unit compilation 4

8/2/2019 Unit Compilation 4

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Unit Compilation 4Christy Baker


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Chapter 14.1 Slides 4-5 Chapter 14.2 Slide 6

Chapter 14.3 Slide 7







Chapter 14.10 Slide 14 Chapter 14.11 Slide 15

Chapter 14.12 Slide 16-17


Biology in the News Slide 19

Table of Contents


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Chapter 11.1 Slides 20-21





Biology in the News Slide 26

Chapter 12.1 Slide 27-28







Table of Contents


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The digestive tract consists of the gastrointestinal (GI)tract, the lumen, salivary glans, liver, gallbladder, andpancreas

The GI tract has four layers

Mucosa- all nutrients must cross to enter the blood Submucosa- contains blood vessels, lymph vessels, and

nerves and is where nutrients enters the blood

Muscularis- Responsible for movement

Serosa- Attaches to the walls of the body cavities and

protects the other three layers

Chapter 14.1

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There are five basic processes that make up the function of thedigestive system 1. Mechanical processing and movement, chewing breaks down the

food then the two processes of motility push the food forward and

mix it 2. Secretion, the fluids, acid alkali, bile, mucus, and digestive enzymes

are secreted 3. Digestion, the lumen (food) is broken down mechanically and

chemically to smaller and smaller pieces 4. Absorption, nutrient pass through the mucosal layer into the blood 5. Elimination, Anything undigested is releases from the body through

the anus

The muscularis produces two types of motility Peristalsis- pushes food forward, muscles in front of the food relax and

muscles behind contract

Segmentation mixes the food when short sections contract randomly

Chapter 14.1


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The process of digestion begins in the mouth with chewing

breaking down the food smaller and smaller Most adults have 32 teeth that cut, tear, crush, and grind

the food including their molars, pre molars, incisors, andcanines

The tongue taste the food and moves it to where it needsto be chewed

The saliva makes food easier to chew and swallow it alsobegins the digestion starch and protects from bacteria

Chapter 14.2


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Swallowing begins with the tongue pushing the food back

which is a voluntary movement but after that swallowing isall in voluntary

The pharynx is responsible for swallowing and breathing,so when food is being swallowed the airways aretemporarily closed of so the food is not inhaled

The main purpose of the esophagus is to transport foodfrom the mouth to the stomach

The lower esophagus sphincter is responsible forpreventing the reflux of stomach contents

Chapter 14.3


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The stomach holds food, digests proteins with acid

and protein-digesting enzymes, and it also regulatesthe rate of when food enters the small intestines

Pepsin is created by the gastric glans and acid in thestomach, and its function is to digest proteins

Every 15-25 seconds a peristaltic contraction occurspushing about a table spoon of chyme in each time

The stomach cannot absorb nutrients

Chapter 14.4


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The main functions of the small intestine are

digestion, and absorption The main potion of digestion occurs in the top part of

the small intestine called the duodenum

The bottom two structures of the small intestine. The

jejunum and the ileum, are where the majority ofabsorption occurs

The small intestine has a large surface area becauseof its folds, villi, and microvilli

Chapter 14.5

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The pancreas secrets digestive enzymes that digestproteins, and sodium bicarbonate that neutralizes thestomach acid

The primary function of the liver is to absorb theliquids, produce bile, and maintain homeostasis

The hepatic portal system carries all the venous blooddirectly from the GI tract to the liver

Bile that was created in the liver is delivered to thegallbladder where it is concentrated and stored untilafter a meal

Chapter 14.6


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The large intestine absorbs most of the water and nutrients that

are left then stores the waste material until it can be eliminated The large intestine is larger in diameter than the small intestine,

but it is half as long

The top of the large intestine called the cecum is where thechyme enters from the small intestine

Attached to the cecum is the appendix which has no knowdigestive function

About 5% of the waste product is bacteria

Defection is usually controlled by a neural reflex, but it can alsobe overtaken by conscious control

Chapter 14.7

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The different types of nutrients have different ways of absorbing into thebody

Protein are broken down by enzymes then absorbed through activetransport

The fatty acids and momglycerides are dissolved in micelles then absorb

into the cells recombine with proteins and become chylomicrons Water is absorb in the small and large intestines by osmosis If the feces move too fast through the large intestine diarrhea will occur

due to the water not absorbing and if the feces sits in the colon too longtoo much water will absorb and constipation will occur

Fat soluble vitamins are absorbed by diffusion across the lipid membrane

Water soluble vitamins can be absorbed through active transport ordiffusion through pores or channels

Electrically charged minerals are absorbed either through active transportor diffusion

Enzymes are digested to component amino acids, amino acids arereabsorbed as well as bile salt are reabsorbed and returned to the liver

Chapter 14.8


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The regulation of the digestive system depends on thevolume and content of food

When the stomach is stretched it caused an increase instomach peristalsis and secretion of gastric juices

When the small intestine is stretched the duodenum releasessecretin and cholecystokinin into the blood stream

If the chyme is flowing through the stomach too quickly the

small intestine will slow it down The body has different things it does with different nutrients

some are used as energy right away, some are stored, andsome are combined with other to create other molecules

Chapter 14.9

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MyPyramid now known as ChooseMyPlate is a great

way to get a personalized plan of nutrition Keys to a healthy diet include eating a variety of

foods, maintaining a healthy weight, using sugar onlyin moderation, and many other things

Carbohydrates are the bodys main source of energy

There are certain nutrients that are essential for thebody to function including fatty acids, eight aminoacids, 13 vitamins, and all the essential minerals

Chapter 14.10

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Basal Metabolic Rate is the energy your body needs forits everyday essential functions such as breathing andmaintaining organ function

To maintain a healthy weight you need to first know howbalance your energy intake

The more physical activity the more calories that need tobe taken in

Fat has twice the amount of calories as protein andcarbohydrates

To lose one pound of fat a person would have to burn3,500 more calories than they consume

Chapter 14.11


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The most common digestive disorder is food poisoning

Lactose intolerance is caused by a lack of lactase whichdigests lactose

Most peptic ulcers are cause from an infection of H Pylori

People that have celiac disease their immune system

damages and destroys the villi of the small intestine whenthey eat gluten, rye, or barley

Most people with diverticulosis do not have anydiscomfort unless they become infected

Chapter 14.12


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A colon polyps are noncancerous growth that project from

the mucus membrane Hepatitis is inflammation in the liver usually caused by

viruses or toxic substances

Only about 20% of gallstones ever cause any problem butthey can obstruct bile flow

Malnutrition is when some takes in too much or notenough nutrients

Obesity is a major problem in the United States and justget worse

Chapter 14.12


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Two of the most commoneating disorders are anorexianervosa when you stop eatingcompletely and bulimia whenyou binge and purge

The most common signs ofeating disorders are fear ofgaining weight, worried aboutnot having the perfect bodyweight, and premenopausal

women missing at least threeconsecutive menstrual cycles

The best treatments for eatingdisorders usually requireintense medical workups

Chapter 14.13

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A study was done by Nikolaos Scarmeas MD, MS to find out iffoods containing omega-3 fatty acids lowers the blood levels ofthe protein that is related to Alzheimers disease

1219 people over the age of 65 were studied while tracking their

diet, then after 1.2 years they got lab tests to test 10 differentnutrients

The lab results showed that the more omega-3 fatty acids aperson took in the lower their blood beta-amyloid levels were

Although the study could not measure the level of beta-amyloid inthe brain to a certain degree testing the blood relates to thelevels in the brain

This study concluded in showing that eating fish, chicken, nuts, orany other omega-3 fatty acids can reduce the risk of Alzheimersdisease

Biology in the NewsEating Fish, Chicken, Nuts May Lower Risk of Alzheimers Disease


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The central nervous system consists of the brain andthe spinal cord, and it receives, processes, stores, and

transfers information The peripheral nervous system contains all the

components that are not included in the CNS, and itcarrys information to the brain and spinal cord andalso controls the sensory division

The PNS is broken down further to two subdivisionsthe somatic and the autonomic, which again has itsown subdivisions of the sympathetic and theparasympathetic

Chapter 11.1


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Chapter 11.1

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Neurons are specialized cells used for communication

The largest neuron extends from the toes up to the spinal

cord There are three different types of neurons

Sensory neurons that respond to certain stimulus such aspressure or light

Interneurons transmits impulses throughout the CNS Motor neurons transmits impulses away from the CNS

Neurons usually consist of a cell body, dendrites, and an axon

Chapter 11.2


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The sodium potassium pump removes both osmotic particlesand positive charges from cells at the same time

When a neuron is capable of an action potential but is currentlynot generating one this is a resting potential which is usually -70mV

When the resting potential of a neuron receives an impulsefrom another neuron it changes depending on the charge of the

impulse it may depolarize or hyperpolarize, this change is calleda graded potential

Summation is the key feature of a graded potential, the manyincoming signals coming from other neurons can create animpulse

Chapter 11.3


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Once the sum of all the graded potentials is strong enoughto reach the threshold an action potential results which is animpulse

An action potential occurs in three stages Depolarization, when the sodium moves into the axon causing

the membrane potential to go from -70 mV to +30 mV

Repolarization, after sodium channels close potassium channelopen allowing potassium to diffuse out of the axon make the

axon negative again Reestablishment of resting potential, while potassium

channels are still open there is an overshoot of membranevoltage then the potassium channels close and the restingpotential is reestablished

Chapter 11.3


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20% of the bodys cells are neurons and the other 80% areneurological cells that protect the neurons

Many neuron axons in the PNS are protected by Schwann cellsthat produce a fatty insulating material called myelin

Myelinated neurons are neurons that have axons that arewrapped in a sheath of myelin, and they have three majorfunctions

Saves neuron energy, the insulating layer prevents it from leakingof sodium and potassium

Speeds up transmission of impulses, a leaping pattern calledsaltatory conduction occurs

Helps damaged or severed axons of PNS regenerate, the cut endof the axon can regrow

Chapter 11.4


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In California the is a physical education law stating that gradesone through six must get 200 minutes of physical educationevery 10 days

There are 55 school districts in which only half of them compliedwith the laws and regulations

When children from both schools that did comply and those thatdid not comply were put to a measurement of a 1 mile walk orrun the children in schools that did comply with the physical

education laws were 29 % more likely to be physically fit There is also research showing that if there was more funding for

the physical education programs more school district maycomply

Biology in the NewsStudents More Likely to Be Fit When Physical Education is Mandatory


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A stimulus is an impulse that causes some type of changeeither inside or outside of the body

Receptor take the energy from a stimulus and converts itinto an impulse in sensory neurons

There are five different types of receptors that are classifiedby their type of stimulus Mechanoreceptors, respond to mechanic energy like sound

waves

Thermoreceptors, respond to heat or cold Pain receptors, respond to damage of the tissue and excessive

pressure or temperature

Chemoreceptors, respond to chemicals

Photoreceptors, respond to light

Chapter 12.1


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The different parts of the brain are what help the CNS

interpret the such as distinguishing images andsounds and knowing how loud the sound or howbright the light is

Receptor adaptation occurs when a stimuluscontinues but the impulses are ignored such as

feeling your clothing on your body Somatic sensations include temperature, touch,

vibration, and pressure

Chapter 12.1


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Somatic sensations are essential for our body functions

Mechanoreceptors detect pressure, touch, and vibration

Unencapsulated dendritic endings, signal light pressure, pain,and changes in temperature

Merekel disks, signal light touch and pressure

Meissners corpuscles signal beginning and end of light

pressure and touch Ruffini endings, continually respond to ongoing pressure

Pacinian corpuscles, respond to deep pressure or highfrequency vibration

Chapter 12.2

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Disorders of the ears

Nerve deafness, usually cause by frequent exposure toloud sounds

Conduction deafness, cause by damage to themembrane or bones of the middle ear

Otitis or inflammation of middle ear, usually starts as anupper respiratory tract infection and spreads

Meniere syndrome, chronic condition of the inner earthat has no known cause

Chapter 12.7


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Disorders of the eyes

Retinal detachment when the retina separates from choroid,

most common cause is a blow to the head Cataracts, usually age related or secondary to diabetes or other

diseases

Glaucoma, developes slowly without any known syptoms for awhile

Age-related macular degeneration, the leading cause to visionloss of people over 60

Color blindness, many different causes and different types somedont see color at all and other the colors are switched around

Chapter 12.7

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The major concerns for the pollution in the air are global warming,destruction of the ozone layer, acid precipitation, and smogproduction

The greenhouse effect is occurring due to the greenhouse gases inthe stratosphere not allowing the heat to escape from earth, andthis is rising the global temperature causing global warming

Deforestation has a big affect on the pollution as well, because trees

absorb the CO2 in the air Acid precipitation is damaging the forests and aquatic ecosystems

Smog tends to stay around where it was created and can causemany respiratory problems

Chapter 24.1


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Only 1% of the world water is fresh water Storm runoff water is causing pollution by sewage overflow being

dumped into streams and oceans

The organic nutrient and threatening aquatic animals by creatingbacteria which takes the oxygen out of the water Toxic pollutants remain in the environment for a long time and the

higher up in the food chain the more of them will be consumed ina lifetime

Groundwater pollution is a big threat to humans because

groundwater is often used for drinking water When oil leaks occur in the ocean while some of us are think about

how much gas is going to go up now we should be thinking aboutwhat damage it is doing to the ocean and the organisms that livein it

Chapter 24.2

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The issue that is even bigger than humans polluting theearth is how much of the pollution we consume

Us humans cut down trees, strip mountains, and dam rivervalleys for something that pleases us

Every year around 15 million acres ofland is made into adesert like condition

Wars are often overlooked but yet also factor in the

worlds pollution We need to recycle as much as we can although landfills do

not usually cause environmental problems they eventuallyget full and need more space

Chapter 24.3

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Human Biology by Michael D. Johnson

Presentations by Joanne Oellers All images cited within

Work Cited

unit compilation 4

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