Unit 2 Unit 2

RemovalsRemovals

Sovereignty of Indian Sovereignty of Indian NationsNations

The United States claims never to have conquered The United States claims never to have conquered the native Americans.the native Americans.

Each tribe was recognized as a separate and Each tribe was recognized as a separate and sovereign nation living within the boundaries of the sovereign nation living within the boundaries of the United States.United States.

Indian nations elected their own officials and made Indian nations elected their own officials and made their own laws within the borders of their own their own laws within the borders of their own lands- but the US made the final decisions lands- but the US made the final decisions concerning what to do with Indian land.concerning what to do with Indian land.

Christian ethics discourages making war against Christian ethics discourages making war against another nations simply for the purpose of securing another nations simply for the purpose of securing land, so the Doctrine of Discovery was formulatedland, so the Doctrine of Discovery was formulated

Doctrine of DiscoveryDoctrine of Discovery

The Doctrine of Discovery gave ownership The Doctrine of Discovery gave ownership of land in the New World to the government of land in the New World to the government of the explorer who made the discovery.of the explorer who made the discovery.

The doctrine made the Indians the “rightful The doctrine made the Indians the “rightful occupant” of the land, while giving legal occupant” of the land, while giving legal ownership to the European governments. ownership to the European governments. Therefore the of the Indians to the use of Therefore the of the Indians to the use of the land had to be purchased or otherwise the land had to be purchased or otherwise legally obtained. These rights could not legally obtained. These rights could not simply be violated.simply be violated.

Doctrine cont.Doctrine cont.

The most common legal document dealing with tribal lands The most common legal document dealing with tribal lands was the treaty.was the treaty.

Between 1778 and 1871 the U.S. government negotiated Between 1778 and 1871 the U.S. government negotiated more than 400 treaties with Indian tribes, called nations in more than 400 treaties with Indian tribes, called nations in those documents.those documents.

Because of the Americans’ belief in the Doctrine of Because of the Americans’ belief in the Doctrine of Discovery, all the agreements made between the Discovery, all the agreements made between the government and the Indian tribes contained four specific government and the Indian tribes contained four specific policiespolicies The government acknowledged Indian rights to occupy and use The government acknowledged Indian rights to occupy and use

tribal lands.tribal lands. The government offered to protect the Indians and their rights.The government offered to protect the Indians and their rights. The government agreed to provide services in exchange for The government agreed to provide services in exchange for

tribal landstribal lands The government precluded anyone other than itself form The government precluded anyone other than itself form

disposing of or otherwise altering the status of tribal lands.disposing of or otherwise altering the status of tribal lands.

Discovery cont.Discovery cont.

The Doctrine of Discovery had two The Doctrine of Discovery had two main effects on Indian-U.S. main effects on Indian-U.S. Government relationsGovernment relations It prevented the United States from It prevented the United States from

trying to conquer Indians trying to conquer Indians Indian tribes were recognized as Indian tribes were recognized as

sovereign nationssovereign nations

Property ownershipProperty ownership

The earliest land transactions between the colonists and The earliest land transactions between the colonists and the Indians led to misgivings and mistrust on both sides. the Indians led to misgivings and mistrust on both sides. That was because their ideas concerning land ownership That was because their ideas concerning land ownership were so different.were so different. The Europeans, particularly from England, regarded individual The Europeans, particularly from England, regarded individual

land ownership as the ultimate goal, a sign of success. In land ownership as the ultimate goal, a sign of success. In England, a persons importance in the community was based on England, a persons importance in the community was based on how much property he owned.how much property he owned.

The Indians regarded individual land ownership as impossible. The Indians regarded individual land ownership as impossible. The Great Spirit had made the land and provided it for use. In The Great Spirit had made the land and provided it for use. In their philosophy, land was as necessary to survival as food and their philosophy, land was as necessary to survival as food and shelter. They used it collectively and no individual could own shelter. They used it collectively and no individual could own land.land.

When colonist bought tribal lands, they meant to buy it on a When colonist bought tribal lands, they meant to buy it on a permanent basis. When Indians sold land, they were only permanent basis. When Indians sold land, they were only selling the rights to use it for a limited period of time, as in selling the rights to use it for a limited period of time, as in rentingrenting

Conflict of InterestConflict of Interest

As the white population grew, the need for land As the white population grew, the need for land grew. As the need for land grew, hostility grew grew. As the need for land grew, hostility grew on both sides.on both sides.

The Indians regarded the colonists as poachers The Indians regarded the colonists as poachers encroaching on tribal ground and they began encroaching on tribal ground and they began to attack frontier settlements to protect their to attack frontier settlements to protect their lands.lands.

The colonist, who considered the Indian inferior The colonist, who considered the Indian inferior because of his lack of Christian beliefs, became because of his lack of Christian beliefs, became more solidly convinced of Indian inferiority.more solidly convinced of Indian inferiority.

King Phillip’s WarKing Phillip’s War

In 1675, a Wampanoag In 1675, a Wampanoag chief, King Phillip, led chief, King Phillip, led his people against the his people against the Massachusetts settlers.Massachusetts settlers.

IN 1676, King Phillip IN 1676, King Phillip was killed, and his wife was killed, and his wife and children were sold and children were sold into slavery.into slavery.

““King Phillips War” was King Phillips War” was endedended

It had cemented white It had cemented white belief that Indians were belief that Indians were bloodthirsty savages.bloodthirsty savages.

Rights of ConquestRights of Conquest

The American Revolution and the decision of The American Revolution and the decision of many Indian tribes to ally with the British many Indian tribes to ally with the British provided additional reasons for taking Indian provided additional reasons for taking Indian lands. Referring to “reparations of war” American lands. Referring to “reparations of war” American militia groups rode west, rounding up Indian militia groups rode west, rounding up Indian groups and confiscating their lands.groups and confiscating their lands.

For a short time, Americans claimed the r”rights For a short time, Americans claimed the r”rights of conquest” because the Indians had been of conquest” because the Indians had been defeated along with the British.defeated along with the British.

The U.S. government returned to the policy The U.S. government returned to the policy previously held by the British government – that previously held by the British government – that Indians were entitled to occupy their land, but the Indians were entitled to occupy their land, but the government actually owned it.government actually owned it.

Solutions to the Indian Solutions to the Indian problemproblem

Thomas Jefferson who did not believe the Indians were Inferior Thomas Jefferson who did not believe the Indians were Inferior people, favored acculturation and assimilation. people, favored acculturation and assimilation.

Jefferson believed strongly in the agrarian society, and he Jefferson believed strongly in the agrarian society, and he encouraged programs through which the Indians could be encouraged programs through which the Indians could be convinced to cease being hunters and start being farmers.convinced to cease being hunters and start being farmers.

Education appeared to be the best tool with which to accomplish Education appeared to be the best tool with which to accomplish that goal, and systems were established for education Indian that goal, and systems were established for education Indian children.children.

After 1803 and the Louisiana Purchase Jefferson saw new After 1803 and the Louisiana Purchase Jefferson saw new possibilities for solving the Indian problem. He proposed to possibilities for solving the Indian problem. He proposed to exchange land in the west for land in the east and move Indian exchange land in the west for land in the east and move Indian tribes to new ground s far away from white encroachmenttribes to new ground s far away from white encroachment

Jefferson believed that assimilation of Indians into the Anglo-Jefferson believed that assimilation of Indians into the Anglo-American world was the ideal solution. Removal was the answer American world was the ideal solution. Removal was the answer for those Indians who were unable to handle living the white mans for those Indians who were unable to handle living the white mans way.way.

Public Demands Public Demands

The War of 1812 had played a big part in creating pioneer The War of 1812 had played a big part in creating pioneer attitudes. Some Indian tribes again allied with the British, attitudes. Some Indian tribes again allied with the British, had committed treason in the eyes of many Americans.had committed treason in the eyes of many Americans.

They demanded that the government punish all Indians and They demanded that the government punish all Indians and they considered tribal removal and government they considered tribal removal and government confiscation of tribal lands a just punishment.confiscation of tribal lands a just punishment.

This was despite the fact that Cherokees, Choctaws, This was despite the fact that Cherokees, Choctaws, Chickasaws and many creeks remained loyal to the U.S. Chickasaws and many creeks remained loyal to the U.S. government.government.

Whites had the power to vote and Indians did not. Whites Whites had the power to vote and Indians did not. Whites began to elect public officials who were willing to began to elect public officials who were willing to concentrate their efforts on removing the Indian from concentrate their efforts on removing the Indian from Eastern soil. Eastern soil.

The election of Andrew Jackson as President in 1828 had a The election of Andrew Jackson as President in 1828 had a profound effect on Indian removal. Jackson was dedicated profound effect on Indian removal. Jackson was dedicated to Indian removalto Indian removal

Indian RemovalsIndian Removals

John C. Calhoun, Secretary of War, was the John C. Calhoun, Secretary of War, was the primary creator of Indian Removal as the primary creator of Indian Removal as the answer to the Indian problem. He answer to the Indian problem. He advocated education before removal. advocated education before removal.

He believed that if Indians were educated He believed that if Indians were educated according to white ways, they would according to white ways, they would realize that removal was the best thing realize that removal was the best thing for them, especially as they became more for them, especially as they became more civilized.civilized.

Treaty of Doak’s Last StandTreaty of Doak’s Last Stand

Beginning in 1818, for three consecutive years , Beginning in 1818, for three consecutive years , Indian commissioners met annually with Choctaw Indian commissioners met annually with Choctaw leaders to discuss removal. In 1820, they met at leaders to discuss removal. In 1820, they met at Doak’s Stand, Mississippi, to discuss a treaty in Doak’s Stand, Mississippi, to discuss a treaty in which Choctaws would cede five million acres, which Choctaws would cede five million acres, about one third of the land in the east in exchange about one third of the land in the east in exchange for thirteen million acres in the west, financial and for thirteen million acres in the west, financial and technical assistance with moving, and annual technical assistance with moving, and annual payments to the tribe.payments to the tribe.

October 18 1820 the Choctaw leaders and Indian October 18 1820 the Choctaw leaders and Indian commissioners signed the Treaty of Doak’s Stand.commissioners signed the Treaty of Doak’s Stand.

The government had promised land to the The government had promised land to the Choctaws which was settled by whites- the Choctaws which was settled by whites- the Choctaws refused to keep the agreement.Choctaws refused to keep the agreement.

Indian Removal ActIndian Removal Act

When Andrew Jackson was elected When Andrew Jackson was elected President removal efforts intensified.President removal efforts intensified.

In May 1830 Congress passed the Indian In May 1830 Congress passed the Indian removal act. This act, although calling for removal act. This act, although calling for land exchanges with the Indians, did not land exchanges with the Indians, did not authorize a forced removal. It did however authorize a forced removal. It did however give Jackson the power to push for give Jackson the power to push for removal and many Indians saw the removal and many Indians saw the inevitability of it.inevitability of it.

Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Treaty of Dancing Rabbit CreekCreek

September 1830 negotiations September 1830 negotiations reopened between the reopened between the government and Choctaws.government and Choctaws.

Choctaws expressed Choctaws expressed dissatisfaction with the land dissatisfaction with the land they were offered in the West. they were offered in the West. Further they asked for other Further they asked for other concessions.concessions.

The commissioners The commissioners threatened to close threatened to close negotiations and reminded negotiations and reminded the Choctaws that they could the Choctaws that they could remain in the East and be remain in the East and be subject to the oppressive subject to the oppressive state laws.state laws.

The Treaty of Dancing Rabbit The Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek was signed on Creek was signed on December 27, 1830.December 27, 1830.

Removal beginsRemoval begins

The governments counted 18,635 The governments counted 18,635 Indians, whites married to Indians, and Indians, whites married to Indians, and slaves belonging to the Indians to be slaves belonging to the Indians to be removed.removed.

The first party of 4,000 finally left for The first party of 4,000 finally left for Indian territory in October 1831. Divided Indian territory in October 1831. Divided into three groups, the last of the party into three groups, the last of the party arrived at their destination in March arrived at their destination in March 1832.1832.

250 died on the trip250 died on the trip

Second RemovalSecond Removal

John Robb, acting Secretary of War, declared that the cost John Robb, acting Secretary of War, declared that the cost of the first removal handled by civilian contractors had of the first removal handled by civilian contractors had been too high. He ordered the army to carry out the second been too high. He ordered the army to carry out the second removal, which again was not ready until October because removal, which again was not ready until October because of the many governmental changes and delays.of the many governmental changes and delays.

Travel was slow because the government decided that Travel was slow because the government decided that everyone who was not sick or elderly would have to walk.everyone who was not sick or elderly would have to walk.

Hope disappeared when a cholera epidemic struck the Hope disappeared when a cholera epidemic struck the group.group.

This removal was more successful than the first removal. This removal was more successful than the first removal. More Indians were removed for less money but human More Indians were removed for less money but human suffering had been worse and the death toll higher.suffering had been worse and the death toll higher.

Third RemovalThird Removal

Preparations were made for the third removal, Preparations were made for the third removal, but news of the suffering of the first two parties but news of the suffering of the first two parties had reached the Choctaws in Mississippi. Many had reached the Choctaws in Mississippi. Many refused to go fearing for their lives.refused to go fearing for their lives.

In October 1833, only about 900 Choctaws In October 1833, only about 900 Choctaws reported for removal, and their trip was no better reported for removal, and their trip was no better than the first two.than the first two.

A boiler explosion aboard a river boat killed A boiler explosion aboard a river boat killed several so that some two thirds of the group several so that some two thirds of the group refused to board another boat. Instead they refused to board another boat. Instead they walked overland through heavy rains without walked overland through heavy rains without adequate suppliesadequate supplies

Protests of Inhuman Protests of Inhuman treatmenttreatment

Many whites who witnessed the Many whites who witnessed the suffering experienced by the suffering experienced by the Choctaws on them Trail of Tears Choctaws on them Trail of Tears wrote to officials in Washington wrote to officials in Washington protesting the inhumane conditions.protesting the inhumane conditions.

The CreeksThe Creeks

The Creeks were divided into two The Creeks were divided into two distinct factions. The Lower distinct factions. The Lower Creeks, and The Upper Creeks.Creeks, and The Upper Creeks.

In 1811 the Creek council passed In 1811 the Creek council passed a measure imposing the death a measure imposing the death penalty on anyone who signed penalty on anyone who signed agreements ceding Creek lands agreements ceding Creek lands without approval of the council.without approval of the council.

When John Quincy Adams learned When John Quincy Adams learned of the Creeks hostility he invited of the Creeks hostility he invited tribal chiefs to Washington to tribal chiefs to Washington to draft an agreement.draft an agreement.

This agreement called for ceding This agreement called for ceding Creek lands in Georgia and the Creek lands in Georgia and the Creeks to be removed to new Creeks to be removed to new lands.lands.

March 1832 Opothleyahola and March 1832 Opothleyahola and six other chiefs signed an six other chiefs signed an agreement ceding all tribal lands agreement ceding all tribal lands east of the Mississippi.east of the Mississippi.

Reduction of Chickasaw Reduction of Chickasaw LandsLands

Most Chickasaws had turned to farming only after Most Chickasaws had turned to farming only after reduction of tribal lands had made hunting reduction of tribal lands had made hunting unprofitable.unprofitable.

The government had used various tactics to gain the The government had used various tactics to gain the lands.lands.

In 1802 the federal government had set up In 1802 the federal government had set up “factories” or trading posts through which tribesmen “factories” or trading posts through which tribesmen could buy their goods on credit. The Chickasaws were could buy their goods on credit. The Chickasaws were encouraged to use the credit method to build up encouraged to use the credit method to build up debts, so that pressure could be put exerted against debts, so that pressure could be put exerted against them to cede their lands in payment.them to cede their lands in payment.

In 1805 the Chickasaws ceded all their lands north of In 1805 the Chickasaws ceded all their lands north of the Tennessee River in payment of their $12,000 the Tennessee River in payment of their $12,000 debt to the governmentdebt to the government

Treaty of PontotocTreaty of Pontotoc

Signed in 1832 the Signed in 1832 the Treaty of Pontotoc Treaty of Pontotoc ceded all ceded all Chickasaw land Chickasaw land east of the east of the Mississippi in Mississippi in exchange for lands exchange for lands in the west. More in the west. More than six million than six million acres of Chickasaw acres of Chickasaw land was to be sold.land was to be sold.

Treaty of DoaksvilleTreaty of Doaksville

January 17, 1837 Chickasaw leaders signed January 17, 1837 Chickasaw leaders signed an agreement with Choctaw leaders in the an agreement with Choctaw leaders in the west. At Doaksville, Choctaw Nation, the west. At Doaksville, Choctaw Nation, the Choctaws agreed to sell a portion of central Choctaws agreed to sell a portion of central and western areas of their nation in and western areas of their nation in southern Indian Territory to the Chickasaws southern Indian Territory to the Chickasaws for 530,000for 530,000

Within a month of signing the Treaty of Within a month of signing the Treaty of Doaksville, preparations were being made Doaksville, preparations were being made for the first emigration.for the first emigration.

First RemovalFirst Removal

June 1837 the first group of 450 Chickasaws June 1837 the first group of 450 Chickasaws moved out of Chief Sealy’s district behind moved out of Chief Sealy’s district behind conductor John Millard. They crossed the conductor John Millard. They crossed the Mississippi from Memphis in to Arkansas. Mississippi from Memphis in to Arkansas. Almost immediately encountered drenching Almost immediately encountered drenching rains so furious that roads were completely rains so furious that roads were completely washed out. Camps were wet and fired washed out. Camps were wet and fired impossible. Dysentery and fever began to impossible. Dysentery and fever began to take their toll.take their toll.

Second RemovalSecond Removal

Some 4,000 Chickasaws were moved Some 4,000 Chickasaws were moved to emigration camps and marched to emigration camps and marched from there to Memphis where they from there to Memphis where they were to be moved to Fort Coffee by were to be moved to Fort Coffee by riverboats.riverboats.

Thousands refused after hearing of Thousands refused after hearing of the boiler explosion but were finally the boiler explosion but were finally convinced to go.convinced to go.

In Indian TerritoryIn Indian Territory

Although the Chickasaws did not suffer as greatly Although the Chickasaws did not suffer as greatly on their removal journey as did the other tribes, on their removal journey as did the other tribes, their suffering did not stop when they reached their suffering did not stop when they reached Indian Territory .Indian Territory .

Harassed by bands of Kiowa's, Comanche's and Harassed by bands of Kiowa's, Comanche's and other Western tribes who resented the other Western tribes who resented the newcomers that they considered poachersnewcomers that they considered poachers

Smallpox and other diseases killed more than 500 Smallpox and other diseases killed more than 500 Chickasaws and the Choctaws who had come into Chickasaws and the Choctaws who had come into contact with them.contact with them.

The Cherokees were the first to give the western The Cherokees were the first to give the western journey a name – “The Trail Where They Cried” journey a name – “The Trail Where They Cried” later shortened to the Trail of Tears.later shortened to the Trail of Tears.

The Old SettlersThe Old Settlers

Traveling West of the Mississippi to hunt some Cherokees Traveling West of the Mississippi to hunt some Cherokees had decided to stay there, away from the influence of white had decided to stay there, away from the influence of white people.people.

They sent for their families or returned home and They sent for their families or returned home and accompanied them west to establish their new homes in accompanied them west to establish their new homes in the 1790’sthe 1790’s

The Treaty of 1817 was the first treaty with any of the The Treaty of 1817 was the first treaty with any of the southeastern Indians that referred to removal. Hoping for a southeastern Indians that referred to removal. Hoping for a peaceful move they found different in the west when their peaceful move they found different in the west when their tribesmen were at war with the Osages. tribesmen were at war with the Osages.

The rest of the Cherokees were removed in several parties The rest of the Cherokees were removed in several parties during winter of 1838-1839. They had only the clothes they during winter of 1838-1839. They had only the clothes they were wearing when driven out of their homes.were wearing when driven out of their homes.

With insufficient supplies no one knows the exact number With insufficient supplies no one knows the exact number of lives lost, but it is estimated that one-fourth of those of lives lost, but it is estimated that one-fourth of those removed died either in the stockades or on the trail west.removed died either in the stockades or on the trail west.

SeminolesSeminoles

By April 1835 the Seminoles were still By April 1835 the Seminoles were still staunchly refusing to prepare for removal. staunchly refusing to prepare for removal. They vowed they would stay in FloridaThey vowed they would stay in Florida

After being forcibly removed more than 40 After being forcibly removed more than 40 percent of their number died and 1,500 percent of their number died and 1,500 soldiers were killed during the removalsoldiers were killed during the removal

The Seminoles were given a portion of the The Seminoles were given a portion of the Creek lands and they were at first under Creek lands and they were at first under Creek rule.Creek rule.

Western MovementWestern Movement

The Five Civilized tribes were not the only Indians The Five Civilized tribes were not the only Indians to be removed to Indian Territory. Many Western to be removed to Indian Territory. Many Western tribes were given land there in exchange or the tribes were given land there in exchange or the land they had previously called home.land they had previously called home.

As they tired of fighting , small groups of Kiowa’s, As they tired of fighting , small groups of Kiowa’s, southern Cheyenne's, and Comanche's signed southern Cheyenne's, and Comanche's signed peace treaties and moved into land designated peace treaties and moved into land designated for themfor them

Two events escalated the Western movement of Two events escalated the Western movement of whiteswhites The Mexican War of 1846-1848 The Mexican War of 1846-1848 The discovery of gold in California in 1848The discovery of gold in California in 1848

No Man’s LandNo Man’s Land

The most lawless area of the The most lawless area of the region was attached neither to region was attached neither to the U.S. nor to Indian Territory. It the U.S. nor to Indian Territory. It was No Mans Land, which is now was No Mans Land, which is now the panhandle of Oklahomathe panhandle of Oklahoma

Left over after the Texas borders Left over after the Texas borders were set no one noticed this were set no one noticed this orphaned area.orphaned area.

For many years the only people in For many years the only people in No Mans Land were travelers- No Mans Land were travelers- traders going to and from Santa traders going to and from Santa Fe, Indians following Buffalo Fe, Indians following Buffalo herds, gold-seekers on their way herds, gold-seekers on their way to the west coast, or settlers on to the west coast, or settlers on their way to Oregon.their way to Oregon.

There was little law in No Mans There was little law in No Mans Land for no state law reigned over Land for no state law reigned over it and there was not immediate it and there was not immediate cause to exercise federal lawcause to exercise federal law

It became a haven for outlaws.It became a haven for outlaws.