Unit 4Unit 4

Organizational patterns & Signal woOrganizational patterns & Signal wordsrds

1. Signal words for 1. Signal words for Listing Listing • Sequence (of advantage, importance, reasons) Sequence (of advantage, importance, reasons) • First, firstly, first of all, to begin with, first and First, firstly, first of all, to begin with, first and

foremost; foremost; • Second, secondly, besides, moreover, additionally, Second, secondly, besides, moreover, additionally,

furthermore, what’s more, in addition, and__, furthermore, what’s more, in addition, and__, another benefit is__, an additional advantage is __; another benefit is__, an additional advantage is __;

• Last, finally, lastly, last but not least, above all, Last, finally, lastly, last but not least, above all, most important of all,__.most important of all,__.

• Transition: Transition: Now let’s look at the Now let’s look at the reversereverse side of the medal. side of the medal. But merits usually go But merits usually go hand in handhand in hand with demerits. with demerits. However, every coin has two sides. When we are disHowever, every coin has two sides. When we are dis

cussing the cussing the meritsmerits of __, we cannot forget their of __, we cannot forget their demerdemeritsits..

• Sequence (of disadvantages, seriousness, reasons)Sequence (of disadvantages, seriousness, reasons)• More serious,__ Even worse,__ To make matter worsMore serious,__ Even worse,__ To make matter wors

e,__ Most serious of all__ Worst of all,___ e,__ Most serious of all__ Worst of all,___

• 2. Signal words for 2. Signal words for illustrating illustrating

• To illustrate,__ For example,__ Say,__ To illustrate,__ For example,__ Say,__ • A case in point isA case in point is ___. Take __for example. ___. Take __for example.• An example of this can be seen with__.An example of this can be seen with__.• There is now There is now evidenceevidence that __. that __.• According to the statistics of __According to the statistics of __• It is estimated that__It is estimated that__• As another instance,___.As another instance,___.

• This is also true in the case ofThis is also true in the case of ___ ___• It is the same with__ ___is in the same case.It is the same with__ ___is in the same case.• The same thing goes forThe same thing goes for___.___.• The same sort of thing happens in __The same sort of thing happens in __• ___can also ___can also serve asserve as a good example. a good example.• Perhaps the most Perhaps the most striking striking instance happened to instance happened to

me when__me when__

• 3. Signal words for 3. Signal words for cause and effectcause and effect

• Part of the Part of the explanationexplanation for the trend is __. for the trend is __. For one For one thing,__. For another, ___.thing,__. For another, ___.

• Another important Another important factorfactor is ___. is ___.• Perhaps the Perhaps the prime reasonprime reason is that ___. is that ___.• Finally, ___is Finally, ___is responsible forresponsible for the the

change/increase/growth.change/increase/growth.• The The effects effects that ___bring about arethat ___bring about are far-reaching far-reaching..

• What effects can be What effects can be attributed toattributed to phenomena such phenomena such as __?as __?

• The The immediateimmediate result it produces is that___. result it produces is that___.• The next might be___.The next might be___.• Perhaps the most Perhaps the most obviousobvious yet most yet most

important/serious important/serious effect is ___.effect is ___.• In conclusion, there are some causes and effects In conclusion, there are some causes and effects

of ___. There might be more of ___. There might be more underlyingunderlying causes causes and some more and some more unpredictableunpredictable effects, but it can be effects, but it can be certain that the trend iscertain that the trend is irreversible irreversible..

• 4. Signal words for 4. Signal words for comparison and contrastcomparison and contrast• ComparisonComparison• A___. Likewise, B___.A___. Likewise, B___.• A___. Similarly, B___. Similar to A, B___.A___. Similarly, B___. Similar to A, B___.• A___. Also, B___.A___. Also, B___.• A___. A___. By the same token,By the same token, B___. B___.• A___. A___. In somewhat similar fashionIn somewhat similar fashion, B___., B___.• Contrast Contrast • A___. In contrast, B___.A___. In contrast, B___.• A___. On the contrary, B___.A___. On the contrary, B___.• A___. However, B___.A___. However, B___.• A___. On the other hand, B___.A___. On the other hand, B___.• Unlike A, B___. Different from A, B___.Unlike A, B___. Different from A, B___.

4. 4. 句美句美

• 句子是能够表达一个相对完整的意思并句子是能够表达一个相对完整的意思并且有一个特定语调的语言单位。人们写且有一个特定语调的语言单位。人们写文章，都离不开遣词造句。“遣词”，文章，都离不开遣词造句。“遣词”，虽涉及语言的形式美，但更多的是同语虽涉及语言的形式美，但更多的是同语言的内容美相关联。“造句”则主要同言的内容美相关联。“造句”则主要同语言的形式美有关。语言的形式美有关。

4.1parallelism4.1parallelism 平行结构 平行结构

• 4.1.1.1 4.1.1.1 词的平行排列词的平行排列 (a series of words)(a series of words)• 如如 :He spent much of his life in the rich, l:He spent much of his life in the rich, l

azy, corrupt Greek city of Corinth.azy, corrupt Greek city of Corinth.

• 4.1.1.2 4.1.1.2 短语的平行排列短语的平行排列 (a group of phra(a group of phrases)ses)

• 如如 :Knowing how to study and learning h:Knowing how to study and learning how to budget time are important for colleow to budget time are important for college students. (ge students. ( 动名词短语平行，作主动名词短语平行，作主语）语）

• 4.1.1.3 4.1.1.3 从句的平行排列从句的平行排列 (a row of clause(a row of clauses)s)

• 如如 :My employer informed me that I wou:My employer informed me that I would be sent to Hong Kong and that I shoulld be sent to Hong Kong and that I should make arrangements to leave in about td make arrangements to leave in about two weeks. (wo weeks. ( 宾语从句平行宾语从句平行 ))

• 4.1.1.44.1.1.4 句子的平行排列句子的平行排列 (a series of senten(a series of sentences)ces)

• 如如 :Some books are to be tasted, others to :Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested.and digested.

4.2 impersonal subject sentence 4.2 impersonal subject sentence (( 非人称主语句非人称主语句 ))

• 指非人称主语指非人称主语 ,, 后续一般为人称主语所使用的后续一般为人称主语所使用的表示感觉、意识、情感或动作之类的动词谓语。表示感觉、意识、情感或动作之类的动词谓语。通常折射一定生命内涵的动词被“挪用”于不通常折射一定生命内涵的动词被“挪用”于不具生命的主语（具生命的主语（ inanimate subjectinanimate subject ），因此，），因此，这样的句式就自然而然地抹上了拟人（这样的句式就自然而然地抹上了拟人（ personipersonificationfication ）色彩。除了表达顿趋活泼之外，此句）色彩。除了表达顿趋活泼之外，此句型新意拂面，结构严谨，言简意丰。 型新意拂面，结构严谨，言简意丰。

• 1. Only 1. Only the thought the thought of of his mother gave him his mother gave him the strength to go on the strength to go on doing it.doing it.

• 2. 2. The want The want of his of his family had kept him family had kept him from school, and he from school, and he seemed to feel the seemed to feel the loss. loss.

• 1.1. 他想起了母亲，才他想起了母亲，才鼓足了勇气继续干下鼓足了勇气继续干下去。去。

• 2.2. 他因家境贫寒失学，他因家境贫寒失学，似乎感到了失学之苦。似乎感到了失学之苦。

• 3. 3. The new year The new year is is expected to see great expected to see great changes.changes.

• 4. 4. Careful comparison Careful comparison of them will show you of them will show you the differences. the differences.

• 3.3. 在新的一年里，人在新的一年里，人们将看见巨大变革。们将看见巨大变革。

• 4.4. 你只消仔细比较一你只消仔细比较一下，就会发现不同。下，就会发现不同。

• 5. 5. Courage Courage deserted deserted him. him.

• 6. 6. The morning sunThe morning sun greeted us as we came greeted us as we came out on deck. out on deck.

• 5.5. 他失去了勇气。他失去了勇气。• 6.6. 登上甲板，我们便登上甲板，我们便

见到了一轮旭日。见到了一轮旭日。

4.2.3 impersonal subject sentence4.2.3 impersonal subject sentence的常见主语的常见主语

• 4.2.3.1 4.2.3.1 心理名词心理名词• 如如 :: 四十岁的女人呢？揽镜自照，昔日四十岁的女人呢？揽镜自照，昔日

光滑的额头已见依稀纹路，浓密的黑发光滑的额头已见依稀纹路，浓密的黑发也全没了光泽。哦，时光流逝太快，还也全没了光泽。哦，时光流逝太快，还没有很好地一览风光，怎么就已入了秋没有很好地一览风光，怎么就已入了秋境呢？便觉得有三分怅惘，三分无奈。境呢？便觉得有三分怅惘，三分无奈。然而，思之又觉释然。然而，思之又觉释然。

• What has become of a woman at forty? The answer comes What has become of a woman at forty? The answer comes from the mirror, which shows up vaguely discernible from the mirror, which shows up vaguely discernible wrinkles on the formerly smooth forehead and the thick wrinkles on the formerly smooth forehead and the thick black hair with its gloss gone. A touch of frustration and black hair with its gloss gone. A touch of frustration and helplessness comes over me as I realize how time flies. helplessness comes over me as I realize how time flies. Before I have sufficiently admired the scenery and enjoyed Before I have sufficiently admired the scenery and enjoyed the beauties of life, it’s already autumn. However, a the beauties of life, it’s already autumn. However, a second thought brings me relieved calm.second thought brings me relieved calm.

4.2.3.2 4.2.3.2 体貌名词体貌名词

• 很少有人能品味皱纹背后那岁月与历史很少有人能品味皱纹背后那岁月与历史拂过的幽香。她们无须再用铅华刻意雕拂过的幽香。她们无须再用铅华刻意雕饰 饰

• The furrows ploughed by time deny repleniThe furrows ploughed by time deny replenishment with cosmetics, for they are fertile sshment with cosmetics, for they are fertile soil radiating the fragrance of history. oil radiating the fragrance of history.

4.2.3.3 4.2.3.3 感觉名词感觉名词

• 当一个女人突然之间意识到自己是一个当一个女人突然之间意识到自己是一个女人并且为自己的性别感到自豪时，是女人并且为自己的性别感到自豪时，是女人最美的时候。女人最美的时候。

• A woman is never more beautiful when the A woman is never more beautiful when the full sense of being a female dawns on her afull sense of being a female dawns on her and makes her very proud of the sex.nd makes her very proud of the sex.

Warm-up activityWarm-up activity

Read the story on P2 and answer Read the story on P2 and answer the questionsthe questions

Main idea Major supporting detail Minor supporting detail Minor supporting detail Major supporting detail Minor supporting detail

The structure of a paragraph

• Major details:Major details: Essential to understanding the main ideaEssential to understanding the main idea

• Minor Details:Minor Details: Without them, understandable, but Without them, understandable, but

dull (boring), uninterestingdull (boring), uninteresting

Major and Minor Supporting DetailsMajor and Minor Supporting Details

Paragraph 2Paragraph 2

• Woolly: covered with woolWoolly: covered with wool• Stiff: not easily bentStiff: not easily bent• Swift: quickSwift: quick• Antennae: antenna Antennae: antenna 触角、触须触角、触须• Seize: grabSeize: grab• Insect: Insect: 昆虫昆虫• Motion: movingMotion: moving• Frame: Frame: （影片的）一个镜头（影片的）一个镜头• Capture: take (sb/ sth) as a presentCapture: take (sb/ sth) as a present• Stimulation: Stimulation: 刺激刺激• Merely: onlyMerely: only• Limb: leg, arm or wingLimb: leg, arm or wing

Paragraph 4Paragraph 4

• Predestined: decided by fPredestined: decided by fateate

• Embracing: includingEmbracing: including• Possess: ownPossess: own• Deserve: to be entitled Deserve: to be entitled

应得应得• Peninsula: Peninsula: 半岛半岛• Thrust: push suddenlyThrust: push suddenly• Mass: Mass: 块、团块、团

• Variable: changeableVariable: changeable• Adequate: sufficientAdequate: sufficient• Convoluted: twisted Convoluted: twisted 弯曲弯曲

的的• Inlet: Inlet: 水湾（江河湖海伸水湾（江河湖海伸

入陆地货岛屿间的水域）入陆地货岛屿间的水域）• Moderating: lessModerating: less• Numerous: very manyNumerous: very many• Navigable: suitable to sailNavigable: suitable to sail

• Lies at the centre of Africo-Eurasian land massLies at the centre of Africo-Eurasian land mass

• Faces towards the AmericasFaces towards the Americas

• Ideal climateIdeal climate

• Excellent harborsExcellent harbors

• Navigable riversNavigable rivers

Geographical advantages of EuropeGeographical advantages of Europe

Organizational Organizational PatternsPatterns

of of

Supporting DetailsSupporting Details

Commonly used patterns of Commonly used patterns of organizing supporting detailsorganizing supporting details

• Chronological (Time) orderChronological (Time) order• processprocess• order of importanceorder of importance• cause and effectcause and effect • comparison and contrastcomparison and contrast• simple listingsimple listing• spatial development spatial development • definitiondefinition

Group competitionGroup competition

Chronological (Time) OrderChronological (Time) Order

FirstFirst

SecondSecond

Etc.Etc.

SoonSoon

ThenThen

NextNext

BeforeBefore

LaterLater

FinallyFinally

At lastAt last

AfterwardsAfterwards

NowNow

WhenWhen

WhileWhile

DuringDuring

MeanwhileMeanwhile

Chronological (Time) OrderChronological (Time) Order

At the same timeAt the same time

At that pointAt that point

By the timeBy the time

After a whileAfter a while

In the endIn the end

before thatbefore that

LastlyLastly

At this momentAt this moment

Next timeNext timeAt onceAt onceOn another occasionOn another occasionHereHereHitherto(Hitherto( 至今至今 ))Until thenUntil thenStraightawayStraightawayPreviouslyPreviously

How to use hold and use chopsticks?How to use hold and use chopsticks?

·· (First)(First) Form a loose fistForm a loose fist （拳头）（拳头） with your thumbwith your thumb （拇（拇指）指） facing up. facing up.

• (Second)(Second) Slip the lower chopstick into the crux (the most v Slip the lower chopstick into the crux (the most vital part) of your hand and over the tip of your middle fingital part) of your hand and over the tip of your middle finger, with the narrow end of the chopstick jutting (stand out) er, with the narrow end of the chopstick jutting (stand out) about 5 inches beyond the tip of your finger. about 5 inches beyond the tip of your finger.

• ((ThenThen)) Grip (take firm hold of) the upper chopstick someth Grip (take firm hold of) the upper chopstick something like a pencil between the thumb and forefinger (index fing like a pencil between the thumb and forefinger (index fingeringer 食指食指 ). The tips of the chopsticks should be even (fla). The tips of the chopsticks should be even (flat).t).

• ((LastLast)) (To pick up food, move the top chopstick up and do (To pick up food, move the top chopstick up and down with your index finger. The lower chopstick, held in plwn with your index finger. The lower chopstick, held in place with your thumb, should remain stationary(not movinace with your thumb, should remain stationary(not moving).g).

ProcessProcess

FirstFirst

SecondSecond

Etc.Etc.

ThenThen

NextNext

AfterAfter

BeforeBefore

LastLast

The most importantThe most important

..

..

Order of importanceOrder of importance

FirstFirst

SecondSecond

Etc.Etc.

NextNext

LastLast

Most importantMost important

LeastLeast

PrimaryPrimary

LessLess

MoreMore

PrimarilyPrimarily

SecondarilySecondarily

Cause and EffectCause and Effect

• One of the most common and wide-used One of the most common and wide-used pattern in English writing.pattern in English writing.

• There are two ways of organizing a There are two ways of organizing a paragraph:paragraph:

a. a. From Effect to Cause From Effect to Cause b. b. From Cause to EffectFrom Cause to Effect

From Effect to Cause (Topic sentence ):From Effect to Cause (Topic sentence ):

When you begin to plan your career, you When you begin to plan your career, you may find that your parents are interested may find that your parents are interested and highly involved.and highly involved.

Causes (Major supporting details):Causes (Major supporting details):

● ● Some parents find in their children’s job Some parents find in their children’s job selection a chance to make up for their selection a chance to make up for their own failure or their own lack of own failure or their own lack of opportunity.opportunity.

●● Most parents intend to be helpful and Most parents intend to be helpful and prevent you from making mistakes.prevent you from making mistakes.

From Cause to Effect ( Topic sentence ):From Cause to Effect ( Topic sentence ):

More and more fertile land in China is takenMore and more fertile land in China is taken

by new amenities ( by new amenities ( 生活福利设施生活福利设施 ), such as), such as

bowling alleys, sports stadiums, golf courses, etc.bowling alleys, sports stadiums, golf courses, etc.

EffectsEffects::

It would subsequently caused – It would subsequently caused –

the reduction of the grain outputthe reduction of the grain output

the reduction of natural resourcesthe reduction of natural resources

increasing environmental problemsincreasing environmental problems

too many farmers moving into the citytoo many farmers moving into the city

Cause & effectCause & effect

ReasonReason

CauseCause

EffectEffect

ConsequenceConsequence

BecauseBecause

So So

ThereforeTherefore

For this reasonFor this reason

SinceSinceConsequentlyConsequentlyAs a resultAs a resultBecause ofBecause ofThusThusHenceHenceOwing to Owing to Due toDue toNow thatNow thatThenThen

Cause & effectCause & effect

An effect ofAn effect of

OtherwiseOtherwise

YetYet

Despite thisDespite this

All the sameAll the same

AccordinglyAccordingly

MoreoverMoreover

CCaused byaused by

IIn that casen that caseSStilltill

AAn outcome ofn outcome ofSSo aso asNNeverthelesseverthelessHoweverHoweverStemmed (Stemmed (源于源于 ) from) fromAs a consequence ofAs a consequence ofThoughThoughEEven thoughven thoughAAn upshot (n upshot ( 结果结果 ) of) ofUUnder thender the circumstancescircumstances

Comparison / ContrastComparison / Contrast

• Comparison shows theComparison shows the similarities similarities. .

• Contrast shows theContrast shows the differencesdifferences..

Two ways to organize the Two ways to organize the paragraph:paragraph:

a. Examine one thing thoroughly and then a. Examine one thing thoroughly and then examine the other. examine the other. ( Paragraph on P 9 )( Paragraph on P 9 )

Similarities between Grant and Lee:Similarities between Grant and Lee: (a) family background(a) family background (b) military experiences(b) military experiences (c) position & fame(c) position & fame (d) financial problems after the Civil War.(d) financial problems after the Civil War.

Teachers and ActorsTeachers and Actors

( ( ComparisonComparison ) )

To be a good teacher, you need To be a good teacher, you need some of the giftssome of the gifts of a of a good actor: you must be able to good actor: you must be able to hold the attention and hold the attention and interest of your audienceinterest of your audience; you must be ; you must be a clear speaker, a clear speaker, with a good, strong, pleasing voicewith a good, strong, pleasing voice which is fully under which is fully under your control; and you must be able to your control; and you must be able to act what you are act what you are teachingteaching,, in order to make its meaning clear. in order to make its meaning clear.

b. Examine two things at the same b. Examine two things at the same time, discussing them point by point.time, discussing them point by point. (Teachers and actors )(Teachers and actors )

Watch a good teacher, and you Watch a good teacher, and you willwill see that he see that he does not sit motionlessdoes not sit motionless before his class: he before his class: he stands the whole stands the whole timetime he is teaching; he he is teaching; he walks about, walks about, using his arms, hands and fingersusing his arms, hands and fingers to to help him in his explanations, and his help him in his explanations, and his face to express feelings. face to express feelings. Listen to him, Listen to him, and you willand you will hear hear the loudness, the the loudness, the quality and the musical notequality and the musical note of his of his voice always changing according to voice always changing according to what he is talking about.what he is talking about.

( Transitional Paragraph( Transitional Paragraph ) )

The fact that a good teacher has The fact that a good teacher has some of the gifts of a good actor some of the gifts of a good actor doesn’t meandoesn’t mean that he will indeed be that he will indeed be able to act well on the stage, for able to act well on the stage, for there are very there are very important differencesimportant differences between the teacher’s work and the between the teacher’s work and the actor’s. actor’s.

( Contrast )( Contrast ) The actor has to The actor has to speak words which he has speak words which he has

learnt by heartlearnt by heart; he has to ; he has to repeat exactlyrepeat exactly the the same words each time he plays a certain same words each time he plays a certain part, even his movements and the ways in part, even his movements and the ways in which he uses his voice are usually which he uses his voice are usually fixed fixed beforehandbeforehand. What he has to do is to . What he has to do is to makemake all these carefully all these carefully learnt wordslearnt words and and actionsactions seem seem natural natural on the stage.on the stage.

A good teacher works in quite a different A good teacher works in quite a different way. His way. His audience takes an active partaudience takes an active part in his in his play: they play: they ask and answer questionsask and answer questions, they , they obey ordersobey orders, and if they don’t understand , and if they don’t understand something, they say so. The something, they say so. The teacherteacher thereforetherefore has to has to suit his act to the needs of suit his act to the needs of his audiencehis audience, which is his class. He , which is his class. He cannot cannot learn his part by heartlearn his part by heart, but must , but must inventinvent it as it as he goes along.he goes along.

I have known many teachers who were I have known many teachers who were fine actors in class but were unable to take fine actors in class but were unable to take part in a stage-play because their brains part in a stage-play because their brains wouldn’t keep discipline: they could not wouldn’t keep discipline: they could not keep strictly to what another had written. keep strictly to what another had written.

Conclusion:Conclusion:

A good teacher having some of the A good teacher having some of the gifts of a good actor gifts of a good actor doesn’t meandoesn’t mean that that he will indeed be able to act well on he will indeed be able to act well on the stage.the stage.

ComparisonComparison

nevertheless(nevertheless( 然而然而 ))

differs from(differs from( 不同不同 ))

on the contraryon the contrary

RatherRather

ElsewhereElsewhere

InsteadInstead

on the other handon the other hand

AlsoAlso

in that respectin that respect

AlternativelyAlternatively

in spite of thisin spite of this

WhereasWhereas

on the other handon the other hand

in other respectsin other respects

ContrastContrast

DifferentDifferent

DifferenceDifference

DifferDiffer

HoweverHowever

UnlikeUnlike

ButBut

AlthoughAlthough

YetYet

WhileWhile

On the other handOn the other hand

In contrastIn contrast

InsteadInstead

NeverthelessNevertheless

ContrastContrast

On the contraryOn the contrary

More thanMore than

Less thanLess than

YetYet

by contrastby contrast

after allafter all

ConverselyConversely （（相反相反地）地）

StillStillRatherRatherNotwithstanding(Notwithstanding(尽尽

管管 ,,还是还是 ))for all that(for all that( 虽然如此虽然如此 ))nonetheless(nonetheless(尽管如尽管如

此此 ))at the same timeat the same time

Simple ListingSimple Listing

● ● Items are Items are randomlyrandomly listed in a series of listed in a series of supporting facts or details.supporting facts or details.

●● Changing the order of the items does not Changing the order of the items does not change the meaning of the paragraph.change the meaning of the paragraph.

Simple listingSimple listing

SeveralSeveral

A number ofA number of

Different kinds/ types/ Different kinds/ types/ waysways

ClassesClasses

CategoriesCategories

AnotherAnother

AlsoAlso

In additionIn addition

FinallyFinally

For one thingFor one thing

For anotherFor another

For exampleFor example

For instanceFor instance

Spatial developmentSpatial development

Next toNext to

BesideBeside

To the leftTo the left

In the centre/ middleIn the centre/ middle

OuterOuter

BeneathBeneath

BehindBehind

UnderUnder

OverOver

InsideInsideNorthNorthSouthSouthEtc.Etc.In frontIn frontWhereWhereIn whichIn whichFrom whichFrom whichBelowBelowDownDown

DefinitionDefinition

IsIs

MeanMean

Define Define

Explain Explain

Refer toRefer to

DefinitionDefinition

In other wordsIn other words

Speed-up signals

Slow-down

signals

Maintain-speed signals

AdditionalExample & illustration

Change in thoughtSummery or conclusionEmphasisContrast

Order or sequenceCause and effect

• Firstly,

• Secondly,

• In addition / Moreover,

• Equally important,

• Moreover/ In addition,

• Another

Key to Passage on P 13

• Basically,

• but,

• but,

• though,

• Therefore,

• and,

• on the whole

Key to Passage on P 14