UNIT IICONSTITUENTS OF TECHNICAL WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

“COMMUNICATION IS THE KEY”Word Formation:Word:

“Word is a unit of a language which the natives can identify.”Or

“Words are blocks which form a sentence”.

Basic Word:“The words which have not been developed or derived from any other word are known as

root, basic or primary words”. For example White, tree, pain, boy, etc.

Prefix: A letter or a group of letters which when added to the beginning of a basic word, changes its meaning, are known as prefix.

Word Formation by adding prefixes:

Prefix Word New wordin visible invisibleil legal illegalauto graph autographMulti colour multicoloura political apoliticala moral amorala symmetry asymmetry

Suffix:A letter or a group of letters which when added to the end of a basic word, changes its

meaning, are known as suffix.

Word Suffix New wordappoint ment appointmentarrange ment arrangementmove ment movementweak ness weaknesshappy ness happinessbusy ness businessuse full usefulpain full painfulhelp full helpfulhand y handyair y airywater y waterycloud y cloudy

Phrase:“Phrase is a group of words which has some meaning but not complete meaning.”

Phrases are of following three types-1) Adjective Phrase:

“A group of words that does the work of an adjective is called Adjective Phrase”.i.e. 1. The magistrate was a kind (Adjective) man.

The magistrate was a man with a kindly nature (Adjective phrase).2. The chief lived in a stone (Adjective) house.

The chief lived in a house built of stone (Adjective phrase).3. A blue-eyed (Adjective) boy. A boy with blue eyes (Adjective phrase).4. A jungle (Adjective) track. A track through the jungle (Adjective phrase).

2) Adverb Phrase:“A group of words that does the work of an adverb is called Adverb Phrase”.

i.e. 1. Ram ran quickly (Adverb). Ram ran with great speed (Adverb phrase).2. He does his work carelessly (Adverb).

He does his work without any care (Adverb Phrase).3) Noun Phrase:

“A group of words that does the work of a noun is called Noun Phrase”.i.e. 1. The boy wants something (Noun). The boy wants to go home (Noun Phrase).

2. We enjoy cricket (Noun). We enjoy playing cricket (Noun Phrase).3. He hopes success (Noun). He hopes to win the first prize (Noun Phrase).4. He loves strictness (Noun). He loves to issue harsh orders (Noun Phrase).

Homophones:“Words with same sound (pronunciation) but different meaning and spelling are known

as Homophones”. For example:

Air – (difference in atmospheric pressure) air is hot. Dear – is dear to me.Heir – is the heir to the throne. Deer – deer are very fast.Sea – the red sea. Loose – shirt is loose.See – see the sky. Lose – don’t lose the game.

Homonyms:“Words with same sound (pronunciation) and spelling but different meanings are called

Homonyms”.Row – line Soil – make dirtyRow – boat propelling Soil - earthBank – side of river beam - a line of lightBank – financial institution beam – a long piece of wood or metalCoach – sports trainerCoach – Large carriageSynonyms:

“Synonyms are different words with identical or at least similar meaning”. Such as – Happy – Glad, quickly – rapidly, broaden – widen, beautiful – attractive

Antonyms:“Antonyms are word pairs that are opposite in meaning”. Such as –

Dark – Light, Tall - Short, Day – Night, Fat – Slim etc.

One word substitutes: One word used in place of few words, such as:Fall controlled by gravity only – free fallPeriod of holding office - tenureUse of light for medical treatment – PhototherapyMapping of seas - Hydrography

Eponym & Eponymous:When something such as a building, an institution, an organization, a machine, a product;

or a process is named after a person, it is known as eponym and the person after whom it is named is known as eponymous. For example: Diesel – Named after a German Engineer Rudolf Diesel.Morse code - Named after an American inventor S.F.B. Morse.Julian's Castle- A restaurant named after Julian.The Tendulkar’s - A restaurant in Mumbai named after Sachin Tendulkar.

PARTS OF SPEECH:

Words are divided into different kinds or classes according to their use; that is, according to the work they do in a sentence, called Parts of Speech. The parts of speech are eight in number:-1. Noun, 2. Adjective, 3. Pronoun, 4.Verb, 5. Adverb, 6. Preposition, 7. Conjunction, 8. Interjection

1. Noun: A noun is a word used as the name of a person, place or thing. The word thing includes (i) all objects

that we can see, hear, taste, touch or smell and (ii) something we can think of but cannot perceive by the senses; as,

Ashoka was a great king.Hooghly is in Kolkata.The rose smells sweet.The sun shines bright.His courage won him honour.

2. Adjective: An adjective is a word which qualifies a noun or used to add something to the meaning of a noun; as,

He is a brave boy.There are twenty boys in this class.

3. Pronoun: A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun; as,

John is absent because he is ill.The books are where you left them.

4. Verb:A verb is a word used to express an action or state; as,

She wrote a letter to her cousin.Kolkata is a big city.Iron and Copper are useful metals.

5. Adverb:An adverb is a word which qualifies or used to add something to the meaning of a verb, an adjective

or another adverb; as,He worked the sum quickly.This flower is very beautiful.She pronounced the word quite correctly.

6. Preposition:Prepositions are words that show relationships between nouns, pronouns and other words in a

sentence. Most often they come before a noun. They never change their form, regardless of the case, gender etc. of the word they are referring to.

There is a cow in the garden.The girl is fond of music.A little baby sat under a tree.

7. Conjunction:A conjunction is a word used to join words or sentences; as,

Rama and Hari are cousins.Two and two make four.I ran fast, but missed the train.

8. Interjection:An interjection is a word which expresses some sudden feeling; as,

Hurrah! We have won the game.Ah! He could not qualify.

MODALS:Modals are auxiliary verbs that are used to indicate modality (mood / state of a verb) – that is, possibility, ability, permission, suggestion and obligation.

A verb that combines with another verb to indicate mood or tense. A modal (also known as a modal auxiliary) expresses necessity, uncertainty, ability, or permission.

Examples of modal verbs are - can/could, shall/should, will/would, may/might, must, dare, need and ought to.

Meanings of Modal Verbs:

Modal Verbs MeaningCan possibility, ability, capacity, permission, suggestionCould possibility, ability, permission, suggestionShall future action, resolveShould advice, future possibilityWill future action, resolveWould future action, future possibilityMay possibility formal permissionMight possibility, speculation, suggestionMust necessity, prohibitionDare warning or admonitionNeed necessity, adviceOught to advice

CAN, COULD, MAY, MIGHT

Can usually expresses ability or capacity; as,I can swim across the river.He can work with this sum.Can you lift this box?

Can and May are used to express permission. May is rather formal.You can / may go now.Can/May I borrow your umbrella?

May is used to express possibility in affirmative sentences. Can is used in the corresponding interrogative and negative sentences-

It may rain tomorrow.He may be at home.Can this be true?It cannot be true.

Compare ‘it cannot be true’ with ‘it may not be true’. Cannot denotes impossibility, while may not denotes improbability.

In very formal English, May is used to express a wish; as,May you live long happily!May success attend you!

Could and might are used as the past equivalents of can and may; as,I could swim across the river when I was young. (ability)He said I might/could go. (permission)I thought he might be at home. (possibility)

She wondered whether it could be true. (possibility)SHALL, SHOULD, WILL, WOULD

Shall is used in first person and will in all other persons to express pure future. Today I/We shall is less common than I/We will.

I shall /will be twenty-five next birthday.We will need the money on 15th.When shall we see you again?Tomorrow will be Sunday.You will see that I am right.

In present day English, however, there is a growing tendency to use will in all persons.Shall is sometimes used in second and third persons to express a command, a promise, or threat; as,

He shall not enter my house again. (Command)You shall have a holiday tomorrow. (Promise)You shall be punished for this. (Threat)

Questions with shall I/We are used to ask the will of the person addressed; as,Shall I open the door? (i.e., Do you want me to open it?)Which pen shall I buy? (i.e., what is your advice?)Where shall we go? (What is your suggestion?)

Will is used to express(1) Volition; as,

I will (=am willing to) carry your books.I will (=promise to) try to do better next time.I will (=am determined to) succeed in the attempt.In the last example above, will is strong – stressed.

(2) Characteristic habit; as,He will talk about nothing but films.She will sit for hours listening to the FM.

(3) Assumption or probability; as,This will be the book you want, I suppose.That will be the postman, I think.

Will you? Indicates an invitation or request; as,Will you have tea?Will you lend me your scooter?

Should and would are used as the past equivalents of shall and will; as,I expected that I should (more often: would) get a first class.He said he would be twenty-five next birthday.She said she would carry my books.She would sit for hours listening to the FM. (Past Habit)

Should is used in all persons to express duty or obligation; as,We should obey the laws.You should keep your promise.Children should obey their parents.

MUST, OUGHT TOMust is used to express necessity or obligation.

You must improve your writing.You must get up early.

Must can also express logical certainty.Living in such crowded conditions must be difficult. (=I am sure it is difficult)She must have left already. (=I am sure she has left already)

Ought (to) expresses moral obligation or desirability; as,We ought to love our neighbours.We ought to help him.You ought to know better.

Ought (to) can also be used to express probability.

Prices ought to come down soon.This book ought to be very useful.

USED (TO), NEED, DAREAuxiliary used (to) expresses a discontinued habit.

There used to be a house there.I used to live there in my childhood.

Auxiliary need is used to denote necessity or obligation.He needs to go.I need hardly take his help.One needs to be careful.

Auxiliary Dare is used for threats; as,He dare not take such a step.How dare you contradict me?He dared not do it.

Characteristics of Modal Verbs:

(a) They are not affected by the number or person of the subject.

Example: She can play the piano, you can play the guitar and I can sing. Together, we can put up a great show.

(b) They do not have infinitive or participle forms.

Example: He can solve any problem you bring to him. We can say the same thing, using an infinitive as follows: He is able to solve any problem you bring to him.

(c) They can form interrogative sentences by inversion.

We should first meet the class teacher.Should we first meet the class teacher?

Most linguists agree that there are 10 core or central modals in English: can, could, may, might, must, ought, shall, should, will, and would. Other verbs--including need, had better and invariant be--may also function as modals (or semi-modals).

Unlike other auxiliaries, modals have no -s, -ing, -en, or infinitive forms. (Because ought requires a to-infinitive complement, some linguists regard it as a marginal modal.)

CONCORD: Agreement of verb with subject is known as concord.

NOTE: We will use the convention of a thin underline for subjects and a thick underline for verbs.Being able to find the right subject and verb will help you correct errors of agreement.

Example:The list of items is/are on the desk.Being able to identify the subject and verb correctly will also help you with commas and semicolons as you will see later.Basic RuleThe basic rule states that a singular subject takes a singular verb, while a plural subject takes a plural verb.NOTE: The trick is in knowing whether the subject is singular or plural. The next trick is recognizing a singular or plural verb.Hint: Verbs do not form their plurals by adding an s as nouns do. In order to determine which verb is singular and which one is plural, think of which verb you would use with he or she and which verb you would use with they.Example:talks, talk

Which one is the singular form?Which word would you use with he?We say, "He talks." Therefore, talks is singular.We say, "They talk." Therefore, talk is plural.Rule 1Two singular subjects connected by or or nor require a singular verb.Example:My aunt or my uncle is arriving by train today. Rule 2Two singular subjects connected by either/or or neither/nor require a singular verb as in Rule 1.Examples:Neither Juan nor Carmen is available.Either Kiana or Casey is helping today with stage decorations. Rule 3When I is one of the two subjects connected by either/or or neither/nor, put it second and follow it with the singular verb am.Example:Neither she nor I am going to the festival. Rule 4When a singular subject is connected by or or nor to a plural subject, put the plural subject last and use a plural verb.Example:The serving bowl or the plates go on that shelf. Rule 5When a singular and plural subject are connected by either/or or neither/nor, put the plural subject last and use a plural verb.Example:Neither Jenny nor the others are available. Rule 6As a general rule, use a plural verb with two or more subjects when they are connected by and.Example:A car and a bike are my means of transportation.Rule 7Sometimes the subject is separated from the verb by words such as along with, as well as, besides, or not. Ignore these expressions when determining whether to use a singular or plural verb.Examples:The politician, along with the newsmen, is expected shortly.Excitement, as well as nervousness, is the cause of her shaking. Rule 8The pronouns each, everyone, every one, everybody, anyone, anybody, someone, and somebody are singular and require singular verbs. Do not be misled by what follows of.Examples:Each of the girls sing well.Every one of the cakes is gone.NOTE: Everyone is one word when it means everybody. Every one is two words when the meaning is each one.Rule 9With words that indicate portions—percent, fraction, part, majority, some, all, none, remainder, and so forth —look at the noun in your of phrase (object of the preposition) to determine whether to use a singular or plural verb. If the object of the preposition is singular, use a singular verb. If the object of the preposition is plural, use a plural verb.Examples:Fifty percent of the pie has disappeared.Pie is the object of the preposition of.Fifty percent of the pies have disappeared.Pies is the object of the preposition.One-third of the city is unemployed.One-third of the people are unemployed.NOTE: Hyphenate all spelled-out fractions.

All of the pie is gone.All of the pies are gone.Some of the pie is missing.Some of the pies are missing.None of the garbage was picked up.None of the sentences were punctuated correctly.Of all her books, none have sold as well as the first one.NOTE: Apparently, the SAT testing service considers none as a singular word only. However, according to Merriam Webster's Dictionary of English Usage, "Clearly none has been both singular and plural since Old English and still is. The notion that it is singular only is a myth of unknown origin that appears to have arisen in the 19th century. If in context it seems like a singular to you, use a singular verb; if it seems like a plural, use a plural verb. Both are acceptable beyond serious criticism" (p. 664).Rule 10The expression the number is followed by a singular verb while the expression a number is followed by a plural verb.Examples:The number of people we need to hire is thirteen.A number of people have written in about this subject. Rule 11When either and neither are subjects, they always take singular verbs.Examples:Neither of them is available to speak right now.Either of us is capable of doing the job.Rule 12The words here and there have generally been labeled as adverbs even though they indicate place. In sentences beginning with here or there, the subject follows the verb.Examples:There are four hurdles to jump.There is a high hurdle to jump.Rule 13Use a singular verb with sums of money or periods of time.Examples:Ten dollars is a high price to pay.Five years is the maximum sentence for that offense.Rule 14Sometimes the pronoun who, that, or which is the subject of a verb in the middle of the sentence. The pronouns who, that, and which become singular or plural according to the noun directly in front of them. So, if that noun is singular, use a singular verb. If it is plural, use a plural verb.Examples:Salma is the scientist who writes/write the reports.The word in front of who is scientist, which is singular. Therefore, use the singular verb writes.He is one of the men who does/do the work.The word in front of who is men, which is plural. Therefore, use the plural verb do.Rule 15Collective nouns such as team and staff may be either singular or plural depending on their use in the sentence.Examples:The staff is in a meeting.Staff is acting as a unit here.The staff are in disagreement about the findings.The staff are acting as separate individuals in this example.The sentence would read even better as:The staff members are in disagreement about the findings.

ARTICLES

1. The words a or an and the, which define the noun are called Articles. They come before a noun.

2. There are two articles – a (or an) and the.

3. A or an is called the Indefinite article, because it usually leaves indefinite the person or thing spoken of; as,

A doctor; that is, any doctor.

4. The is called the Definite article, because it normally points out some particular person or thing; as,

5. He saw the doctor; meaning some particular doctor.

6. The indefinite article is used before singular countable nouns, eg,

A book, an orange, a girl.

7. The definite article is used before singular countable nouns, plural countable nouns and uncountable nouns, eg.,

The book, the books, the milk.

A OR AN

1. The choice between a and an is determined by sound. Before a word beginning with a vowel sound an is used; as,

An enemy, an inkpad, an orange, an umbrella, an hour, an honest man, an heir.

It will be noticed that the words hour, honest, heir begin with a vowel sound, as the initial consonant h is not pronounced.

2. Before a word beginning with a consonant sound a is used; as,

A boy, a woman, a yard, a horse, a hole,also a university, a union, a European, a unicorn, a useful article.because these words (university, union, etc.) begin with a consonant sound, that of yu. Similarly we say, A one- rupee note, a one-eyed man.Because one begins with the consonant sound of w.

1. Some native speakers use an before words beginning with h if the first syllable is not stressed.

An hotel (more common: a hotel)An historical novel (more common: a historical novel)

USE OF DEFINITE ARTICLE

2. The Definite Article the is used-(i) When we talk a particular person or thing, or one already referred to (that

is, when it is clear from the context which one mean) ;as,

The book you want is out of print. (Which book? The one you want)

Lets’ go to the park. (= the park in this town)

The girl cried. (the girl= the girl already talked about)

(ii) When a singular is meant to represent a whole class; as,The cow is a useful animal.[Or we may be saying, “Cows are useful animals.”]The horse is a noble animal.The cat loves comfort.The rose is the sweetest of all flowers.The banyan is a kind of fig tree.[Do not say, “a kind of a fig tree”. This is a common error]The two nouns man and women can be used in a general sense without either article.Man is the only animal that uses fire.Woman is man’s mate.But in present-day English a man and a woman (or men and women) are more usual.A woman is more sensitive than a man.

(iii) Before some proper names, viz., these kinds of place-names:(a) Oceans and seas, e.g. the Pacific, the Black sea(b) Rivers ,e.g. the Ganga, the Nile (c) Canals ,e.g. the Suez canal(d) Deserts ,e.g. the Sahara (e) Groups of islands, e.g. the West Indies(f) Mountains- ranges ,e.g. the Himalayas, the Alps(g) A very few names of countries, which includes words like Republic and

Kingdom (the Irish Republic, the United Kingdoms) also: the Ukraine, the Nethelands (and its seat of government the Hague)

(iv) Before the names of certain books; as, the Vedas, the Puranas, the Iliad, the Ramayana, the Mahabharat But we say –

Homers’ Iliad, Valmikis’ Ramayana, Ved Vyas’ Mahabharat(v) Before names of things unique of their kind; as,

The sun, the sky, the ocean, the sea, the earth.[Note- sometimes the is placed before a common noun to give it the meaning of an Abstract noun: as,At last the warrior (the war like or martial spirit) in him was thoroughly aroused.]

(vi) Before a proper noun when it is qualified by an adjective or a defining adjectival clause; as,The great Caeser, the immortal Shakespeare.The Mr. Roy whom you met last night is my uncle.

(vii) With superlatives; as,The darkest cloud has a silver lining.This is the best book of elementary chemistry.

(viii) With ordinals; as,.He was the first man to arriveThe ninth chapter of the book is very interesting

(ix) Before musical instruments; as,He can play the flute.

(x) Before an adjective when the noun is understood; as,The poor are always with us.

(xi) Before a noun ( with emphasis) to give the force of a superlative; as,The verb is the word (= the chief word) in a sentence.

(xii) As an adverb with comparatives; as,The more the merrier.(= by how much more, by so much the merrier)The more they get, the more they want.

USE OF THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE

3. The indefinite article is used –(i) In its original numerical sense of one ; as,

Twelve inches make a foot.Not a word was saidA word to the wise is sufficient.A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.

(ii) In the vague sense of a certain; as,A Kishore Kumar (= a certain person named Kishore Kumar) is suspected by the police.One evening a beggar came to my door.

(iii) In the sense any , to single out an individual as the representative of a class; as, A pupil should obey his teacher.A cow is a useful animal.

(iv) To make a common noun of a proper noun; as , A Daniel come to judgement! (A Daniel = a very wise man)

OMISSION OF ‘THE’ ARTICLE

4. The article is ommitted-(i) Before names of substances and abstract nouns (i.e. uncountable

nouns ) used in a general sense ; as ,Sugar is bad for your teeth.Gold is a precious metal.Wisdom is the gift of heaven.Virtue is its own reward.Note-Uncountable nouns take the when used in a particular sense (especially when qualified by an adjective or adjectival phrase clause); as,Would you pass me the sugar? (= the sugar on the table)The Wisdom of Solomon is great.I cannot forget the kindness with which he treated me.

(ii) Before plural countable nouns in a general sense ; as,Children like chocolates.Computers are used in many offices.Note that such nouns take the when used with a particular meaning; as,Where are the children? (= our children)

(iii) Before most proper nouns (except those referred to earlier), namely, names of people (e.g. Gopal, Rahim), names of continents, countries, cities, etc. (e.g. Europe, Pakistan, Nagpur), names of individual mountains (e.g. Mount Everest), individual islands, lakes, hills, etc.

(iv) Before names of meals (used in a general sense); as,What time do you have lunch?Dinner is ready.Note: We use a when there is an adjective before breakfast, lunch, dinner, etc. We use the when we specify.I had a late lunch today.The dinner we had at the Tourist Hotel was very nice.

(v) Before languages; as,We are studying English.They speak Punjabi at home.

(vi) Before school, college, university, church, bed, hospital, prison, when these places are visited or used for their primary purpose; as,I learnt French at school.We go to church on Sundays.He stays in bed till nine every morning.My uncle is still in hospital.Note- The is used with these words when we refer to them as a definite place, building or object rather than to the normal activity that goes on there: as,The school is very near my home.I met him at the lunch.The bed is broken.I went to the hospital to see my uncle.

(vii) Before names of relations, like father, mother, aunt, uncle, and also cook and nurse, meaning ‘our cook’, ‘our nurse, as,Father has returned.Aunt wants you to see her.Cook has given notice.

(viii) Before predicative nouns denoting a unique position, i.e., a position that is normally held at one time by one person only; as,He was elected chairman of the Board.Mr. Banerji became Principal of the College in 1995.

(ix) In certain phrases consisting of a transitive verb followed by its object; as,To catch fire, to take breath, to give battle, to cast anchor, to send word, to bring word, to give ear, to lay siege, to set sail, to lose heart, to set foot, to leave room, to strike root, to take offence.

(x) In certain phrases consisting of a preposition followed by its object; as,at home, in hand, in dept, by day, by night, at daybreak, at sunrise, at noon, at sunset, at night, at anchor, at sight, on demand, at interest, on earth, by land, by water, by river, by train, by steamer, by name, on horseback, on foot, on deck, in jest, at dinner, at ease, underground, above ground.

THE INFINITIVES

The infinitive is the base (basic form) of a verb, often preceded by to.1. Read these sentences:

I want to go.They tried to find fault with us.The forms to go and to find are “infinitives.”

2. Read the following sentences:-(i) To err is human.(ii) Birds love to sing.(iii) To respect our parents is our duty.(iv) He refused to obey the orders.(v) Many men desire to make money quickly.

In sentence (i), the infinitive, like a noun, is the Subject of the verb is.In sentence (ii), the infinitive, like a noun, is the Object of the verb love.In sentence (iii), the infinitive, like a noun, is the Subject of the verb is, but, like a verb, it also takes an object.In sentence (iv), the infinitive, like a noun, is the Object of the verb refused, but, like a verb, it also takes an Object.In sentence (v), the infinitive like a noun, is the Object of the verb desire, but like a verb it also takes an Object and is modified by an Adverb.

It will be seen that the infinitive is a kind of noun with certain features of the verb, especially that of taking an object (when the verb is Transitive) and adverbial qualifiers. In short, the infinitive is a Verb-Noun.

3. The word to is frequently used with the infinitive, but is not an essential part or sign of it.Thus, after certain verbs (bid, let, make, need, dare, see, hear), we use the infinitive without to; as,Bid him go there.I bade him go.Let him sit here.I will not let you go.Make him stand.I made him run.We need not go to-day.

You need not do it.You dare not do it.I saw him do it.I heard him cry.

4. The infinitive without to is also used after the verbs will, would, shall, should, may, might, can, could and must.I will pay the bill.You should work harder.He can speak five languages.You must come to the office at nine tomorrow.The infinitive without to is also used after had better, had rather, would rather, sooner than, rather than; as,You had better ask permission.I had rather play than work.I would rather die than suffer so.

USE OF THE INFINITIVE5. The infinitive, may be used, like a Noun-

(i) As the subject of a verb; as, To find fault is easy.To err is human.To reign is worth ambition.

(ii) As the Object of a transitive Verb; as,I do not mean to read.He likes to play cards.

(iii) As the Complement of a Verb; as,Her greatest pleasure is to sing.His custom is to ride daily.

(iv) As the Object of a Preposition; as,He had no choice but (= except) to obey.The speaker is about to begin.

(v) As an Objective Complement; as,I saw him go.

6. The infinitive is also used-(i) To qualify a Verb, usually to express purpose; as,

He called to see my brother (= for the purpose of seeing my brother).We eat to live. (Purpose)I came to bury Caesar. (Purpose)He wept to see the desolation caused by the flood. (Cause)

(ii) To qualify an Adjective; as,

Figs are good to eat.This medicine is pleasant to take.The boys are anxious to learn.He is too ill to do any work.

(iii) To qualify a Noun; as,This is not the time to play.You will have cause to repent.He is a man to be admired.Here is a house to let.This house is to let.

(iv) To qualify a Sentence; as,To tell the truth, l quite forgot my promise.He was petrified, so to speak.When the infinitive is thus used it is called the Gerundial or Qualifying Infinitive.It will be seen that in (i) and (ii) the Gerundial Infinitive does not work of an Adverb; in (iii) it does the work of an Adjective; in (iv) it is used absolutely.

7. The infinitive may be active or passive. When active it may have a present and a perfect form, and may merely name the act, or it may represent progressive or continued action.ACTIVEPresent: to lovePresent Continuous: to be lovingPerfect: to have lovedPerfect Continuous: to have been lovingPASSIVEPresent: to be lovedPerfect: to have been loved

Q. Techniques / Methods of paragraph writing / development.OR

How can we achieve unity in paragraph writing?

In order to obtain unity in technical writing the entire paragraph may be developed in certain ways these are as following:

1. Inductive Order2. Deductive Order3. Chronological Method or Time Order4. Linear Method5. Spatial Method or Space Order

1. Inductive Order:In inductive order an author moves from particular statement to the general statement.

The author gives details, arguments or illustrations, which finally lead to the conclusion.A paragraph, that begins with certain information, concludes with a topic sentence is

known to be developed using inductive method.For example: Ram dies, Mohan dies, and they are human beings. Hence, we can say that man is mortal.2. When Rajesh fell sick just before his examination, Ram helped and supported him in preparing for his examination and Rajesh passed his examination successfully. Hence we can say that a friend in need is a friend indeed.2. Deductive Order:

The most popular method used by the writers is the Deductive method. It is the reversal of the logical arrangement of the Inductive method.

In deductive method, we have a conclusion reached by reasoning from general laws to a particular case. The topic sentence is the first sentence in the paragraph stating some general statement. The author finally tries to deduce his conclusion logically by particular or specific subordinate statements.For example: 1. Man is mortal. Since Ram and Mohan are men, they are mortal.2. A friend in need is a friend indeed. When Rajesh fell sick just before his examination, Ram helped and supported him in preparing for his examination and Rajesh passed his examination successfully. Hence we can say that a friend in need is a friend indeed.3. Chronological Method or Time Order:

This is the natural order of narration in which one event leads to another. This method is used to document time of an action, event or the steps of an instruction.

For example, the documentation of emergency medical services provided by an emergency medical technician chronologically (in order of time)-At 01:15 pm, we arrived at the site and assessed the patient’s condition, taking vitals (pulse, respiration etc.).At 01:17 pm after stabilizing the patient, we contacted the hospital and relayed the vitals.By 01:20 pm the patient was given artificial respiration enroute to hospital.At 01:35 pm ambulance arrived at the hospital and hospital staff took over the patient’s care.

Chronological order is also used to document (write) steps in an instruction.

4. Linear Method:Linear means consisting of lines or one dimensional. Each sentence leads to the next one

in a paragraph, with the purpose of maintaining a forward movement. A logical sequence is thus followed by the sentences of a paragraph. This arrangement can also consist of a system of outlines or enumeration (listing or numbering) of points.For example-(a) The first step to curb power theft can be to evolve an effective body of enforcement.(b) The second, to make engineers accountable for the unpaid units.(c) The third, to check the distribution points periodically and unexpectedly etc.

The linear order often splits matter into separate units. Each unit makes its contribution to the general idea. Numerals can be used to enumerate these units. 5. Spatial Method or Space Order:

If a technocrat is writing to describe the parts of a machine or a plot of ground, he would like to organize his text spatially i.e. in order of space or place.

The writer will describe what he sees as it appears in space – left to right, top to bottom, inside to outside or clockwise.

This method helps the reader, to visualize what the writer sees and therefore, it is better to understand the physical qualities of the subject matter.

The method further helps the reader, to envision the layout of the land, the writer describes or the placement of each component within the machine.

So spatial order is the logical division of a subject, on the basis of how they are arranged in order of space or place.

THE ART OF CONDENSATION: VARIOUS STEPS

Q. Define Condensation. Write various steps of effective condensation.

Condensation – Summarizing:Condensation means summarizing i.e. making a book, or any long write up

shorter by taking out anything that is not necessary.

Various steps of Condensation:

1. Selection: Selecting what is important by concentrating on the central idea or the theme of a passage.2. Rejection: Removing everything that is not important. The following are generally not included in a summary-(a) Repetitions (b) Examples and illustrations (c) Redundant (lengthy) expressions (d) Minor supporting details3. Substitution: Substitution includes the following:(a) Synthesis- Combining several sentences into one sentence.(b) Sentence Substitution – Substituting long sentences by short sentences.(c) One word substitution – Using one word for several words or phrases.

Q. Write various Dos & Don’ts of Condensation.

Dos and Don’ts of Condensation:1) Note down the essential / core information.2) Read the core information for identifying all the words and phrases that can be replaced

without distorting the meaning of the passage.3) Restructure the outlines by using different words, phrases sentence structures, sentence

types and organization.4) Note expressions that can be replaced by changing sentence structure / sentence type.5) Do not replace scientific and technical terms or standard formal phrases.6) Note the logical structure of the passage. The logical order can be changed without

disturbing the original meaning.7) After effecting the change in words and expressions, the final draft should be prepared.

In précis writing (condensation) the text is reduced to 1/3rd of the original text.