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Unit 2: Integrating theory and practice In this unit you will find the following sections:

2.1 Early Literacy teacher education: integrating theory and practice; 2.2 Guided Reflection as a means to integrate theory and practice; 2.3 Using DVDs to support Guided Reflection as a way to integrate theory and practice; 2.4 Getting familiar with reflective practice: Reflective activities; 2.5 Foundation Phase Teacher Education: when theory meets practice.

2.1 Early literacy teacher education: integrating theory and practice

Types of theories about learning Over many years scholars have sought to understand the nature of learning and different theories have been published. In educational research, the question of how children learn to read has prompted more research than any other language-related question. The debates continue today, particularly in understanding how digital literacies are developing new vocabulary, and changing the way people read, write, relate to one another and do things in the world. About 25 000 new words are added to the Oxford English Dictionary each year. Most of these words relate to the new technologies, also known as digital literacies. All of us, whether scholars or not, hold personal theories, which include views about how children learn and what effective teaching is. Barton (1994:15) makes a useful distinction between two types of theory:

As part of living we all make sense of our lives: we can talk about what we do; we explain and justify our actions, our feelings and our intentions. We construct theories to make sense of the world. Our theories affect our actions, just as our emotions and our intentions affect our actions. We adjust and change our theories in the light of experience. This applies to literacy as much as it does to any other part of life. Everyone who uses the term ‘reading’ has a theory of what reading is and how best reading happens. I (am going to) call these views of reading everyday theories of reading.

An example of a popular everyday theory is that reading is best taught by teachers, who are professionals and that parents have little or no role. Academics, researchers, curriculum planners, and teachers, amongst others, also hold theories, which Barton (1994:15) refers to as ‘professional’ or ‘academic’ theories. The term ‘formal theories’ is also popularly used by many writers. Barton describes the difference between everyday theories and academic theories in this way:

The main difference between every day and professional or academic theories is that the latter are often more articulated and explicit; often they aim to be more general;

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they can be checked in systematic ways and they become formalised into a seemingly impersonal body of knowledge; and they are often passed on in an explicit way by teaching. They often have higher status, partly by getting into print. Nevertheless, professional theories can be wrong, misleading and even harmful, and they are not necessarily superior to everyday theories. It is important not to give special privilege to professional theories as being inevitably right, or perfect, or as replacing everyday theories. (Barton, 1994:15)

Whilst working through this Literacy Guide, students will reflect on the personal, everyday theories they hold about learning and teaching alongside the more formal academic theories developed by scholars to do with the early development of childhood literacy. In doing this, students will gain increasing opportunity and confidence in their ability to engage with different opinions and theoretical ideas. The term ‘tacit knowledge’, used by many writers, is similar to Barton’s ‘personal theories’. Since all theories are context-bound and shaped by particular historical, social, cultural and political circumstances, each teacher educator who works with the Literacy Guide will have her or his preferred theoretical perspectives. Next, we offer some introductory ideas on thinking about theories, while understanding that teacher educators will use their own theoretical perspectives when teaching. Moll, Bradbury, Winkler, Tshule, van Voore & Slonimsky (2001:30) use interesting analogies when writing about two different ways of thinking about theories of education.

According to traditional understandings, a teacher possesses a large stock of knowledge, while a student has only a small amount of knowledge. Education consists of the teacher passing knowledge from him/herself to his/her student. A traditional examination is an attempt to see how much (of the knowledge) the student has acquired. In our theory of education, however, the process is quite differently conceived. There is a general conversation that takes place in institutions like universities, and to which the academic staff contribute. It is from this conversation that students extract what they can. Education. . .is like breathing in the surrounding air; it is not like being pumped up like the tyre of a bicycle.

Three additional accounts of what theories are, which may be useful for your students, follow:

1. A theory is an idea or set of ideas that is intended to explain facts or events. (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/theory)

2. Theory allows us to make links between our experiences and to fit these experiences into a broader network of knowledge. Theory also equips us with new concepts with which to reflect on what these experiences might mean. It provides us with a

Glossary Analogy: a form of reasoning where one thing is regarded as being similar to another thing, in a certain respect, on the basis of similarities.

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framework of reference within which we can move beyond our everyday experiences and (begin to) relate ideas to each other in different and efficient ways, according to Moll, et al (2001:194).

3. As used in science, ‘theory’ does not mean the same thing as it does in everyday life. A theory is not a guess, hunch, hypothesis, or speculation. It is much more full-blown. A theory is built upon one or more hypotheses, and upon evidence. The word ‘built’ is essential, for a theory contains reasoning and logical connections based on the hypotheses and evidence. Construction of good theories is a major goal of science.

Yes, a scientific theory can be wrong, since one of its hypotheses might be wrong, or the reasoning might be flawed, or new data might come along that disagree with it. So, in science, a wrong theory gets modified, discarded, or replaced. The fact that theories are subject to improvement, is the great strength of science. I have encountered the statement – meant as a put down – that scientists don’t know everything. Well of course not, but we expect to know more tomorrow than we know today. Pearlstein, E. (2005).

Reflective Questions

1. What personal theories do you hold about teaching and learning? What assumptions are they based on?

2. What is your personal theory about the teaching of reading to young learners? What professional theory informed your personal theory?

Integrating theory and practice In general, people distinguish between theory (researched models of how they think things happen, for example theories of language acquisition) and practice (how they experience these things happening, for example how they experience the ways in which a child actually learns a language). As already noted, there are everyday theories and professional theories. People have everyday theories about almost anything, such as, the roles of parents and teachers. These every day or personal theories often provide guidelines for the way individuals live their lives. Professional or formal theories generally have a more extensive reach, and are able to travel across continents, languages and time, through various modes of dissemination. Theories of learning also allow us to analyse and explain why learning occurs.

Theories can add to our understanding of teaching, allowing us to describe classroom experiences in new and generalised ways. We become able to analyse and explain how and why learning happens in many different situations. Formal theories about learning and teaching provide us with a distance from particular experiences, which allows us to develop general reasons and explanations for what we are doing. They provide the tool that allows us to stand back. This general level of analysis provides us with a more informed basis from which to interpret and respond to new problems encountered in our experience (and the experience of others).

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Moll, et al (2001:186, 188). Theories of learning and teaching can also provide new insight and knowledge, and throw up new questions to grapple with. They allow us to discuss the question of what teachers could be doing in classrooms, to allow children to learn at optimal levels. Generally, it is accepted that theories of education influence the choices teachers make about which pedagogical approaches they adopt and how they teach, as well as what priorities they consciously attend to (and what they choose not to prioritise) in the learning-teaching relationship. However, contexts differ greatly. Change happens all the time and "practice is ...much more messy than the ends-means models found in official theories” (Korthagen, 2001: 12). Educators have to find ways of creatively and thoughtfully adapting these theories to meet the challenges in classrooms. Reflective practice provides us with a means to do so, thereby integrating theory and practice. When students view the DVDs, an interesting exercise will be to consider what students do and do not prioritise to change in the process of reflection – and what this suggests about the student’s theoretical ideas.

2.2 Guided reflection as a means to integrate theory and practice

“If one has not seen what is, how can we go beyond it?” (Krishnamurti in Johns 2010: i)

Introduction of key concepts of reflective practice Pedagogy involves two aspects of learning. The first is associated with what and how students are learning; the second concerns the teacher who is learning about teaching and building expertise. Noticing an opportunity to act appropriately lies at the heart of all practice. To notice an opportunity to act requires three things: x Being present and sensitive to the moment x Having reason to act x Having a different act come to mind.

(Mason, 2002)

A critical incident is an incident which contributes significantly – either positively or negatively – to your learning as a student of teaching. Reflection is the mental process of trying to structure (frame) or restructure (reframe) an experience, a problem, or existing knowledge or insights. (Korthagen, 2001)

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A tool for introspective reflection is a tool to reflect systematically. An example of such a tool follows. However, following a particular recipe or using a step by step approach when reflecting, may reduce the chances of an in-depth and critical reflection.

Figure 1: A TOOL FOR RETROSPECTIVE GUIDED REFLECTION

The framework in Figure 1 was adapted from the work of Hatton & Smith (1995), Farrell (2004) and Johns (2010).

Why choose guided reflection as a conceptual framework? The practice of reflecting on one’s teaching is not a new concept in teacher education. In fact, there has been an explosion of books and articles about reflection over the last couple of decades, but it can be used too loosely. Zeichner and Flessner (2009) wrote that reflection became a slogan in teacher education in the 1980s and 1990s and warned that when this happens, the concept itself may lose specific meaning. However, the team of CPUT Foundation Phase teacher educators chose to use Guided Reflection as a conceptual framework to investigate the trajectory from Gr R to Gr 1 in

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learning language and mathematics. Why? Because we believe that reflective practice allows the teacher educator to assist the student teacher in integrating the knowledge they have gained at university with the experience of the classroom. In addition, ongoing reflection is a valuable tool for the professional development of educators – firstly, to make sense of the “messiness” (Korthagen, 2001) of the classroom where learning can be influenced by any number of factors, and secondly, to create appropriate responses to the challenges in the classroom. We hope that you and your students will join us on this film journey and with us, use reflection as a means to integrate “the knowing that something is so” with “the knowing of how something is so”. Students should be able to move seamlessly between the theory, or expert knowledge, and the messiness of the classroom experience. They should be able to reflect on causes and consequences, beliefs and assumptions, contextual needs, new insights, alternative actions and many other issues relevant to the discipline and to the challenges of the learning environment. Choosing a model There are a number of reflective practice models available for teacher education. However, because we want our students to focus on their learning through reflection rather than on a step-by-step recipe, we suggest the focus be on the purpose for using the instrument, rather than the instrument itself. However, we do suggest a framework in order to structure reflective discussions (See Figure. 1). This is not meant to be used in a fixed way but rather as a scaffold for the process. The DVDs on language and mathematics teaching will allow you to discuss various issues relevant to the disciplines. The two DVDs on reflective practice (‘Guided reflection on Mathematics Teaching in FP’ and ‘Guided Reflection on Language Teaching in FP’) will allow you to join the CPUT FP student teachers in their guided reflective practice. We hope that both teacher educator and students will feel challenged to continue the discussions by following up with their own collaborative reflective practice. Next we will share briefly with you our understanding of what a critical incident is and how it can be used to encourage reflective practice. Then we will look at Guided Reflection: how it can be used, how it contributes to student teacher learning and some of the challenges facing us when using reflection. The authors would like to make it clear that this discussion is not intended as a comprehensive review of reflective practice in teacher education. As stated before, there is no shortage of academic literature on reflective practice. Our aim is simply to provide a background to our DVD material on the subject. We give a reading list for a more in-depth inquiry into the subject of reflective practice and Guided Reflection in teacher education as a related topic. What is a critical incident? Griffin (2003:208) provides the following concise definition:

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A Critical Incident provides a deeper and more profound level of reflection because it goes beyond a detailed description of an event that attracted attention, to analysis of and reflection on the meaning of the event. This analysis and reflection assists teachers in examining all possibilities before reaching a conclusion (Dewey, 1933) in order to deal effectively with multi-faceted problems as well as to identify the underlying assumptions governing their actions.

Griffin (2003:208) continues by pointing out that the critical incident format allows student teachers to connect theory and practice according to the standards of their profession and to encourage them to use the language of their profession by describing how their reflection will influence future teaching actions. What is guided reflection? While definitions of reflection abound and terminology such as ‘reflection, Reflective Practice’ and ‘critical reflection’ are often used interchangeably (Black & Plowright, 2010), selecting the most appropriate definition will depend on the purpose for which reflection is used (Hatton and Smith, 1995). For example, a social perspective will focus more on the critical aspect while other perspectives may focus on aspects such as a research or action orientation. Korthagen’s 2001 definition (p 58) stating that “Reflection is the mental process of trying to structure (frame) or restructure (reframe) an experience, a problem, or existing knowledge or insights” may for instance be criticised for its omission of an action or improvement orientation, the emphasis being on a deep understanding. Your students may want to look up a number of definitions of reflection which appeared in the literature over the years, starting as far back as Dewey, in order to see how the concept has evolved. No one definition will satisfy all of us, but there are a number of things most of the definitions have in common. Here are some of them:

x Reflective practice is a deliberate process x It can be done either individually or collaboratively x It is a complex learning and developmental process x It is an antidote to unexamined assumptions, beliefs, judgements and expectations x It deepens understanding x It involves cognitive, social and affective orientations x It is subjective and contextual – one’s beliefs and assumptions will play a role x It can assist in integrating the experiential and practical with the theoretical x It should help to develop a changed, even transformed, and improved action or

orientation. Now that we have discussed what we mean by the term “reflective practice”, we will refer to it from here on as Reflective Practice, a specific, dynamic process for deepening learning. Looking at the above, it becomes clear that Reflective Practice “requires skilled facilitation and appropriate guidance and support from educators” (Nolan, 2008:31-36). Christopher Johns (2010) emphasises that reflection is always mindful in practice or on practice, and goes on to define Guided Reflection as “a collaborative dialogue towards

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creating better worlds”. It is through the guiding questions of the teacher educator and the different perspectives or lenses brought into the reflective dialogue by the group, that Guided Reflection becomes “a way of appreciating and moving beyond one’s own horizon through understanding” (Johns, 2010). How we used guided reflection in this Literacy Guide In teacher education, there is the dual purpose of firstly, teaching reflection as a means to integrate theory and practice and secondly, at the same time, using it towards professional development. In the project ‘Strengthening Foundation Phase’, the student participants (B Ed 4 FP) were first familiarized with reflection as a concept and how it works: they were assisted in identifying ‘critical incidents’ in their own teaching and, while guided by the teacher educator, deliberately used a loosely structured framework to reflect collaboratively on these incidents (Figure. 1.). The participants were then invited to watch specific critical incidents that were taped while they were teaching. This was followed by the Guided Reflection discussions which are available on the CPUT Reflection DVDs that accompany this Literacy Support Guide. One main purpose of the Guided Reflections on DVD was to foster the students’ ability to reflect collaboratively on their teaching, using different lenses and thereby improving their professional knowledge and development. The questions: “what, why, so what?” and “now what?” were used to guide the participants to question their own assumptions, looking at causes and consequences of the decisions they made before and during the lessons they taught. They also deepened their understanding by linking the practical experience to more generalisable insights (theory) and possible changes for improvement. In the words of Ryle in van Manen (1995): “Students are assisted in moving from habitual practice to mindful and intelligent practice”.

When watching the CPUT Reflection DVD on language teaching and learning you may recognise the following features of reflection:

x each of the guided Reflective Practice sessions starts with the student teacher who taught the particular lesson describing and commenting on her own actions during the critical incident

x the student teacher is guided to talk about the reasons for and consequences of her actions and decisions – some of these may be negative, others positive

x often student teachers refer to their own personal feelings during the course of the discussion

x the other participants are encouraged to provide different perspectives, incorporating pedagogical knowledge acquired through their training and teaching experiences

x the participants share ideas about alternative actions that could facilitate improved learning opportunities

x the group collaboratively and with the guidance of the teacher educator, reflects on their own learning that has taken place through the reflection

x the group may conclude the session by reflecting on their own Reflective Practice and the value thereof in the teaching profession

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Although the student participants were by now familiar with the language of reflection and the framework designed to assist them, they were not forced to adhere to the framework as if it were a step-by-step recipe. We are reminded by Christopher Johns (2009: 2) that knowing can never be certain with human encounter, thus we “must hold our ideas and frameworks loosely for their value to inform each encounter”. Outcomes and challenges As indicated in other research studies (Brook, 2010; Black & Plowright, 2010; Larrivee, 2000; Moon, 2008; Brookfield, 1995), we noticed that our student teachers found it easier to reflect at a technical and interpretative level rather than at a critical level where they are required to reflect beyond their own beliefs and deep-seated assumptions. Clearly this needs practice from both student teachers and educators. Another aspect that remains a challenge is the role of assessment with regard to Reflective Practice. While we are aware of instruments designed specifically to assess levels of reflection such as the one designed by Sparks-Langer, Simmons, Pasch, Colton & Starko (1990), we argue that the value of Reflective Practice is in the process rather than in a product. With Thompson and Thompson (2008:130) we believe that there are no simple formulas to follow when assessing Reflective Practices. We also agree that clarity about the purpose of the Reflective Practice and the type of evidence it requires, are crucial to the fairness of any assessment process. However, as in the 2008 study reported on by Husu, Toom and Patyrikainen, our student participants also reported significant professional growth as a result of their experiences with Guided Reflection on critical incidents in their own and others’ teaching.

2.3 Using DVDs with guided reflection as a way to integrate theory and practice

In sharing with you some digital recordings of our students’ practices in a variety of contexts in Grade R and Grade 1, we hope to entice your students to become participants in a reflective dialogue on teaching in the Foundation Phase. They will be able to compare their own contexts, but should also, through their analysis of what they perceive, find a catalyst for their own uncertainties. Ultimately the material should assist them in working towards a broader understanding of the complexities of teaching and learning in the Foundation Phase. For an example of a Guided Reflection process, see the transcript of Guided Reflection, Appendix 2, DVD four, page 98. Much has been written about the potential benefits of bringing practice into faculties of education. Muir and Beswick (2007:76) state that effective professional learning is grounded in teacher learning and reflection on classroom practice. The work of Dewey (1933), Schön (1983) and Kolb (1984) constantly remind us of the value of reflecting on our own practice. Lovitt & Clarke (2011) draw our attention to the value of learning that takes place as closely as possible to our own working environment. The dialogue that results from focusing on

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aspects of practice enables us to develop our own inquiry of practice and construct new insights. The maximum potential of the material lies in the discussions shared between students, lecturer guidance and the material. While the literature is clear on the fact that student teachers find it easy to comment on a technical level, they will need the guidance of their lecturer to steer them through well placed reflective questions, to interpretative and critical levels and to make the necessary links with the theories underpinning the discipline. A range of reflective questions is provided in the guide. As lecturers, you can add to, or replace, these with questions more appropriate to the needs of your students. Some of the benefits of using DVDs of student practices in teacher education are the following:

x displays of real-life contexts with their immediacy and clarity x fostering of Reflective Practice x providing opportunities for creativity and problem solving x stimulating capacity to integrate practice and theory x surfacing of assumptions and beliefs about teaching and learning x enhancing professional development x giving space for the student teacher voice x development of multimedia literacy x providing opportunities for transformative action.

To remind you, the CPUT pack includes:

x DVDs showing student teachers teaching literacy concepts in Grades R and 1 in different contexts

x One DVD showing the student teachers reflecting on their own teaching x The Literacy Guide

In conclusion we think that the preparation of tomorrow’s teachers does not depend solely on how well emerging technologies are incorporated into teacher education, but rather on how well student teachers and educators learn to leverage the technologies to enhance critical and creative thinking through Reflective Practice.

2.4 Using reflective practice: Student reflection activities Student Reflection Activities are interspersed with the text that follows. As teacher educators you can select activities appropriate to the needs of your target group or adapt them if necessary.

Teaching Notes Below is the first Student Reflection Activity in this book. It enables students to begin to think through the relationship between theory and practice, in this instance, how children learn and teachers teach. We suggest the students do Part 2 in a follow-up lecture.

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Student reflection activity 1: The relationship between theory and practice Students work in groups of 3 – 6. Part 1 Think back to when you were in Grade R or Grade 1 and discuss the following:

1. What was your experience of learning to write? a. Do you remember writing, at home, before you attended school? b. If you did, describe what you remember doing. c. When did you begin writing at school? d. What did you write?

2. What would some of your teacher’s theoretical ideas have been? 3. Do you remember how you felt about writing? 4. What did you think writing was for? If someone had asked you: “Why are you

learning to write?” what might you have said? In a plenary discussion, share interesting points and questions that emerged in your discussion. Remember to make links between theoretical ideas and practices (about how children learn to write). Part 2 Consider the following scenario:

A Grade R teacher and a Grade 1 teacher give their children little opportunity to write freely. The only opportunity the children have for writing is when they copy words from the chalkboard into classwork books, or select words from word lists to fill in missing words on worksheets. From the theoretical perspectives of these teachers, children who have not learnt to spell words correctly are not capable of writing. These teachers also think that mistakes should be avoided when learning as children run the risk of learning from imperfect models if encouraged to write words that are incorrectly spelt.

In the two classrooms described above, we see how the teachers’ beliefs about writing clearly informs their teaching practice, and their expectations of what children are capable of doing.

1. Discuss and identify a few points that would be a part of the teachers’: a. Theoretical ideas about how children learn to write b. Teaching practice (how the teachers teach writing).

2. What is your response to the two teachers’ theoretical ideas and practices? a. Do you agree with the teachers’ theory and practice? b. Substantiate your views.

3. Discuss how the beliefs held by the two teachers mentioned above are likely to influence their teaching of reading.

4. Have you seen Grade R and Grade 1 classrooms, with different practices to those above, where children write freely?

a. If you have, what theoretical ideas inform the teachers’ ideas of how children learn to write, and how this would shape the teachers’ practices?

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2.5 Foundation Phase teacher education: when theory meets practice

Theories offer alternative frameworks that allow us to think critically about our own theoretical assumptions. In this sense, theory can be useful for teachers when learning does not happen (Moll et al., 2001). For example, an experienced Grade 1 teacher may find herself in a dilemma when, despite her best efforts to teach, and the children’s best efforts to learn, some children are not making the expected progress in reading. Here, the teacher could benefit from new theories to broaden her understanding of learning and teaching. Sometimes, only small adjustments to existing theoretical ideas may be required; perhaps the inclusion of a supporting theory, or an adaptation or rejection of a part of her theoretical position. To conclude these introductory points on the relationship between theory and practice, Shuell (2013) draws attention back to the child, suggesting that children are more important than the teacher’s theory or practice, when determining what is learned. It is the child’s awareness, prior knowledge and beliefs that affect if and what a child learns. “The bottom line in the teaching process is the learning activities in which the children engage, not the instructional activities in which the teacher engages,” states Shuell. Gravett (2012) addresses the criticism that pre-service students who want to become Foundation Phase teachers should not attend universities since their focus is on academic theory rather than on practical teaching. Gravett (2012:6) argues that a solution, to this view that abstract theory has little use for Foundation Phase students, is to engage pre-service students in “experiential learning” arising from their own concerns. This should be mediated by teacher educators who “should generate the concerns by creating suitable concrete experiences for students . . . in coursework through using, for example, authentic classroom materials, video tapes of teaching and learning, cases, and by invoking students’ own experiences as children and learners in schools”. These experiences and concerns can be used for Guided Reflection, where students have the opportunity to articulate personal, everyday theories. The Student Reflection Activities in this Guide are designed to enable this. In giving students the opportunity to acknowledge their personal, everyday, theoretical ideas, they also are able to interrogate them. Should this not happen, such views may remain hidden, un-probed and may lead to future unwanted consequences. Feiman-Nemser, (2001:1016) writes:

The images and beliefs that prospective teachers bring to their pre-service preparation serve as filters for making sense of the knowledge and experiences they encounter. They may also function as barriers to change by limiting the ideas that teacher education students are able and willing to entertain.

After examination of students’ personal theories, teacher-lecturers would then introduce relevant theoretical ideas and concepts, followed by more formal theories, delivered in lectures and backed-up by appropriate reading. In this way, personal theories are gradually converted and strengthened with new knowledge. Additionally, students’ ability to draw on

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formal theories has a practical constituent, while at the same time, students learn to think critically about learning and teaching.

In other words, what I am advocating is that theory is learned in action, not applied or transferred from another space. Personal theorising forms the basis for moving to “formal” conceptual knowledge. In essence, the approach involves “practical theorising” in the parlance of McIntyre (1995). Intuitive personal theories are gradually converted and strengthened with new epistemic knowledge and some good understanding of the techne of pedagogy. Gravett (2012:7)

Teaching Notes The Student Reflection Activities below give students an opportunity to think and talk about why theories come about. What triggers their arrival in the world?

x The purpose of these three activities is for students to gain experience in making connections between what we see in the world, and ideas. As their thinking and practice of reflection grows, their confidence in doing this type of activity will steadily increase

x In Tasks 1 and 2, students think about life in general, and in this way begin to practise broad-spectrum, reflective thinking

x In Task 3, students narrow their focus and turn their attention to language teaching in the Foundation Phase

x In group discussions, encourage students not to be afraid of thinking creatively or of offering their ideas.

Today we recognise that no single theory can explain the complex phenomena of learning, or indeed, of how children learn to read and write. Theories tend to provide partial perspectives, and may complement, extend or compete with one another. The very nature of theory is to continue to respond to new challenges, new ideas and new questions. In the next activity, students will think about the connection between human inventions, especially technological innovation, and the need for new theories.

Student reflection activity 2: Human inventions, technological innovation, and the need for new theories. Students work in groups of 5 or 6.

1. Read and discuss the statement below, on how technological

innovation and invention brings about new ways of communicating.

New ways of communicating are often linked to advances in human innovation, in particular, technological innovation. For example, consider the significance of books, newspapers,

Glossary Innovation: using new, fresh and different ideas to do something. Thinking ‘out of the box’ and coming up with something that hasn't been done before.

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cameras, radios, computers, and, more recently, cell phones, tablets, play stations, e-books, and so on.

2. Choose one technological invention that is used for communication. For example,

television, computers, the internet, e-readers, cell phones, tablets.

3. In your groups, discuss whether one reads this recent invention in the same way as one reads a book. How is the process of reading similar or not similar?

4. Should children at school learn to use this invention? Motivate your opinion.

Student reflection activity 3: How theories can develop in response to practical problems

Work in groups of 5 or 6 students.

1. Read and discuss the following three statements:

a) The relationship between theory and practice can be viewed as a two-way process. b) While there is a commonly-held assumption that knowledge flows from scientific theories to the development of effective, new practices, advances in society do not always operate in such a linear fashion. c) Shuell (2013) argues, “In both the physical and social sciences, ideas often come from observing and questioning things that occur in the real world.” Scientific breakthroughs often arise from trying to solve practical problems in the world.

2. In your groups, read the above statements, working on one at a time. Encourage

members in the group to restate each one in their own words. 3. Discuss the above statements in your group. Do you agree with them? Are you able

to identify one or two practical problems in the real world that have led to new ways of thinking and perhaps theorising?

4. Are you able to identify one or two practical problems in the real world, which have led to new ways of thinking and new knowledge, but have not yet led to the problems being solved effectively, if at all? What factors might explain the unwillingness to act on the new knowledge?

Students might be asking themselves: “What has this got to do with how I work in my classroom?” In the next activity they will begin to think about the relationship between problems in schools and theories.

Student reflection activity 4: Theories and problems in schools

Work in groups of 5 or 6 students

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Discuss the following:

1. Identify a practical problem you have seen (or one you have read about) in a Foundation Phase classroom which concerns a teacher working with children.

2. Within your group, discuss theories (everyday day and / or academic theories) that might help you understand some aspects of the problem.

3. After each person has had an opportunity to offer a theory, discuss what you could do in practice to address or alleviate the problem.