Teaching -Learning Process Course Code:- B. Ed-203

• Instructional Skills: Discourse and Demonstration, Feedback and Reinforcement.

Instructional Skills

Instructional skills are the most specific category of teaching behaviors. These are used constantly as part of the total process of instruction. They are necessary for procedural purposes and for structuring appropriate learning experiences for students. No matter how experienced or how

effective a teacher may be, the development and refinement of these skills and processes is a continual challenge.

A variety of instructional skills and processes exist. Some are broader than others and more complex in their nature. Some factors which may influence their selection and application include student characteristics, curriculum requirements, and instructional methods. For the purpose of illustrating instructional skills, two examples follow: explaining and demonstrating, and questioning.

Explaining and Demonstrating

The teacher spends much classroom time explaining or demonstrating something to the whole class, a small group, or an individual. Student resource materials typically do not provide extensive explanations of concepts, and students often need a demonstration in order to understand procedures.

Explaining

Some explanations are given to help students acquire or deepen their understanding of a concept, while others help students understand generalizations. Concerning the former, the teacher must select an appropriate concept definition and appropriate examples and no examples. Regarding the latter, Shostak (1986) suggests that an explanation can show:

• a cause and effect relationship (for example, to show the effect of adding an acid to a base);

• that an action is governed by a rule or law (for example, to show when to capitalize a noun);

• a procedure or process (for example, to show the operation of solving a mathematical equation); or,

• the intent of an activity or process (for example, to show the use of foreshadowing in drama).

Demonstrating

Much student learning occurs through observing others. A demonstration provides the link between "knowing about" and "being able to do." Research reveals that demonstrations are most effective when they are accurate, when learners are able to see clearly and understand what is going on, and when brief explanations and discussion occur during the demonstration (Arenas, 1988).

Questioning

Among the instructional skills, questioning holds a place of prominence in many classrooms. When questioning is used well:

• a high degree of student participation occurs as questions are widely distributed; • an appropriate mix of low and high level cognitive questions is used; • student understanding is increased; • student thinking is stimulated, directed, and extended; • feedback and appropriate reinforcement occur;

• students' critical thinking abilities are honed; and, • student creativity is fostered.

Good questions should be carefully planned, clearly stated, and to the point in order to achieve specific objectives. Teacher understanding of questioning technique, wait time, and levels of questions is essential. Teachers should also understand that asking and responding to questions is viewed differently by different cultures. The teacher must be sensitive to the cultural needs of the students and aware of the effects of his or her own cultural perspective in questioning. In addition, teachers should realize that direct questioning might not be an appropriate technique for all students.

Questioning Technique

The teacher should begin by obtaining the attention of the students before the question is asked. The question should be addressed to the entire class before a specific student is asked to respond. Calls for responses should be distributed among volunteers and non-volunteers, and the teacher should encourage students to speak to the whole class when responding. However, the teacher must be sensitive to each student's willingness to speak publicly and never put a student on the spot.

Wait Time

Wait time is defined as the pause between asking the question and soliciting a response. Providing additional wait time after a student response also allows all students to reflect on the response prior to further discussion. Increased wait time results in longer student responses, more appropriate unsolicited responses, more student questions, and increased higher order responses. It should be noted that increased wait time is beneficial for students who speak English as a second language or English as a second dialect.

Levels of Questions

While the need for factual recall or comprehension must be recognized, teachers also need to challenge students with higher level questions requiring analysis, synthesis, or evaluation. The consideration of level is applicable at all grade levels and in all subject areas. All students need the opportunity to think about and respond to all levels of questions. Teacher probes or requests for clarification may be required to move students to higher levels of thinking and deeper levels of understanding.

Discourse and Demonstration