Unit 1 Exam

The Urban EnvironmentThe Coastal Environment

The Urban Environment

Key termsUrbanisation: The process of urban growth – (a city is deemed urbanised when 50% or more of the country’s population is living in urban areas.

Urban sprawl: The outward growth of urban areas

Suburbs: Outlying districts of a town or city, often dominated by housing

Megacity: A city of 10 million people or more

Sustainable: Meeting the needs of people without damaging the environment or exploiting resources

Smog: Mixture of smoke and fog

Mortality: Death rate

Life expectancy: Average number of years a person is expected to live

Deprivation: Where a person’s quality of life falls below a level that is regarded as the acceptable minimum by the government of the country

Deprived areas: Places where economic/social and environmental conditions are very poor

Causes of urbanisation in developing countries

RURAL TO URBAN MIGRATION

Poor social and economic conditions in rural areas force people to move to urban areas (Push factor). (These push factors can include natural disasters, a poor harvest, poverty, poor sanitation, no clean drinking water)

People are then attracted (pull factor) to these urban areas in search of a better quality of life for themselves and their families.

Many people look forward to better job opportunities in the city, a better education for their children, improved sanitation and better access to health care.

Urbanisation in India

The city of Mumbai is a mega city. It has developed as a mega city due to rapid economic growth that it has experienced, which has attracted many rural farmers to move and settle in Mumbai looking for work within the manufacturing industry.

What key features can you identify from this image of a Mumbai slum?

Challenges and opportunities of urban growth in developing countries

Challenges Opportunities

•Urban slums•Squatter settlements •Poor sanitation•Over crowded•Poor infrastructure•Congestion•Increased crime rates

•First step for a better life for urban dwellers•Access to clean water, sanitation, education, health care•Opportunities for employment•Affordable housing for poor migrants•Huge labour force who will carry out essential jobs that keep cities running and will accept a low wage

Case study: Mumbai•Fastest growing city in India•Population of over 15 million people•Half the population live in slums outside the CBD•Estimated half a million live on the street as ‘pavement dwellers’•Unable to cope with increase in vehicles on the road•Air pollution is a major threat to health•Many people have little or no access to clean water

Poorly built houses with scrap materials for shelter

Poor sanitation – water here will be used for washing, cleaning, drinking, cooking and will contain many diseases, including untreated human waste

Cramped living conditions

Land used as waste land

Responding to the challenges of urban growth in developing countries

Key terms:Self-help schemes: People take responsibility for improving their own living conditionsNon-government organisations (NGOS): Organisation that is independent of government control, usually charitable organisations such as WaterAid, Oxfam, Save the Children.

Urban areas are often the driving force for development in poorer countries, providing a large supply of cheap labour and an ever growing market industrial products. For example:Mumbai, in India, creates nearly a quarter of the country’s wealth yet half of the city’s population live in slums. Rio de Janeiro, in Brazil, slum dwellers provide most of the labour force for the construction industry across the city.

In recent years, progress has been made in improving living conditions in many urban areas. This has been achieved with the help of government schemes, self-help schemes and non-government organisations (NGOs).

Improving urban environmentsGreen space: Parkland and vegetated walkways in urban areas

Urban areas can be improved by including green space. This can be achieved by planning green space into new developments. However, at the same time urban waterways were frequently used as dumping grounds for industrial and human waste.

Economic development was often seen as more important than environmental protection and as a result the environmental protection as a result the environmental protection of many urban areas has suffered.

Why spend money on restoring the urban environment?•Improving living conditions for the urban residents•Encouraging people to want to live in urban areas•Attracting new businesses and a more sustainable economic future•Encouraging visitors and the development of tourism

Case study: Singapore River and the Kallang BasinPlan to move squatters into proper residential areas with sanitation facilitiesDevelopment of industrial areas with strict pollution controlsRiverside walkways and parks built, thousands of trees plantedRecreational facilities developed2008 – plan to transform the waterfront into a gathering place for recreational & cultural facilities

Greening urban areas

‘Greening’ urban areas is about increasing the amount of green space in towns and cities.•Developing green gardens on the roofs of buildings•Planting trees alongside roads, railway lines, canals and walkways•Developing open spaces and parks

Why develop green space?

•Increasing permeable surfaces to absorb rainfall•Reducing noise pollution•Absorbing excessive heat in the summer and making areas comfortable•Providing community space and meeting places•Providing a more relaxing, cleaner environment that may improve people’s health

Key terms continued

Slums: Often called ‘shanty towns’ in developing countries. There are different names for shanty towns around the world including favelas in Brazil.

Squatter settlements: Where people have no legal rights over the land on which they live.

Brownfield land: Old industrial or housing area that has become rundown or derelict.

Ecological footprint: The impact of an individual an the Earth (measured in hectares per person)

Urban regeneration: Improving social and/or economic conditions in run-down areas.

Carbon-zero: Does not use resources that create carbon dioxide.

Eco-homes: Homes that have a minimum impact on the environment.

Green space: Parkland and vegetated walkways in urban areas.

Urban heat island: Where a built-up area has a higher temperature than its surroundings.

Environmental hazards in urban areas

How does urban growth increase environmental pressures?

•A growing demand for transport increases vehicle emissions•Increasing demand for energy leads to building power stations – air pollution•Pollution from human waste and industrial waste•Increased number of buildings, reducing the amount of green space

Improving the urban environment: Curitiba, Brazil

•Population of over 2 million people•Put in place a ‘sustainable urban master plan’•Curitiba has become a model of environmental management•A traffic-free city centre•Fully integrated bus system•Development of green urban space•Recycling of buildings•A public housing programme for the urban poor•Strict environmental laws to reduce industrial pollution•Environmental education is part of the school curriculum

Urban redevelopment and regeneration

Redevelopment: renovation and improvement of areas that were previously run down

Case study: Birmingham

•Britain’s second largest city•‘City of a thousand trades’ – wide range of manufacturing industries•Industrial decline left Birmingham with rising unemployment and increasing urban dereliction (previously used land/buildings fallen into disuse and decay), the factories closed and the canals fell into disrepair.

In the last 20 years Birmingham has transformed by a number of regeneration projects. Examples:

•New Street Station - £550 million redevelopment scheme•Bullring Shopping Centre – 2003 saw 140 major shops being opened•National Indoor Arena – opened in 1991, hosts sporting and music events•Brindleyplace – Redeveloped canal basin

Brindleyplace

Mixed use redevelopment project (it has a mixture of uses, commercial, leisure, residential

Renovated factory buildings, flats and restaurants

Green space

Canal has been cleaned up

Managing movement in urban areas

Traffic is a growing problem in urban areas and is a challenge to many towns and cities. This is because, as more people move into the cities care ownership increases, this puts pressure on the roads in the form of traffic and causes congestion. With increased congestion we may see a rise in road traffic accidents and an increase in air pollution.

In the UK it is estimated that 80% of personal journeys are made by car.

Managing movement - Case study: Cambridgeshire guided busway

Aim: To provide a high-quality alternative to car use on the congested A14 corridor

•Opened in in 2009•Cost £116 million•A dedicated concrete track that can only be used by buses•Requires less land to build on•Land between the tracks are left open for drainage•No other vehicles can use the track•Smoothness gives an improved ride

Main features:

•Links a number of villages between St Ives and Cambridge•Park and Ride facilities available•Fast service in Cambridge every 10 minutes•Paths next to the track for pedestrians and cyclists•Green space surrounding the tracks to encourage wildlife•The bus can go onto the track and on the main road

Carbon-zero energy urban developments

Case study: BEDZED (Beddington Zero Energy Development)

• Location: London borough of Sutton•Completed in 2002•UK’s first major energy development•Largest carbon-neutral eco-community in the country

Aim – Develop an energy-neutral urban village that would be a viable socio-economic community.

Mixed use development Residential and commercial buildings

100 homes – houses & flatsMade of natural materialsAttractive modern interiorsFuel efficient appliances

Includes:Children’s nurseryMeeting roomsExhibition centreRenewable technologies

All buildings have large windows and sunny rooms to allow for natural sunlight

Energy-efficient buildings – Buildings face south to maximise the amount of sunshine reaching each building. Also have double glazing and high levels of insulation

Renewable materials- e.g. Timber came from renewable rainforests

Self-sufficient heating and power – a small-scale power plant fuelled by tree waste to provide hot water and solar panels to generate electricity

Low energy consumption – all heat from cooking is recycled and reused. All buildings use energy efficient light bulbs

Remember

A BEDZED home uses 90% less energy for heating

A BEDZED home uses 45% less energy for hot water

A BEDZED home uses 55% less energy for lighting

The Greenhouse development Greenhouse is part of the new South Leeds urban regeneration scheme (improving social and/or economic conditions in run-down urban areas

Within a 10 minute walk of Leeds city

Close to the main rail and road networks

A former disused industrial building

Carbon-zero mixed use development site

172 eco-homes and offices

Plenty of green space

Includes:Shops, Cafes, Playgrounds, Sports centre, Conference centre, High-tech offices, Allotments to grow fruit and vegetables

Greenhouse is sustainableGround-source heat pumps draw water from below the building and use heat-exchange technology to provide hot water, heating and air cooling

Wind turbine

Rooftop solar panels to provide hot water

Super insulation to keep homes cool in summer and warm in winter

Car pooling, ‘green’ cabs and buses running on renewable energy

Britain’s eco-towns

Eco town – Carbon-neutral and community based, with its own shopping area and local schools.

Eco-settlement – Settlements that do not harm the environment because they meet the needs of people without damaging the environment or exploiting resources.

Fifteen sites across England were identified as potential sites for the first eco-towns. Ten then selected for development.They include old industrial sites, disused airfields and former Ministry of Defence land.

They are being built to how house builders how sustainable building methods may be used.

An eco-town debate exists – supporters of the eco-town say the settlements will provide a healthy and sustainable environment, but local residents are concerned because they feel that the development may damage existing countryside and increase traffic problems.

Case study: Hanham Hall

•First eco-village to be built in the UK•Disused hospital site near Bristol•Aim: “Create carbon-zero homes and eco-lifestyles”•200 homes•Open parklands•Local shops and cafes•Local schools, nursery•Community hall

•Farmer’s shop selling local produce•Local businesses•Car sharing•Bicycle storage•Links to public transport•Energy generated by biomass power•Recycling facilities•Open green space•Hedges around gardens•Cycle and walking routes

Cities for the 21st Century

Case study: Dongtan, China (eco-city)•Planners and architects say that it is not only possible to create more sustainable cities, it is vital because the world is becoming increasingly URBAN.•Past 10 years China’s urban population has boomed as millions are moving into the urban areas to seek employment and a better quality of life.•China is the world’s largest contributor to carbon emissions and the need for eco-living is critical.•Chinese government announced plans for 5 eco-cities, each housing 500,00 to 1 million people. •The first is Dongtan, which is being built on the island of Chongming, across the river from Shanghai (mega-city)•The city will connect to Shanghai by a 25km bridge and a tunnel, with road and rail links.

Dongtan key features:

•Work – Industrial and commercial areas will provide local employment opportunities

•Residential areas – Homes built along canals and will have wind micro-turbines to reduce energy bills. Local shops, schools, nurseries and a health centre near by.

•The environment – 60% of the land will be green space, pollution regulations will be enforced

•Transport – Dongtan will have fully integrated public transport system, solar-powered water taxis and hydrogen fuel-cell cars. Cycle paths and pedestrian walkways will reduce vehicle use.

•Energy – Rice waste will be used to fuel a power station, creating 65% of energy needs. The remainder of energy needs will be supplied by solar and wind power.

•Waste – The aim is to achieve 90% waste recycling, with human sewage processed for composting and waste water processed for use in farming.

Practice questions

1. Describe the characteristics of Dongtan (4 marks)

2. What is meant by the term ‘sustainable’? (2 marks)

3. What is BEDZED an example of? (2 marks)

4. Explain some of the challenges of urban growth in developing countries (5 marks)

5. What is a multi-hazard city? (3 marks)

6. With reference to examples you have studied, assess the impacts of living in a multi-hazard city. (8 marks)

The Coastal Environment

Multi-use coastline

Destructive waves

What are the characteristics of a destructive wave?What effects does this wave have on the coastline?

Constructive waves

What are the characteristics of a constructive wave?What effects does this wave have on the coastline?

Coastal processes

Erosion Transportation Deposition

Coastal weathering and erosion

Rock is broken down by Mechanical and chemical weatheringMechanical weathering that affects the coastline is Freeze-thaw weathering.

Waves wear away the coast using four processes of erosion.• Hydraulic action – Waves crash against the rock and compress the air in the

cracks.• Abrasion – (corrasion), eroded particles in the water scrape against the rock.• Attrition – eroded particles in the water smash into eachother and break

into smaller fragments.• Solution – Corrosion, weak carbonic acid in seawater dissolves rock like

chalk and limestone.

Coastal landforms caused by erosionhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/coasts/erosional_landforms_rev1.shtml

Rotational cliff slumpingSub-areal processes

Cliff-foot processes

Coastal transportationThe movement of material along the beach by the process of Longshore Drift.The four processes of transportation:• Traction- Large particles like boulders are pushed along the sea bed.

• Saltation- Pebble sized particles are bounced along the sea bed.

• Suspension- Small particles like silt and clay are carried along in the water.

• Solution- Soluble materials dissolve in the water and are carried along.

Coastal deposition

Deposition is when material being carried by the sea water is Dropped on the coast.

Coasts are built up when the amount of deposition is greater than the amount of erosion.

Coastal landforms caused by deposition

Beach Spit

Bar Tombolo

Coastal Management strategies

Coastal sea defences include hard and soft engineering.

Hard engineering• Hard engineering options tend to be expensive, short-

term options. They may also have a high impact on the landscape or environment and be unsustainable.

Type of defence Pros and cons

Building a sea wallA wall built on the edge of the coastline.Waves in Porthleven during a storm

AdvantagesProtects the base of cliffs, land and buildings against erosion. Can prevent coastal flooding in some areas.DisadvantagesExpensive to build. Curved sea walls reflect the energy of the waves back to the sea. This means that the waves remain powerful. Over time the wall may begin to erode. The cost of maintenance is high.

Hard engineering solutions

                                 

Building groynesA wooden barrier built at right angles to the beach.Hopton Sea Wall, Norfolk

AdvantagesPrevents the movement of beach material along the coast by longshore drift.Allows the build up of a beach. Beaches are a natural defence against erosion and an attraction for tourists.DisadvantagesCan be seen as unattractive.Costly to build and maintain.

Rock armour or boulder barriers

Large boulders are piled up on the beach.

A boulder barrier in Nice, France

AdvantagesAbsorb the energy of waves.

Allows the build up of a beach.Disadvantages

Can be expensive to obtain and transport the boulders.

Soft engineering optionsSoft engineering options are often less expensive than hard engineering options. They are usually more long-term and sustainable, with less impact on the environment.There are two main types of soft engineering.Beach management/ replenishment

This replaces beach or cliff material that has been removed by erosion or longshore drift.The main advantage is that beaches are a natural defence against erosion and coastal flooding. Beaches also attract tourists.It is a relatively inexpensive option but requires constant maintenance to replace the beach material as it is washed away.

Managed retreatAreas of the coast are allowed to erode and flood naturally. Usually this will be areas considered to be of low value - eg places not being used for housing or farmland.The advantages are that it encourages the development of beaches (a natural defence) and salt marshes (important for the environment) and cost is low.Managed retreat is a cheap option, but people will need to be compensated for loss of buildings and farmland.

Case study: coastal management in Holderness

• The Holderness coast is in the north east of England. This is one of the most vulnerable coastlines in the world and it retreats at a rate of one to two metres every year.

• The problem is caused by:• Strong prevailing winds creating longshore drift that moves material south along the

coastline.• The cliffs are made of a soft boulder clay. It will therefore erode quickly, especially when

saturated.• The village of Mappleton, perched on a cliff top on the Holderness coast, has

approximately 50 properties. Due to the erosion of the cliffs, the village is under threat.• In 1991, the decision was taken to protect Mappleton. A coastal management scheme

costing £2 million was introduced involving two types of hard engineering - placing rock armour along the base of the cliff and building two rock groynes.

• Mappleton and the cliffs are no longer at great risk from erosion.• The rock groynes have stopped beach material being moved south from Mappleton

along the coast. However, this has increased erosion south of Mappleton. Benefits in one area might have a negative effect on another.

• The increased threat of sea level rise due to climate change, means that other places will need to consider the sustainability of coastal defence strategies for the future.

Rising sea levels and coastal flooding• Global warming:Global sea level is rising at a rate of about 2mm per year.

Has increased by about 20cm over past century.

This has resulted in Melting Ice and Heating Oceans.

Coastal areas at risk from flooding and erosion.

Rising sea level will mean coastal flooding will happen more often and will cause more damage, especially in low-lying parts of the world like Bangladesh.

Impacts of coastal flooding and erosion from rising sea levels.

Economic:

Loss of tourism – many coastal areas are popular tourist destinations. Flooding and erosion can put people off visiting.Damage repair – Repairing flood damage can be extremely expensive.Loss of agricultural land – seawater has a high slat content. Salt reduces soil fertility, so crop production can be affected for years after a flood. Farmland is also lost to coastal erosion, which has a huge effect on farmers’ livelihoods.

Impacts of coastal flooding and erosion from rising sea levels.

Social:Deaths – coastal flooding can kills thousandsWater supplies – contaminatedLoss of housing – housing built of the edge of or near to the edge of cliffsLoss of jobs – Coastal industries shut down, loos of jobs from tourism (negative ripple effect)

Impacts of coastal flooding and erosion from rising sea levels.

Environmental:

Ecosystems affected by flooding: High salt content kills organisms, flood water can uproot plants/ trees.Loss of habitats: Wildlife habitats destroyed.