EducationIn English Countries

Edited by Chen Qianqian

Foreign Languages College

Hunan University

Content

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UNIT 1 Education in the United States

UNIT 2 Education in the United Kingdom

UNIT 3 Education in Canada

UNIT 4 Education in Some Other English Countries

UNIT 5 High School Education

UNIT 6 College Education

UNIT 7 Postgraduate Education

UNIT 8 Student Aid

UNIT 9 Adult Education and Literacy

UNIT 10 Career and Technical Education

UNIT 11 Education of Special Groups

UNIT 12 Education Trends

APPENDIX

1. Postgraduate Application Form

2. Postgraduate Reference Form

UNIT 1 Education in the United States

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Key Words role of education; history; funding; concerns in elementary education; higher education; Ivy League

General ImpressionThis passage is comprehensible to English freshmen and sophomores.

Reading GuidanceThis chapter offers a wide view of education in the United States with the introduction of the importance, history, funding, and some concerns of education in the US. Students who have desire to study in the US can get a general idea of education after reading this chapter.

Thinking Tasks 1. What goals does US education aspire to accomplish?2. Can you briefly summarize the history of education in the US?3. How were schools in the US funded at different times?4. What are the main concerns in elementary and higher education

in the US?5. Who are the members of Ivy League?

A. Role of Education

The United States has one of the most extensive and diverse educational systems in the world. Educational institutions exist at all learning levels, from nursery schools for the very young to higher education for older youths and adults of all ages. Education in the United States is notable for the many goals it aspires to accomplish—promoting democracy, assimilation, nationalism, equality of opportunity, and personal development. Because Americans have historically insisted that their schools work toward these sometimes conflicting goals, education has often been the focus of social conflict.

While schools are expected to achieve many social objectives, education in America is neither centrally administered nor supported directly by the federal government, unlike education in other industrialized countries. In the United States, each state is responsible for providing schooling, which is funded through local taxes and governed by local school boards. In addition to these government-funded public schools, the United States has many schools that are privately financed

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and maintained. More than 10 percent of all elementary and secondary students in the United States attend private schools. Religious groups, especially the Roman Catholic Church, run many of these. Many of America's most renowned universities and colleges are also privately endowed and run. As a result, although American education is expected to provide equality of opportunity, it is not easily directed toward these goals. This complex enterprise, once one of the proudest achievements of American democracy because of its diversity and inclusiveness, became the subject of intense debate and criticism during the second half of the 20th century. People debated the goals of schools as well as whether schools were educating students well enough.

B. History of Education in America

Until the 1830s, most American children attended school irregularly, and most schools were either run privately or by charities. This irregular system was replaced in the Northeast and Midwest by publicly financed elementary schools, known as common schools. Common schools provided rudimentary instruction in literacy and trained students in citizenship. This democratic ideal expanded after the Civil War to all parts of the nation. By the 1880s and 1890s, schools began to expand attendance requirements so that more children and older children attended school regularly. These more rigorous requirements were intended to ensure that all students, including those whose families had immigrated from elsewhere, were integrated into society. In addition, the schools tried to equip children with the more complex skills required in an industrialized urban society.

Education became increasingly important during the 20th century, as America’s sophisticated industrial society demanded a more literate and skilled workforce. In addition, school degrees provided a sought-after means to obtain better-paying and higher-status jobs. Schools were the one American institution that could provide the literate skills and work habits necessary for Americans of all backgrounds to compete in industries. As a result, education expanded rapidly. In the first decades of the 20th century, mandatory education laws required children to complete grade school. By the end of the 20th century, many states required children to attend school until they were at least 16. In 1960, 45 percent of high school graduates enrolled in college; by 1996 that enrollment rate had risen to 65 percent. By the late 20th century, an advanced education was necessary for success in the globally competitive and technologically advanced modern economy. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, workers with a bachelor’s degree in 1997 earned an average of $40,000 annually, while those

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with a high school degree earned about $23,000. Those who did not complete high school earned about $16,000.

In the United States, higher education is widely available and obtainable through thousands of private, religious, and state-run institutions, which offer advanced professional, scientific, and other training programs that enable students to become proficient in diverse subjects. Colleges vary in cost and level of prestige. Many of the oldest and most famous colleges on the East Coast are expensive and set extremely high admissions standards. Large state universities are less difficult to enter, and their fees are substantially lower. Other types of institutions include state universities that provide engineering, teaching, and agriculture degrees; private universities and small privately endowed colleges; religious colleges and universities; and community and junior colleges that offer part-time and two-year degree programs. This complex and diverse range of schools has made American higher education the envy of other countries and one of the nation’s greatest assets in creating and maintaining a technologically advanced society.

When more people began to attend college, there were a number of repercussions. Going to college delayed maturity and independence for many Americans, extending many of the stresses of adolescence into a person’s 20s and postponing the rites of adulthood, such as marriage and childbearing. As society paid more attention to education, it also devoted a greater proportion of its resources to it. Local communities were required to spend more money on schools and teachers, while colleges and universities were driven to expand their facilities and course offerings to accommodate an ever-growing student body. Parents were also expected to support their children longer and to forgo their children's contribution to the household.

C. Funding

Education is an enormous investment that requires contributions from many sources. American higher education is especially expensive, with its heavy investment in laboratory space and research equipment. It receives funding from private individuals, foundations, and corporations. Many private universities have large endowments, or funds, that sustain the institutions beyond what students pay in tuition and fees. Many, such as Harvard University in Massachusetts and Stanford University in California, raise large sums of money through fund drives. Even many state-funded universities seek funds from private sources to augment their budgets. Most major state universities, such as those in Michigan and California, now rely on a mixture of state and private resources.

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Before World War II, the federal government generally played a minor role in financing education, with the exception of the Morrill Acts of 1862 and 1890. These acts granted the states public lands that could be sold for the purpose of establishing and maintaining institutions of higher education. Many so-called land-grant state universities were founded during the 19th century as a result of this funding. Today, land-grant colleges include some of the nation’s premier state universities. The government also provided some funding for basic research at universities.

The American experience in World War II (especially the success of the Manhattan Project, which created the atomic bomb) made clear that scientific and technical advances, as well as human resources, were essential to national security. As a result, the federal government became increasingly involved in education at all levels and substantially expanded funding for universities. The federal government began to provide substantial amounts of money for university research programs through agencies such as the National Science Foundation, and later through the National Institutes of Health and the departments of Energy and Defense. At the same time, the government began to focus on providing equal educational opportunities for all Americans. Beginning with the GI Bill, which financed educational programs for veterans, and later in the form of fellowships and direct student loans in the 1960s, more and more Americans were able to attend colleges and universities.

During the 1960s the federal government also began to play more of a role in education at lower levels. The Great Society programs of President Lyndon Johnson developed many new educational initiatives to assist poor children and to compensate for disadvantage. Federal money was funneled through educational institutions to establish programs such as Head Start, which provides early childhood education to disadvantaged children. Some Americans, however, resisted the federal government’s increased presence in education, which they believed contradicted the long tradition of state-sponsored public schooling.

By the 1980s many public schools were receiving federal subsidies for textbooks, transportation, breakfast and lunch programs, and services for students with disabilities. This funding enriched schools across the country, especially inner-city schools, and affected the lives of millions of schoolchildren. Although federal funding increased, as did federal supervision, to guarantee an equitable distribution of funds, the government did not exercise direct control

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over the academic programs schools offered or over decisions about academic issues. During the 1990s, the administration of President Bill Clinton urged the federal government to move further in exercising leadership by establishing academic standards for public schools across the country and to evaluate schools through testing.

D. Concerns in Elementary Education

The United States has historically contended with the challenges that come with being a nation of immigrants. Schools are often responsible for modifying educational offerings to accommodate immigrants. Early schools reflected many differences among students and their families but were also a mechanism by which to overcome these differences and to forge a sense of American commonality. Common schools, or publicly financed elementary schools, were first introduced in the mid-19th century in the hopes of creating a common bond among a diverse citizenship. By the early 20th century, massive immigration from Europe caused schools to restructure and expand their programs to more effectively incorporate immigrant children into society. High schools began to include technical, business, and vocational curricula to accommodate the various goals of its more diverse population. The United States continues to be concerned about how to incorporate immigrant groups.

The language in which students are taught is one of the most significant issues for schools. Many Americans have become concerned about how best to educate students who are new to the English language and to American culture. As children of all ages and from dozens of language backgrounds seek an education, most schools have adopted some variety of bilingual instruction (see Bilingual Education). Students are taught in their native language until their knowledge of English improves, which is often accomplished through an English as a Second Language (ESL) program. Some people have criticized these bilingual programs for not encouraging students to learn English more quickly, or at all. Some Americans fear that English will no longer provide a uniform basis for American identity; others worry that immigrant children will have a hard time finding employment if they do not become fluent in English. In response to these criticisms, voters in California, the state that has seen the largest influx of recent immigrants, passed a law in 1998 requiring that all children attending public

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schools be taught in English and prohibiting more than one year of bilingual instruction.

Many Americans, including parents and business leaders, are also alarmed by what they see as inadequate levels of student achievement in subjects such as reading, mathematics, and science. On many standardized tests, American students lag behind their counterparts in Europe and Asia. In response, some Americans have urged the adoption of national standards by which individual schools can be evaluated. Some have supported more rigorous teacher competency standards. Another response that became popular in the 1990s is the creation of charter schools. These schools are directly authorized by the state and receive public funding, but they operate largely outside the control of local school districts. Parents and teachers enforce self-defined standards for these charter schools (see Charter School).

Schools are also working to incorporate computers into classrooms. The need for computer literacy in the 21st century has put an additional strain on school budgets and local resources. Schools have struggled to catch up by providing computer equipment and instruction and by making Internet connections available. Some companies, including Apple Computer, Inc., have provided computer equipment to help schools meet their students’ computer-education needs.

E. Concerns in Higher Education

Throughout the 20th century, Americans have attended schools to obtain the economic and social rewards that come with highly technical or skilled work and advanced degrees. However, as the United States became more diverse, people debated how to include different groups, such as women and minorities, into higher education. Blacks have historically been excluded from many white institutions, or were made to feel unwelcome. Since the 19th century, a number of black colleges have existed to compensate for this broad social bias, including federally chartered and funded Howard University. In the early 20th century, when Jews and other Eastern Europeans began to apply to universities, some of the most prestigious colleges imposed quotas limiting their numbers.

Americans tried various means to eliminate the most egregious forms of discrimination. In the early part of the century, "objective" admissions tests were introduced to counteract the bias in admissions. Some educators now view admissions tests such as the Scholastic Achievement Test (SAT), originally created to simplify

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admissions testing for prestigious private schools, as disadvantageous to women and minorities. Critics of the SAT believed the test did not adequately account for differences in social and economic background. Whenever something as subjective as ability or merit is evaluated, and when the rewards are potentially great, people hotly debate the best means to fairly evaluate these criteria.

Until the middle of the 20th century, most educational issues in the United States were handled locally. After World War II, however, the federal government began to assume a new obligation to assure equality in educational opportunity, and this issue began to affect college admissions standards. In the last quarter of the 20th century, the government increased its role in questions relating to how all Americans could best secure equal access to education.

Schools had problems providing equal opportunities for all because quality, costs, and admissions criteria varied greatly. To deal with these problems, the federal government introduced the policy of affirmative action in education in the early 1970s. Affirmative action required that colleges and universities take race, ethnicity, and gender into account in admissions to provide extra consideration to those who have historically faced discrimination. It was intended to assure that Americans of all backgrounds have an opportunity to train for professions in fields such as medicine, law, education, and business administration.

Affirmative action became a general social commitment during the last quarter of the 20th century. In education, it meant that universities and colleges gave extra advantages and opportunities to blacks, Native Americans, women, and other groups that were generally underrepresented at the highest levels of business and in other professions. Affirmative action also included financial assistance to members of minorities who could not otherwise afford to attend colleges and universities. Affirmative action has allowed many minority members to achieve new prominence and success.

At the end of the 20th century, the policy of affirmative action was criticized as unfair to those who were denied admission in order to admit those in designated group categories. Some considered affirmative action policies a form of reverse discrimination, some believed that special policies were no longer necessary, and others believed that only some groups should qualify (such as African Americans because of the nation’s long history of slavery and

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segregation). The issue became a matter of serious discussion and is one of the most highly charged topics in education today. In the 1990s three states—Texas, California, and Washington—eliminated affirmative action in their state university admissions policies.

Several other issues have become troubling to higher education. Because tuition costs have risen to very high levels, many smaller private colleges and universities are struggling to attract students. Many students and their parents choose state universities where costs are much lower. The decline in federal research funds has also caused financial difficulties to many universities. Many well-educated students, including those with doctoral degrees, have found it difficult to find and keep permanent academic jobs, as schools seek to lower costs by hiring part-time and temporary faculty. As a result, despite its great strengths and its history of great variety, the expense of American higher education may mean serious changes in the future.

Education is fundamental to American culture in more ways than providing literacy and job skills. Educational institutions are the setting where scholars interpret and pass on the meaning of the American experience. They analyze what America is as a society by interpreting the nation’s past and defining objectives for the future. That information eventually forms the basis for what children learn from teachers, textbooks, and curricula. Thus, the work of educational institutions is far more important than even job training, although this is usually foremost in people’s minds.

http://encarta.msn.com/text_1741500820__1/United_States_(Culture).html

F. Ivy League

Ivy League is the name generally applied to eight universities (Brown, Columbia, Cornell, Dartmouth, Harvard, Pennsylvania, Princeton, and Yale) that over the years have had common interests in scholarship as well as in athletics. Stanley Woodward, New York Herald Tribune sports writer, coined the phrase in the early thirties.

In 1936 the undergraduate newspapers of these universities simultaneously ran an editorial advocating the formation of an ``Ivy League,'' but the first move toward this end was not taken until 1945. In that year, the eight presidents entered into an agreement ``for the purpose of reaffirming their intention of continuing

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intercollegiate football in such a way as to maintain the values of the game, while keeping it in fitting proportion to the main purposes of academic life.'' To achieve this objective two inter-university committees were appointed: one, made up primarily of the college deans, was to administer rules of eligibility; the other, composed of the athletic directors, was to establish policies on the length of the playing season and of preseason practice, operating budgets, and related matters. Two other inter-university committees on admission and financial aid were added later.

As President Dodds pointed out at the time, the general principles agreed on by the eight universities were essentially the same as those set forth in the Harvard-Yale-Princeton Presidents' Agreement of 1916.

The first step toward organizing full league competition came in 1952 with the announcement that, beginning with the fall of 1953, each college would play every other college in the group at least once every five years. This plan was superseded in 1954 when the presidents announced the adoption of a yearly round-robin schedule in football, starting in 1956, and approved the principle of similar schedules in ‘as many sports as practicable.’

Thereafter, the Ivy Group (as the league was called in the Presidents' Agreement of 1954) established schedules in other sports, including some in existing leagues with non-Ivy members. As of 1977, the Ivy League colleges competed, round-robin, in football, soccer, basketball, and, with certain variations as noted, in baseball (also Army and Navy), fencing (except Brown and Dartmouth), ice hockey (except Columbia), squash (except Brown, Columbia, and Cornell), swimming (except Columbia, but also Army and Navy), tennis (also Army and Navy), and wrestling (except Brown and Dartmouth). Ivy championships in cross-country and track were determined at the annual Heptagonal Meets, in golf at an Ivy championship tournament, and in rowing at the Eastern Association of Rowing Colleges Regatta.

The mid-seventies brought the inclusion of women's teams in the Ivy League program with the institution of championship tournaments in basketball and ice hockey, and a move toward round-robin competition in field hockey, lacrosse, and other sports.

Other instances of increasing formalization of the Ivy League occurred in the seventies -- two of them involving Princetonians.

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Since 1971, the Bushnell Cup has been awarded to the Ivy football player of the year, who is selected by vote of the eight coaches. This trophy, presented to the Ivy League by the Eastern Association of Intercollegiate Football Officials, was named in honor of Asa S. Bushnell '21, the first commissioner of the Eastern College Athletic Conference, in appreciation of ``his great contribution to the advancement of college athletics.''

In 1973, to provide greater coordination of the athletic interests of the eight universities, the post of executive director of the Council of Ivy League Presidents was created, and Ricardo A. Mestres '31, financial vice-president and treasurer of the University, emeritus, was elected first incumbent. Mestres served in this post until 1976, when he was succeeded by James M. Litvack, visiting lecturer in economics and public affairs in the University.

http://etcweb1.princeton.edu/CampusWWW/Companion/ivy_league.html

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UNIT 2 Education in the United

Kingdom

Key Wordshistorical importance; Leas; contrasts with American education; types of schools; GCSE; education beyond age 16;

General impressionThis passage is comprehensible to English freshmen and sophomores.

Reading guidanceThis chapter provides the readers knowledge of education in the UK, from its history, the contrasts with that of US, to types of schools in UK, and education beyond the age of 16, which is practical and useful, especially for the students who would like to go to the United Kingdom to study.

Thinking tasks1. Please briefly introduce the history of education in the UK?2. Can you name the differences of education in the US and UK?3. What are the different types of schools in UK?4. If you are a 16-year-old student in UK, what choice do you have

for your future?

A. Historical Importance of Education

Education is a vital concern throughout Britain because a highly developed nation depends upon educated professionals and a skilled workforce. The literacy rate in Britain is one of the highest in the world at over 99 percent.

Britain’s first education act, in 1870, was inspired by the pioneering example of mass compulsory education in Germany and provided for state-financed primary education. Another major education act, passed in 1902, established local education authorities (LEAs) that were responsible for providing schools and education in their areas. The act also authorized LEAs to use public funds for church-affiliated

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schools. This policy was severely criticized by people whose children attended state schools because their taxes were used to support church schools. The 1902 act also established scholarships for secondary education. An education act passed in 1944 and administered by the newly created Ministry of Education established free and compulsory secondary education up to age 15; this was increased to age 16 in 1973. An education reform act in 1988 allowed individual schools to control their own affairs and budgets, free from LEAs, and to receive grants directly from the government. It also established a controversial national curriculum, which was simplified in 1994 after complaints about its complexity. Legislation pertaining to education is laden with controversies because of education’s importance in Britain.

B. Contrasts with American Education

Compared to the United States, fewer people go on to higher education in Britain, and there is more emphasis on segregating pupils at the lower levels on the basis of ability. Most British schools are funded by the central government, with local governments providing supplemental funding. England and Wales have a national curriculum of core courses for students 5 to 16 years old, and schools are inspected by the Office for Standards in Education. National tests at the ages of 7, 11, and 14 assess students’ progress. Schools must provide religious education and daily collective worship for all pupils, although parents can withdraw their children from these. Full-time school begins at age 5 in Great Britain and at age 4 in Northern Ireland. In addition, about half of 3- and 4-year-olds are enrolled in specialized nursery schools or in nursery classes at primary schools.

In Britain, the term form is used to designate grade; old boys and old girls refer to people who have graduated from a school. Private schools or independent schools are called public schools, a term that means just the opposite in the United States. What are called public schools in the United States are called state schools in Britain. When a person is sent down from school, it means he or she has been thrown out. Grammar schools are university preparatory schools, most of which have been replaced by comprehensive schools catering to students of all academic abilities. Secondary modern schools provide vocational education rather preparation for university entrance.

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C. Types of Schools in Britain

The most famous schools in Britain are private boarding schools, such as Eton College, Harrow School, Rugby School, and Winchester School. These famous private schools, founded during the Middle Ages, are theoretically open to the public, but in reality are attended by those who can afford the fees. Many of Britain’s leaders have attended these private schools, which cater to the wealthy and influential but also offer some scholarships to gifted poorer children. Local authorities and the central authority also provide assistance to some families who are unable to pay the fees. Only a small percentage of the population can attend these ancient and highly prestigious schools. A variety of other schools are also private, including kindergartens, day schools, and newer boarding schools. Private schools that take pupils from the age of 7 to the age of 11, 12, or 13 are called preparatory schools. Private schools that take older pupils from the age of 11, 12, or 13 to 18 or 19 are often referred to as public schools. Only 7 percent of British students attend private school.

In England, Wales, and Northern Ireland, the education systems are similar. The majority of the students attend schools wholly or partly supported with public funds. These include state schools owned and funded by LEAs; voluntary schools established and funded mostly by religious denominations; self-governing or grant-maintained (GM) schools that receive funds directly from the government rather than local authorities; and specialist schools that are connected to a private backer. Most pupils attend LEA schools. About 15 percent of secondary schools are GM schools.

In Scotland, educational authorities are largely independent of those in the rest of the United Kingdom, although reforms, such as raising the age at which students may leave school, are similar. Nearly all Scottish schools are comprehensive, meaning they serve students of all abilities, and school boards involve parents and professionals. Recent reforms introduced local management of schools and allow state schools to become self-governing if voters approve the change in an election. The school then receives funds directly from the central government instead of from the local authority.

In 1997 Scotland elected to form its own legislature, separate from the Parliament in London. As a result, education in Scotland may change significantly due to Scotland’s 1999 parliamentary elections. Through its parliament, Scotland can address its own educational

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issues and create its own educational authorities. These authorities have the responsibilities once handled by the secretary of state for Scotland and other non-Scottish educational organizations. Wales also elected its own governing body, the Welsh Assembly, with the power to make similar decisions regarding the Welsh education system.

In Northern Ireland the schools are segregated by religious affiliation. Local education authorities provide for schools, but nearly all secondary students in Northern Ireland attend voluntary schools—church schools maintained by either the Catholic or the Protestant church. In an attempt to break down religious segregation and provide integrated education, the state established a number of integrated schools; about 2 percent of the school population attends these schools.

D. Education Beyond Age 16

At the age of 16, prior to leaving school, students are tested in various subjects to earn a General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE). If they wish to go on to higher education at a university, they take Advanced Level examinations, commonly known as “A” Levels. Scotland has comparable qualifications. About a third of British students leave school as soon as possible after turning 16, usually taking lower-level jobs in the workforce. Those who stay in school past the age of 16 may pursue either further education or higher education. Further education is largely vocational, as is adult education. About 3.5 million people were enrolled in further education programs in 1995. Students may also stay in school until age 18 to prepare for higher education.

The percentage of young people entering universities in Britain is far lower than in the United States, where more than half attend. In Britain the proportion has risen from one in six in 1989 to almost one in three in 1996. In 1995 there were 1.7 million students enrolled in higher education.

Britain has more than 90 universities. British universities can be divided into several categories. The foremost universities are the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge, both founded in the Middle Ages. The term Oxbridge is used to refer to both schools as a single entity, much as Americans would use the term Ivy League in reference to the group of prestigious East Coast

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universities. Scotland has equivalent ancient institutions at Edinburgh, Glasgow, and St. Andrews. Another type of university is the so-called redbrick variety—old and solid schools built in the 19th century when bricks were the standard building material. The large number of ultramodern universities that sprouted up in the last half of the 20th century are often called cement block and plateglass universities. London has its own great schools, the enormous University of London and its world-famous college, the London School of Economics.

Students interested in advanced education can also attend polytechnics, which are schools dedicated to the sciences and applied technology. An education act in 1992 changed the status of these colleges to universities. Higher education can also be obtained through the Open University, founded in 1969, which offers extension courses taught through correspondence, television and radio programs, and videocassettes. It also sponsors local study centers and residential summer schools. The purpose of the Open University is to reach people who may not ordinarily be qualified for university study.

http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761553483_4/United_Kingdom.html#p211

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UNIT 3 Education in Canada

Key Wordseducation; French Immersion Programs; administration; residential schools; literacy; elementary and secondary education; universities

General ImpressionThis passage is comprehensible to English freshmen and sophomores.

Reading GuidanceThis chapter introduces readers diversified aspects of education in Canada. Education is administered by Canadian government, and churches play an integral role as well. In Canada, students in Québec are generally taught in French while English is the principal language of instruction in other provinces and the territories.

Thinking Tasks1. Why is education in Canada different from the other English

countries?2. How is education administered in Canada?3. What are French Immersion Programs?4. Summarize the main features of elementary and secondary

education in Canada.

Educational systems in Canada derive from British, American, and—particularly in the province of Québec—French traditions. Students in Québec are taught in French unless specific conditions apply, for example, if their parents were taught in an English-language school in Québec. English is the principal language of instruction in other provinces and the territories, but there are exceptions. Many of New Brunswick’s schools are French-language schools, reflecting the high proportion of French Canadians in the province as well as the official policy of bilingualism there. French immersion programs, where students are taught almost completely in French, are also popular in many parts of the country.

A. French Immersion Programs

French Immersion Program is based on the principle of using similar learning conditions to those which characterize the way in which children acquire their mother tongue. The premise is that a language is learnt best when the learner is involved in using the

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language in real situations from the beginning of the instruction, and where the student is completely immersed in the language and does not have the distraction of hearing her native tongue during the immersion lessons. This is achieved by teaching various school subjects such as Mathematics, Science, Social Science, Physical Education etc. in French. French Immersion Program is:

an effective way for your child to become functionally  fluent in a second language while achieving all of the objectives of the regular school program

a program designed for children and parents whose first Late Immersion language is not French

a gentle and natural way of acquiring a language to produce functionally bilingual graduates.  This means that

uponcompletion of grade 12, a student could study, or work in aFrench-speaking setting.

open to all students registering for kindergarten or grade one (Early Immersion)

open to all students registering for grade 6 (Late  Immersion)

According to the Canadian Education Association, “No educational program has been so intensively researched  and evaluated in Canada as has French immersion. The effects of the program on the acquisition of French- language as well as English-language skills and the academic achievement of French immersion students have been well documented, and research shows that the program works.”

http://142.30.138.147/article.asp?c=132

B. Administration

The earliest Canadian schools date from the early 17th century and were conducted by French Catholic religious groups. Higher education began in 1635 with the founding of the Collège des Jésuites in the city of Québec. It was not until the transfer of Canada from French to British jurisdiction in 1763 that an educational system began to emerge that augmented church schools with secular public schools and private schools. When the dominion was created in 1867, education was defined as a provincial responsibility, and it has remained so ever since.

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There is no central ministry of education in Canada. The federal government steps in only for special populations outside normal provincial jurisdiction, such as inmates of federal prisons, the families of Canada’s armed forces, and indigenous peoples on reserves. Increasingly, indigenous groups are acquiring more control over their local educational programs.

Although education is administered by the government, churches frequently play an integral role in its delivery. Church-run schools that are alternatives to the secular system of elementary and secondary schools exist in all provinces and territories. Typically these schools receive state funding if they agree to teach the regular curriculum; in addition, they offer extra language and/or religion courses.

The vast, sparsely settled areas of Canada present special problems in delivering education. Initially, governments and religious groups established residential schools, especially for indigenous children, but these were never popular. The indigenous peoples saw them as a way for white society to dominate indigenous cultures. Eventually these schools were closed. A less centralized system emerged, which increasingly has been augmented with correspondence programs and more recently with educational television and teleconferencing. Some of the more successful distance education technologies, such as those developed by the Knowledge Network in British Columbia, have been exported to other provinces and countries.

At the same time, schools must meet a number of demands. Many schools are faced with large numbers of immigrant children requiring language training. In Toronto and Vancouver, the two cities with the greatest ethnic diversity in Canada, more than half of all students in the regular school system did not learn English as their first language. In poor neighborhoods, the schools provide free or subsidized meals to many children. Schools are also facing a demand for sophisticated and expensive technological training to equip students for the future. At the individual school level, parents are demanding and receiving a greater say in policy-making and program choices. In response, provincial governments have attempted to deliver education services more efficiently by consolidating school districts and collaborating with other provinces.

C. Literacy

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By world standards, Canada has a high literacy rate. Complete illiteracy—the inability to read or write at all in any language—is very rare in Canada, at just 3 percent of the adult population. However, there is a greater level of functional illiteracy—the inability to read well or to understand what is read. According to a survey conducted in 1989 by Statistics Canada, about 16 percent of adult Canadians find it very difficult to read a simple printed text. Another 22 percent can read but tend to avoid it. A 1994 study showed slightly worse results. Illiteracy is more likely to be found among the elderly and poor of Canada. Programs to combat illiteracy are offered by the National Literacy Secretariat, which promotes and supports organizations dedicated to adult literacy training.

D. Elementary and secondary education

Education is compulsory for children from age 6 or 7 to age 15 or 16, depending on the province they live in, and it is free until the completion of secondary school studies. Participation in the school system is almost universal; in the 1993 to 1994 school year, 98.9 percent of all children of compulsory school age were enrolled in elementary and secondary schools. After the period of mandatory education is completed, participation decreases. Some 68.2 percent of all students graduate from secondary school.

In the early 1990s Canada maintained 19 special schools for the blind and the deaf. These institutions together enrolled about 2,400 pupils, who were instructed by some 575 teachers. Canada had several schools for children with developmental disabilities.

E. Universities

Canada’s large universities were established in the 19th century, beginning with McGill University in 1821. Since World War II (1939-1945), higher education has expanded. Many new institutions have been founded, and the older universities have increased in size, scope, and influence. The federal and provincial governments fund the university system in Canada, including sectarian institutions, and students pay only a small portion of the cost. Universities are still the predominant institutions offering higher education, but the number of nonuniversity postsecondary institutions, particularly community colleges, has increased sharply in recent decades.

Nursing education, formerly concentrated at special schools attached to hospitals, has been transferred to universities and

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community colleges, which numbered 203 in the early 1990s. Similarly, teacher training has been shifted from specialized institutions to universities.

In the early 1990s Canada had 69 degree-granting universities and colleges, which together enrolled some 572,900 full-time students. Since then, one new university has been built in northern British Columbia, and a number of former community colleges are in the process of becoming universities. Among the country’s larger universities are the following: the University of Alberta (1906) and the University of Calgary (1945), in Alberta; the University of British Columbia (1908) and Simon Fraser University (1963), in British Columbia; the University of Manitoba (1877); the University of Moncton (1864) and the University of New Brunswick (1785), in New Brunswick; Memorial University of Newfoundland (1925); Acadia University (1838) and Dalhousie University (1818), in Nova Scotia; Carleton University (1942), McMaster University (1887), the University of Ottawa (1848), the University of Toronto (1827), the University of Waterloo (1957), and York University (1959), in Ontario; the University of Prince Edward Island (1969); Concordia University (1974), Université Laval (1852), McGill University (1821), the Université de Montréal (1876), and the University of Québec (1968) in Québec; and the University of Saskatchewan (1907).

http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761563379_5/Canada.html

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UNIT 4 Education in Some Other English

Countries

Key Wordseducation in Australia; education in New Zealand; education in Ireland

General ImpressionThis passage is comprehensible to English freshmen and sophomore.

Reading GuidanceThis chapter offers an introduction of education in the other major English countries, and familiarizes readers with the education system in these countries. Individual states and territories in Australia provide most of the funding at the primary and secondary levels. Education in New Zealand is free and compulsory for all children aged 5 through 16.And Ireland has a free public school system.

Thinking Tasks1. What are the main features of education in Australia, New

Zealand and Ireland?2. How is education funded in Australia?3. Can you name any famous universities in New Zealand and

Ireland?

A. Education in Australia

Education in Australia is primarily the responsibility of the individual states and territories, which provide most of the funding at the primary and secondary levels. In each state or territorial administration, the training and recruiting of teachers are centralized under an education department. Education is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 15 in all the states and territories except Tasmania, where the upper age requirement is 16. Most children start school at age 5. About 70 percent of students attend government-funded, or public, schools, which provide free secular (nonreligious) education. There are also private schools,

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which are usually denominational and charge tuition fees. The majority of private schools are Catholic. Some private schools, which are sometimes called public schools as in Britain, accept day students and boarders. Most children transfer from the primary to the secondary school level at the age of 12. Secondary schools, known as high schools and junior technical schools, provide five- or six-year courses of study designed to prepare students for university entrance. In 1995 Australia had nearly 10,000 primary and secondary schools, with an annual enrollment of 1.9 million primary students and 2.6 million secondary students.

Preschool education is not required by national policy and varies widely among the states and territories. In 1999 almost half of all children aged four were receiving some form of preschool education. The Australian Broadcasting Corporation conducts broadcasts for children unable to attend preschool centers. For the compulsory grades, special provisions are made for children who live in remote areas. These include Schools of the Air—where children use two-way radios, television sets, video and cassette recorders, and computers to participate in classroom instruction—and correspondence schools.

The federal government has special responsibilities for the education and training of youths in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities. A national education policy has been in place and evolving since 1990 to help improve attendance, retention, and completion rates in these communities, in part through federally funded, locally based initiatives and the development of more culturally sensitive curricula.

In 1999 Australia had 42 public higher education institutions, together with two private institutions—the multicampus Australian Catholic University (known collectively as ACU National) and Bond University in Queensland—and a large number of public and private colleges offering advanced education in specific subject areas. Their combined annual enrollment in 2000 was 845,132.

Among the leading universities are the Australian National University (founded in 1946), in the Australian Capital Territory; Macquarie University (1964), the University of New South Wales (1948), and the University of Sydney (1850), in New South Wales; the University of Queensland (1910); the University of Adelaide (1874), in South Australia; the University of Tasmania (1890); La Trobe University (1964), the University of Melbourne (1853), and

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Monash University (1958), in Victoria; and the University of Western Australia (1911). In addition, the commonwealth government maintains a number of specialized learning institutions, notably the Australian Film, Television and Radio School, the Australian Maritime College, and the National Institute of Dramatic Art.

The commonwealth government provides about 45 percent of the general funding for public institutions of higher education. It also assists with competitive research grants. Australian citizens studying at the country’s universities are obliged to pay a higher education contribution tax. This tax, which can be paid over time with interest, provided about 20 percent of universities’ operating revenue in 1999. Students from overseas pay sizable fees.

http://encarta.msn.com/text_761568792__1/Australia.html

B. Education in New Zealand

Education in New Zealand is free and compulsory for all children aged 5 through 16. Students spend eight years in primary school, often transferring to specialized intermediate schools for the final two years. Secondary schooling generally takes five years, and it remains tuition-free for students under the age of 20. Most students attend public secular schools; only a minority attend private or church-affiliated schools.

The system of higher education in New Zealand includes eight universities. The largest are the University of Auckland (founded in 1882), at Auckland, and Massey University (1926), with campuses at Auckland, Palmerston North, and Wellington. Other institutions of higher education are the University of Waikato (1964), at Hamilton; the Victoria University of Wellington (1899); the University of Canterbury (1873), at Christchurch; the University of Otago (1869), at Dunedin; Lincoln University (1990; formerly Lincoln Agricultural College), near Christchurch; and the Auckland University of Technology (2000, formerly the Auckland Institute of Technology). Several colleges provide teacher training, and polytechnic institutions offer degree programs, diplomas, and certificates in various technical and professional trades.

http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761555687_2/Education_:_education_in_Oceania:_New_Zealand.html#p37

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C. Education in Ireland

Ireland has a free public school system, with compulsory attendance for all children from 6 to 15 years of age. In the 1998–1999 school year 456,600 pupils were enrolled in 3,391 elementary schools. Secondary schools, primarily operated by religious orders and largely subsidized by the state, enrolled 346,300. Enrollment at universities and colleges totaled 166,600.

University education in Ireland began with the founding of the University of Dublin, or Trinity College, in 1592. The National University of Ireland, established in 1908 in Dublin, has constituent university colleges in Cork, Dublin, and Galway. The college in Galway, although now a secular institution, evolved from Saint Patrick’s College, founded in 1795 as Ireland’s primary Roman Catholic seminary. The university system was further extended in 1989 when the University of Limerick and Dublin City University (DCU) were accredited; both schools emphasize technical subjects. Ireland also has several state-subsidized training colleges and various technical colleges in the larger communities.

Ireland earned a reputation as an education and cultural center in the early Middle Ages. From the 6th to the 8th century, when western Europe was largely illiterate, nearly 1,000 Irish missionaries traveled to England and to continental Europe to teach Christianity. Irish missionaries founded monasteries that achieved extensive cultural influence; the monastery at Sankt Gallen (Saint-Gall), Switzerland, established in the early 7th century, is especially well known for its contributions to education and literature. Classical studies flowered in ancient Ireland. Distinctive also at the time were the bardic schools of writers and other intellectuals who traveled from town to town, teaching their arts to students. The bardic schools, an important part of Irish education, were suppressed in the 16th century by Henry VIII, king of England.

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UNIT 5 High School Education

Key WordsNo Child Left Behind; school size; risk of school failure; teacher quality; transition to postsecondary and careers; charter school

General ImpressionThis passage is comprehensible to English freshmen and sophomores.

Reading GuidanceThis chapter selects some documents about high schools from the US Department of Education, including an act of No Child Left Behind. And it provides a distinct view on some keen problems of high school education, such as the students at risk of school failure, teacher quality and transition to postsecondary and careers. Besides this, charter school is also discussed in the unit as a special point of US education.

Thinking Tasks1. What is No Child Left Behind?2. What is the trend of school size in the US?3. What are the problems confronted by the high school students?4. What are the problems about teachers in high school?5. What are the problems about high school graduates?6. How can a student apply for a charter school?

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A. No Child Left BehindNCLB was signed into law January 8, 2002.  It is the latest revision of the 1965 Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) and is regarded as the most significant federal education policy initiative in a generation.The overall purpose of the law is to ensure that each child in America is able to meet the high learning standards of the state where he or she lives.  The specific goals of the law, as spelled out in the Federal Register issued on March 6, 2002, are:All students will reach high standards, at a minimum attaining proficiency or better in reading and mathematics by 2013-2014. By 2013-2014, all students will be proficient in reading by the end of the third grade. All limited English proficient students will become proficient in English. By 2005-2006, all students will be taught by highly qualified teachers. All students will be educated in learning environments that are safe, drug free and conducive to learning. All students will graduate from high school. To help schools and districts meet these goals, the law provides a blend of requirements, incentives and resources.  The requirements include: Annual testing of all students against state standards in reading and mathematics in grades 3-8 and in science at three times in a student’s school career (including once in high school). “Verification” of each state’s assessment system via required participation (every other year) by selected districts in the NAEP test. Aggregate and disaggregate analysis and reporting of student achievement results. A state definition and timeline for determining whether a school, district and the state are making “adequate yearly progress” (AYP) toward the goal of 100 percent of students meeting state standards by the 2013-2014 school year. Technical assistance and then sanctions for schools, districts and the state for failure to make AYP. Highly qualified teachers in core academic subjects by 2005-2006. Highly qualified aides or paraprofessionals. Support for students not meeting standards and/or for those who have special needs (e.g., homeless, limited-English-proficiency). The use of “scientifically-based” programs and strategies. NCLB will provide nearly $1 billion annually in additional funding over the next five years to help states and districts strengthen K-3

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reading programs, before- and after-school programs, charter schools, reading readiness for preschool children, teacher professional development and education technology.  In addition, the law gives local districts and the state some flexibility in combining funds to meet identified priorities.  State plans must be completed by May 28, 2002, with input from external partners.  

http://www.isbe.state.il.us/nclb/htmls/highlights.htm

B. School size

The potential and problems of large high schools--and the related question of optimal school size--have been debated over the last 40 years and are of growing interest today. Approximately 70% of American high school students attend schools enrolling 1,000 or more students; nearly 50% of high school students attend schools enrolling more than 1,500 students. Some students attend schools enrolling as many as 4,000-5,000 students.

At the heart of the debate are three questions:

Are large or smaller schools are more effective in increasing student achievement and producing other important school outcomes?

How much of the benefits of smaller schools is related to size versus other factors such as smaller communities, supportive educational environments, instructional quality or parental involvement?

Can any benefits to smaller schools be produced by restructuring larger schools into smaller learning environments?

Although the research to date is largely non-experimental and hence must be interpreted with some caution, there is a large body of other evidence to suggest that smaller schools may have advantages over large schools. And while less is known about smaller learning environments within large high schools (so-called "schools-within-schools"), they presumably simulate the effects of small schools while retaining some of the advantages of large schools.

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Among current research findings:

Large high schools, particularly those serving low-income students, have disproportionately lower achievement and higher incidences of violence than smaller schools serving similar student populations.

In small schools, students tend to be more satisfied, more academically productive, more likely to participate in school activities, better behaved, and less likely to drop out than students in large schools.

The size of high schools may have an indirect effect on student learning. Essentially, more moderately sized schools-those with 900 or fewer students-likely improve the climate and conditions for student success, especially teacher sense of self-efficacy and appropriate sense of responsibility for student learning, when accompanied by high expectations, standards and supporting strategies.

Smaller schools also may be safer because students feel less alienated, more nurtured and more connected to caring adults, and teachers feel that they have more opportunity to get to know and support their students.

While small schools have a higher cost per pupil than large schools, they have a lower cost per graduate since they tend to have lower dropout rates. Also, the higher percentage of dropouts from large schools carries additional societal costs.

At the same time, some high schools may theoretically be too small to provide adequate resources, and the effects of school size may be more important for some groups of students than others.

Given these and other research findings, the Department of Education has taken steps to address the issue of high school size by offering schools resources to simulate the effects of small high schools within large high school campuses, which the majority of American students attend. Among federal efforts:

The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 provides funds for the Smaller Learning Communities Program which helps local education agencies plan, implement, or expand small learning

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communities in large high schools. Through this program, the Department is also conducting new research to determine whether the effects of small schools can be replicated within large high schools; the ideal size of such communities; and the impact of breaking down large high schools on important outcomes such as achievement and equity.

No Child Left Behind also authorizes the Comprehensive School Reform Program which provides funding for states to implement several high school reform models, many of which are organized around smaller learning communities.

No Child Left Behind also provides funds for the Safe and Drug-Free Schools program to prevent violence in and around schools, and foster a safe and drug-free learning environment that supports student academic achievement.

http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ovae/pi/hs/schoolsize.html

C. Students at risk of school failure

With the passage of No Child Left Behind, the Administration has made a commitment to provide every American student with a high-quality education-regardless of their income or background. This is an important goal given that roughly six in ten of our nation's youth have at least one factor-such as insufficient prior academic preparation, coming from a low-income family, or having inadequate family support-that places them at risk for low educational attainment and reduced labor market success. Current national statistics highlight the magnitude of this problem, especially for our nation's high school students:

Many middle schoolers are not adequately prepared for their transition to high school. As of 2000, one in four 8th graders scored below basic levels in reading, 48% below basic in math, and 40% below basic science.

Despite a substantial decrease in achievement gaps among students between 1970 and 1999, White students consistently outperform their Black and Hispanic peers in every subject area.

Although the gap has been reduced in graduation rates among students from 1971 to 2000, Black and Hispanic students' completion rates remain considerably lower than for White students.

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Although falling 4 percentage points from 1970, 11% of 16-to-24-year- olds in 1999 were not enrolled in a school program and had not completed school.

Almost half of all postsecondary students take one or more remedial courses, with those requiring remediation being much less likely to earn a degree.

Research demonstrates that, given challenging and supportive educational opportunities, many students are able to persist in high school and complete postsecondary education despite being disadvantaged. Among the educational opportunities are completing a rigorous academic curriculum, completing at least one advanced math course, getting help with college applications, and having frequent school-related discussions with parents.

http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ovae/pi/hs/studentrisk.html

D. Teacher quality

With the passage of No Child Left Behind, the Administration has made a commitment to assure that every child has a highly qualified teacher in his or her classroom. This is important given that research consistently shows that teacher quality is among the most important contributors to student achievement. A recent report released by The Education Trust indicates that the most effective teachers are producing not just a little growth, but as many as six times the learning gains produced by the least effective teachers. Moreover, these effects accumulate over the grade levels, with initially similar-achieving students separated by as many as 50 percentile points three years later based solely on the quality of the teachers to which they were assigned.

Despite the importance of good teaching, many students-particularly those from economically disadvantaged backgrounds-are taught by teachers lacking sufficient qualifications and experience. A separate report by The Education Trust indicates that children in high-poverty schools are almost twice as likely as other students to have teachers lacking a major or minor in the subject they are teaching and having three or fewer years of teaching experience.

Current national data suggest that teacher quality will be of growing concern in the coming years:

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30 percent of new public school teachers are hired without full certification, and at least 43 states report that they grant waivers to hire teachers who are not fully certified.

Minority teachers comprise only 13 percent of the teaching force, although minority students comprise 36 percent of the student population.

85 percent of teachers report receiving less than eight hours a year of professional development, and, of the newest teachers, only 44 percent report participating in formal first-year mentoring programs.

Less than half (42%) of college graduates who prepared for teaching apply for a teaching job within four years, and 22 percent of new public teachers leave the profession in the first three years.

http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ovae/pi/hs/tq.html

E. Transition to postsecondary and careers

High schools occupy a key role in preparing students for a successful transition to postsecondary education and/or careers. Yet, despite decades of educational reform in our nation's high schools, and some slow, steady improvements in students' academic performance, current statistics indicate that not every student is being adequately prepared for a smooth transition to post-high school education or training:

Although high school students are earning more credits than two decades ago, only three in ten complete the minimum courses for college entrance as recommended by the National Commission on Excellence in Education-four years of English, three years each of math, science, and social studies, one-half year of computer science, and two years of foreign language.

Nearly four in ten students do not perform adequately in core academic subjects, and certain groups of students-particularly those of disadvantaged backgrounds-perform most poorly.

In math and science, US students are outperformed by, or perform only equal to, their international peers.

One in ten 16-to-24-year-olds drops out of school, with higher drop out rates for students in urban areas.

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High school graduates from low-income families, as well as Black and Hispanic students, are less likely to be qualified academically to enter 4-year institutions.

Nearly one-half of postsecondary students require remedial coursework, with those requiring remedial coursework being less like to persist and earn a degree.

Although nearly every student aspires to enter college, only 63% of students enroll in the fall following their graduation and only about half of those earn a bachelor's degree by 25-to-29 years of age.

Over two in ten 4-year college students and over four in ten 2-year college students do not return for their sophomore year.

Fortunately, research shows that a rigorous program of study can help high school students-including those with risk factors such as low income or having neither parent with education beyond high school-successfully transition into and persist in postsecondary education. As such, many national, State, and local efforts are underway to raise high school standards and assure that every student is prepared for their future:

http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ovae/pi/hs/transit.html

F. Charter school

A charter school is a new public school that is created and managed by a group usually consisting of parents, teachers, and/or community leaders. Also, some for-profit businesses run charter schools. Charters receive funding from the state where they are located, and they are free from many of the regulations governing other schools that are overseen by a local school district. Most are small and have only a few grade levels. Some serve a specialized group of students. The schools are begun for several reasons. Their founders believe that students will receive a better education when parents and school administrators have a clear vision of how the school should operate, and first-hand knowledge of the students' needs. They also think that teachers and administrators who don't have so many bureaucratic rules to follow can develop more effective curriculum and teaching methods. Charter schools are very popular in urban areas where existing schools are overcrowded and underequipped, segregated, and not very successful in helping poor and minority students achieve. Most charter schools have only been operating for a few years, so it

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is too soon to know whether they are more successful than other schools. Many of them show promise, though, so it's useful for parents to consider whether their children would do well in a charter schoolHow Can I Find Out About a Charter School? Charter schools do not advertise. So, when a child is ready to move on to a new school, or is not doing well in his or her current school, parents need to seek out information about school choices. The local Board of Education and school counselors know about charters. So do social service agencies, community-based organizations, adult basic education classes, immigrant group organizations, recreational organizations, and religious institutions. The Internet also lists charter schools. People who can't access the information themselves can get help at their local library. Finally, parents should talk to other parents about their school needs. Parents can get general information, and also can hear about the charter school experiences of other students.

How Can My Children Apply?Charter schools require that students submit an application form. The form can be filled out by parents or by other adults interested in a student's welfare. Such concerned people include extended family members, teachers and guidance counselors, ministers, and health clinic and social service workers. Parents who aren't able to manage the application process, because of a shortage of time or other problems, should seek assistance--their community includes many people who want to help children get the best education possible. Only parents or legal guardians can officially enroll a child in a charter school, however. What Are the Admissions Requirements? All students who apply to a charter school are eligible for admission, and most schools have room for everyone. If, however, more students apply than the school can hold, they become part of a lottery that decides who can attend. There are no location requirements for admission. Students do not have to live near the school to attend it. Charters must supply the same transportation services as other public schools, but parents should think about whether the daily commute, even if it is affordable, would be too hard. There are no academic requirements for admission. Students are eligible regardless of their past school record. There is no charge for attendance. Charters, like other public schools, are free. If the charter school asks families to pay for "extras," like materials for enrichment or trips, it is all right for parents to say they can't afford them. Parents can ask the school to find a way to supply

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their children with what they need. Also, while a school may ask for donations or help with fund raising, students whose parents aren't able to contribute can't be denied attendance at the school.

http://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content4/charter.schools.html

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UNIT 6 College Education

Key Wordscollege planning; community college; quality college; guidance on paying for college

General ImpressionThis passage is comprehensible to English freshmen and sophomores.

Reading GuidanceThis chapter offers a good introduction about college planning for Chinese college students who desire to study abroad. It tells students how to select a quality university, how to apply for college and how to prepare for themselves for college. And some free hotlines and hotsites for paying for college are provided as well.

Thinking Tasks1. What should K-12 students learn for college planning?2. What aspects of high school graduates do colleges look for?3. Please give the advantages of attending a community college.4. How should a student evaluate a quality college?

A. College planning for gifted and talented youth

There are more than 3,000 colleges and universities in the United States. Choosing among them is a complex task. Recruiting procedures and a wide variety of publications such as college viewbooks offer idyllic scenes of campus life, but do little to clarify student decision making. The increasing number and variety of books on how to get accepted by the college of your choice adds to the anxiety and expectations. Unless the match between institutions and students is truly a good one, both are likely to be disappointed.

Gifted and talented (GT) students often have problems beyond those of most other students who consider college and career choices. A systematic, collaborative approach is needed whereby students learn that college planning is part of life career

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development; it need not be a finite event that begins and ends mysteriously or arbitrarily.

Learning About Oneself: A 6-Year Process

A coherent, programmatic approach to college planning provides opportunities for students to obtain information from counselors, other adults, and peers who understand their needs and who will listen to them, interpret and clarify their experiences, and discuss their concerns about changing self-concepts. Programs should include students who are identified as gifted (generally through IQ scores) but who may not be achieving academically. Students can learn about themselves, their community, and career options in a wide variety of ways. College Planning for Gifted Students (Berger, 1989) provides detailed information.

Seventh and Eighth Grades. Guidance activities emphasize self-awareness, time management, work/study skills, and an introduction to career awareness. Students develop a 4- to 6-year academic plan and decision- making skills. Participation in regional talent searches is encouraged, and students are provided with information on the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) and/or the American College Test (ACT), the screening instruments employed by talent searches. Planning for advanced courses often begins as early as the eighth grade, especially in the case of sequential courses such as mathematics, languages, and sciences. Many students will not be ready or able to begin a sequence. In such cases, summer programs, sponsored by regional talent searches or by-mail courses provided by some regional talent search programs may be a viable option.

Ninth and Tenth Grades. Guidance activities continue to help students clarify intellectual and social/emotional experiences, establish a sense of identity and direction, and set short- and long-term goals. Students are encouraged to identify and pursue interests. By 10th grade, they become aware of how their academic subjects, values, interests, and goals relate to careers. They also begin to learn that some interests and talents develop into artistic or scientific convictions while others develop into leisure activities.

Eleventh and Twelfth Grades. Guidance activities include arranging for mentor relationships and internships. Through group workshops, students learn how colleges make selections, who is involved in the admissions process, how students are evaluated, and what they can

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offer that a college requires and desires. They learn about the application process and how to present themselves so that the institution will recognize them as a good match.

Parents can support an effective guidance program by participating in school career centers and providing students with opportunities for enrichment

Learning About Colleges

Learning about colleges is a two-step process. Step 1 involves collecting general information by reading, talking with people (asking questions), and visiting colleges. By the end of 11th grade, the student should be able to develop a list of 10 to 20 colleges based on personal criteria. Step 2 involves analyzing and evaluating information. Students should be attuned to their needs and be creative researchers. By the middle of 12th grade, the student should be able to narrow his or her list to five or six colleges, taking into consideration (a) personal values, interests, and needs; (b) the variety and range of available college opportunities; (c) realistic constraints such as cost and distance; and (d) the method used by the colleges to select a freshman class (selectivity factor). The final list should include a safety school (one that will definitely accept the student), a long shot (admissions criteria are slightly beyond the student's credentials), and three or four colleges having admissions criteria that match the student's credentials.

Some gifted students are drawn to the most selective colleges and universities, schools that receive more than 10 applications for every freshman vacancy. A student who aspires to a highly selective college can expect a highly competitive application review. Students should understand that the way they address the application process may be the critical factor determining acceptance or rejection.

The application requires the following two kinds of information:

1. Objective information including biographical data, information on academic performance, standardized test scores such as SATs or ACTs, Achievement Test scores, advanced placement (AP) examination grades, and additional numerical information.

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2. Subjective information including extracurricular activities, recommendations, essay and/or personal statement, and a personal interview.

What Colleges Look For

Academic performance: Grade point average and class rank. Academic rigor: Evidence of superior ability in the form of

honors, GT, or AP courses. (Some colleges ignore honors or GT classes because they are of unknown quality.) Depth of study in areas such as foreign languages and mathematics.

Quality: Four or five academic subjects each year (English, mathematics, science, history, language).

Balance: Evidence that the student took a broad curriculum (mathematics and science, history, and English courses)

Trends: Evidence as to whether the student's grades are gradually improving each year. Recent performance is the most important indicator of the student's current level of ability and motivation.

Consistency: The parts of the application should fit together to provide a common theme and make the student "come alive" on paper. Recommendations should support and be consistent with both the academic record and what the student says about himself or herself. A quirk in the transcript (e.g., a low grade in an academic course during 11th or 12th grade) should be accompanied by an explanation. High SAT scores combined with a relatively low GPA provide an inconsistent picture of an applicant (e.g., high ability/low motivation). The student should address these situations in an essay or personal statement.

Standardized tests: PSATs, SATs, ACTs, and Achievement Tests are the only objective way a college can compare students from all parts of the country. Some large universities screen a vast number of applicants by combining each student's SAT or ACT score with GPA and class rank. Students who are not good test takers should avoid such colleges or make sure that their scores are not so low that they can be eliminated from consideration. Selective schools may emphasize achievement test scores. If students wait until senior year, only three tests may be taken.

Extracurricular activities and other supporting material: When highly selective colleges decide between two students who are academically equal, the creative presentation of extracurricular activities, the quality of recommendations, the

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essay or personal statement, the interview, and other supporting material make a difference.

Community service: Admissions officers know that an altruistic student, one who contributes to community life without regard for compensation, is likely to contribute to college life, be academically successful, and form a long-term attachment to the college or university.

Recommendations: Counselor and teacher recommendations should present a positive picture of the applicant, distinguish between the applicant and others who are equally qualified, and be consistent with the rest of the student's application.

The application essay: The essay can reassure the admissions committee that the student is capable of college-level work. Many gifted students have a difficult time with open-ended questions. Some create beautiful prose that, on the surface, is convincing. A closer look may reveal that none of the ideas are documented, grounded in fact, or based on any genuine information.

A counselor's role as student advocate and resource does not end when letters of acceptance arrive. Some students have difficulty breaking away. These students spend years in academic and social activities that nurture close friendships, and they sense that their lives are about to change. Although this is true for adolescents in general, gifted students may especially need guidance activities that ease the transition from high school to college.

College and career planning may be particularly difficult for some gifted students. However, it can be a growth-promoting experience for all participants when the ultimate goal--student decisions based on realistic criteria that result in a satisfying life--is kept at the forefront of all decision-making activity.

http://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content/college_planning.html

B. How to choose a community college

Community colleges are two year post-secondary institutions that offer certificate programs, Associate of Arts degree, Associate of Sciences degrees, plus many other programs. According to latest statistics from the American Association of Community Colleges (AACC), there are 1,166 community colleges in the United States.

Community College Fact Sheet

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Number of Community Colleges: Public institutions - 979Private institutions - 148

Tribal institutions - 30Total - 1157

Enrollment: 11.6 million students

6.6 million credit5 million noncredit

46% of all U.S. undergraduates45% of first-time freshmen

58% women; 42% men62% part time; 38% full time

(full time = 12 + credit hours)Student Profile:

47% of black undergraduate students56% of Hispanic

48% of Asian/Pacific Islander57% of Native American

Average student age - 29 yearsStudents Receiving Financial Aid:

Any aid - 37.8%Federal Grants - 17.2%

State aid - 10.2%Federal loans - 7.0%

Percentage of Federal Financial Aid Pell Grants - 35.0%

Campus-based aid - 9.8%Stafford Loans:

   subsidized - 5.4%   unsubsidized - 4.4%Tuition and Fees:

$2,076 average annual tuition at public community collegesDegrees and Certificates Annually:More than 490,000 associate degreesNearly 235,000 two-year certificates

In 2003, 62% of applicants taking the national registered nurse examination to become licensed professional registered nurses were

graduates of associate degree programs.Revenue Sources: (Public Colleges)

44% - state funds20% - tuition and fees

20% - local funds

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5% - federal funds11% - other

Governance: (Public Colleges)More than 600 boards of trustees

6,000 board members29 states - local boards16 states - state boards

4 states - local/state boardsInformation Technology:

More than 95% of community colleges are Internet connected. In recent years, the average starting salary for graduates

of information technology programs has increased more than 24%, from $20,753 to $25,771.

Training: 95% of businesses and organizations that use them recommend community college workforce education and training programs.

Welfare Reform: 48% of community colleges offer welfare-to-work programs. Of

those that do not, 54% plan to offer programs specifically designed for welfare recipients.

Healthcare:65% of new healthcare workers get their training at community

colleges.

Why are more and more students choosing community colleges? What are the advantages of attending community colleges? What should students consider when deciding whether to attend a community college?

Advantages of Attending Community Colleges Students attend community colleges for various reasons. Some choose community colleges because tuition and fees are lower than at 4-year colleges and universities. The estimated average cost of tuition and fees at public 2-year colleges nationwide for the 1993-1994 school year was $1,099 compared to an estimated average of $2,365 at 4-year colleges.

Students are likely to mention the following advantages of attending community colleges:

I like the extra attention I get from the instructors at my community college. They are readily available to students and seem to care that we do well.

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I need to be able to work to support my family. I take classes at the community college in the morning and go to work from there.

The money I'm saving by living at home and going to my local community college will help pay for my junior and senior years at the state university.

My community college is helping me get the skills I need to qualify for enrollment in the nursing program. In addition to the basic skills courses I'm taking in English and science, I also receive special one-on-one attention at the Learning Resource Center.

I wasn't sure what program I wanted to pursue. A counselor at my community college helped me assess my abilities, interests, and educational options. With my counselor, I've put together a program in computer graphics I'm really happy with.

Common Paths of the Community College Student

One: Preparing for Transfer to the University

For many students, the community college experience is the first of several steps in their education after high school. If you think you might want to continue your education at a 4-year college or university, you need to plan ahead. You don't want to repeat courses at a 4-year college if you have already taken them at your community college. Many community colleges have articulation agreements with 4-year colleges and universities to accept courses for transfer credit. Transfer credit means the courses you took at the community college are recognized as equivalent to the same courses offered by the 4-year college you want to attend. Under articulation agreements, you receive full credit for your community college course work. However, not all courses offered at your local community college may be transferable to every 4-year college or university. Contact your community college guidance and counseling office to find out which 4-year colleges and universities will accept your community college course work for transfer credit.

Two: Preparing for the World of Work

If you are interested in finding employment after you finish your courses at the community college, you have the following options:

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You can earn the community college associate in science (A.S.) degree or associate in applied science (A.A.S.) degree, which usually requires specialized courses (in fields such as business, health occupations, and trade and industry education) as well as several required general education courses (in English, mathematics, and humanities). A.S. or A.A.S. degrees require 2 years of study at the community college.

You can enroll in certificate programs that provide intensive training in a specialized field, such as computer-assisted drafting, food service technology, or paralegal studies. Many A.S. or A.A.S. programs at community colleges have certificate options for students who want to take courses in a specialized area of study but who don't want to spend the time necessary to earn the 2-year A.S. or A.A.S. degree.

You can earn an associate of science degree in a specialized occupational or technical area of study with the intention of transferring to a 4-year university and pursuing further study in your specialized field rather than going directly to work. Two-year and 4-year colleges often have arrangements so their programs are complementary and build upon each other. Check with the guidance and counseling department at your local community college to learn about arrangements like this in your specialized field of study.

Three: Gaining Job Skills and Personal Fulfillment

You don't have to enroll in a specific program at your local community college. You have the option of simply taking courses in subjects that interest you. Check with your local community college for a list of credit and noncredit courses to see what is offered.

Four: Preparing for College-Level Academics

For students who want to pursue college course work but who lack the basic reading, writing, mathematics, or science skills necessary to take the courses, the community college offers developmental education classes as well as learning resource centers that can provide special one-on-one tutoring. The learning resource centers have specially trained staff and can provide assistance on both an individual and small-group basis. Contact either your counseling office or the learning resources center at your college to find out what special services are available to help you attain your education

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goals.

Steps To Take in Choosing a Community College

So, how do you choose a community college? Who will give you the information you need to make a solid choice? The following steps should send you well on your way:

1. Request a catalog from your local community colleges describing the courses and programs they offer. Also ask for a "schedule of courses" for the current term.

2. Once you've reviewed the course schedule and catalog, schedule an appointment with a college counselor. Ask the counselor how to go about finding the right program for you. What type of career guidance can he or she provide?

3. Once you identify a program that interests you, ask the counselor if the college offers that program. If not, are there any colleges nearby that offer it? Remember, not all colleges offer the same programs. Also, if you need to work while you are attending school, check to see what time of day the courses you need are offered. Is it possible to arrange your work schedule to fit your class schedule? How long will it take you to complete the courses you need, given projected class schedules over the next few semesters or years?

4. Find out how much it costs to complete the program that interests you. Ask the college counselor if any financial aid is available to you that might help defray the costs of attending college. Don't forget to ask about any special financial aid that might be available to help with child care, transportation, or other costs you may incur in pursuing your education. Also, check to see if the college has work-study programs or actually provides child care or special transportation to campus.

5. Once you have decided on the courses you wish to take, you are ready to enroll. Ask the admissions office for an application.

Community colleges offer students many chances to maximize their options. Faculty and staff are dedicated to making sure students achieve their education goals. Even after you graduate from a community college or if you leave a program without finishing, you can still choose to return to the college for additional study. The commitment to openness is one reason community college

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enrollments continue to grow.

http://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content3/community.college.k12.3.html

C. Top 10 indicators of quality colleges

"Overwhelmed." That's the word typically used by parents and students to describe the college selection process, which includes more than 3,500 accredited colleges and universities in the United States.

To allay these concerns, top education experts and Peterson's, an education company, have developed a personalized college search system that helps students and their parents zero in on the college best for them.

Based on research with more than 700 colleges by the late Dr. Ernest Boyer and his son, education writer and consultant Paul Boyer, the Indicators of Quality Education™ (IQ) system identifies the most important criteria on which students and their parents should focus when evaluating colleges. The IQ system is part of "Peterson's Four-Year Colleges 1999" guide.

"While generalized college rankings may seem to help narrow the choices, these lists are subjective, heavily weighted on reputation and not tailored to address a student's specific needs. Our system will help students and parents choose a college that best fits their unique requirements," Paul Boyer explained.

Here are key factors that students and parents should look for when evaluating colleges:

Transition from High School: Colleges should offer an orientation program that begins before classes start and continues throughout the freshman year.

Communications and Thinking: The undergraduate experience should include intensive work in writing, speaking, and critical thinking, allowing students to develop the ability to communicate clearly and persuasively.

Core Curriculum: General education courses should be given equal importance to a student's major studies and be

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designed to enrich their education no matter what their chosen major.

Learning Environment: Colleges should foster an environment for learning that ensures all students participate in class discussion, collaborative learning, individual research, and internships.

Teaching Factors: Colleges should place a high premium on quality undergraduate teaching, offering introductory courses taught by full-time faculty with a low student-to-teacher ratio.

Information Resources: Colleges should not only have a large library, but one that meets the needs of undergraduates. In addition, institutions should offer ample Internet and computing resources.

Flexibility: Opportunities should be available for individualized majors, honors and co-op programs, and distance learning.

Campus Life: The college community should be a safe one for students, and one that offers diversity in its extracurricular and cultural activities.

Student Services: Students should be offered both academic and social support services, with access to tutoring, career planning assistance, psychological counseling, and health services.

Miscellaneous: Other factors that are important to consider include size, campus setting, and religious affiliation.

"With the annual cost of tuition and fees alone now as high as $25,000, a bad match between the student and college is an extremely costly mistake -- both in terms of money and time," said Peterson's Vice President of Guidance Services Michael Ditchkofsky.

http://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content4/top.10.indicators.col.html

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UNIT 7 Postgraduate Education

Key Wordspathways to postgraduate education; scholarship; application; postgraduate studies

General ImpressionThis passage is comprehensible to English freshmen and sophomores.

Reading GuidanceSome Chinese college students hope to further their study abroad one day. This chapter introduces postgraduate education in some English-speaking countries, mainly focusing on pathways to postgraduate education, application and its studies, which will be useful for the potential applicants.

Thinking Tasks1. What are the pathways to postgraduate education?2. What should you consider if you are thinking about undertaking

postgraduate study?3. Do you have any idea about the scholarships for postgraduate

education?4. How does an applicant apply for postgraduate education?5. Can you introduce postgraduate studies?6. Do you know about the fees for postgraduate studies in UK?

A. Pathways to Postgraduate Studies

There are a number of pathways to a postgraduate course. A traditional path has been for academically gifted (credit average or better) students to enroll in an Honors year in their undergraduate degree and, if successful in this course (which usually includes a research topic, project or essay), they then move on to doing a Research Masters (sometimes called an Honors Masters) degree or straight into a PhD.

It is possible, however, to enroll in a university-level Graduate Certificate or Diploma in an academic field on the basis of relevant employment, or in some cases, life experience, and then progress to a higher level postgraduate qualification on the basis of your success in these courses.

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In a similar way, enrolment in a Masters by coursework can follow relevant work experience and/or the successful completion of a Graduate Certificate or Diploma in a relevant area or by finishing an undergraduate degree which is deemed by the university you wish to attend as a suitable and adequate preparation.

Issues to Consider

If you are thinking about undertaking postgraduate study, it is important to consider the following questions:

Why do you want to do postgraduate study? Is there a valid reason or does it just postpone the moment when you have to make an employment decision?

Will the postgraduate course you are considering be useful to you, either as personal enrichment or as a marketable qualification? Your Careers Service can assist you with this issue, as can a study of job advertisements in the newspapers and on the Internet.

Are you strong enough academically to undertake a higher degree? Some self-analysis and discussion with academic staff can help here.

Is the course you're interested in the right one? Talking to people who have done a similar course and to the people supervising it can clarify this.

Is it better to undertake postgraduate study immediately after your first degree or to wait until you have some work experience? For some higher degrees, particularly Master of Business Administration, work experience may be a prerequisite.

Scholarships

A limited number of scholarships (known as Australian Postgraduate Awards) are funded by the Federal Department of Education, Science and Training (DEST) and administered by individual institutions. These scholarships are awarded either with stipend, which means that the scholarship provides a living allowance or as a Higher Education Contribution Scheme (HECS) Exemption scholarship, which only covers the cost of the course. Additionally, a number of universities offer scholarships funded from other sources. Check university websites/libraries or local public libraries for directories of scholarships provided by each university. University

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websites are directly accessible from the "Campus Contacts" section on this site under Important Dates and Contacts.

http://www.gradlink.edu.au/content/view/full/143

B. How to Apply

The University welcomes all applications, without regard to the sex, ethnic origin or religious or political affiliation of the applicant.

When Do I Apply?

The academic year at Aberdeen starts about 20 September each year, and most taught Postgraduate courses begin at that time. Applications can be made any time in the previous 12 months, preferably at least 6 months before you start your studies here. However, applications made later than that will always be considered if places remain available. Note that there is no need to complete your previous course of study before applying; we can make offers conditional upon you successfully completing a particular qualification.

How Do I Apply?

Application is made by submitting:

1) University's Postgraduate Application Form

2) Academic transcripts and/or degree certificate(s) to date

3) For international applicants, proof of proficiency in English (e.g. IELTS certificate)

4) Two references in sealed envelopes from academic referees or the names and addresses of two such people. If you can send the references with your application form, your application can be processed more quickly.

Note: If you have any physical or other disability or medical condition which might necessitate special arrangements or facilities, please write directly to Student Support Services to discuss these before you submit your application.

How is My Application Processed?

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1. When the University has received all the necessary material, the Head of the School to which you have applied will decide whether you can be made an offer of admission. Any offer made will be either conditional or unconditional. It is quite common for UK- based applicants for research degrees and candidates for postgraduate scholarships to be interviewed. Also interviewed (where possible) are those that have been out of education for a period of time.

2. You will be sent an Offer Letter, when you accept the offer we make you and return the necessary forms, you will be 'cleared for admission' either immediately (for unconditional offers) or when you have met the conditions of our offer to you.

3. Once you have been 'cleared for admission' you will be sent, from May onwards, an Accommodation Booking Form, information regarding Joining Instructions and (for International students) the International Students Handbook.

http://www.abdn.ac.uk/prospectus/pgrad/general/apply.shtml

C. Postgraduate StudiesStudents are attracted from different parts of the world, and follow a well structured research programme.

1. Research Seminar Programme

a) Informal Seminar

All students, within 3 to 6 months of their formal date of registration, are required to present an informal seminar to the Supervisors , the Head of Department, the Chairman of the Departmental Research Postgraduate Committee and the Coordinator of Postgraduate Studies. The purpose of this seminar is to ensure that a student develops a clearly defined set of research objectives.

b) Qualifying Seminar

At the end of the probationary period (12 months after registration) a student must present a qualifying seminar to the satisfaction of the supervisors before his/her candidature can be confirmed.

c) Annual Seminar Series

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All students are required to give annually a short presentation to members of the Department. In this series, students will present the progress they have made on their research, results achieved, problems identified, and the prospect for further studies.

d) Concluding Seminar

Upon the completion of his/her period of study, a student will give a concluding seminar, open to all, which should address the findings of the research work undertaken.

e) Visitors' Seminars

Whenever possible, distinguished visitors to the department will be asked to conduct visitor's seminars for graduate students either on their areas of specific interest or on matters of more general scientific importance (or both). Students are expected to attend these seminars.

f) Journal Club

There is also a journal club organized by graduate students at which they choose a topic or paper for presentation. Prior circulation of printed matter on which the discussion is to be based is encouraged. The sessions are informal but attendance is mandatory.

2. Research Postgraduate Symposium

The Faculty of Medicine organizes a Research Postgraduate Symposium on an annual basis to promote interaction amongst students and staff.  Students who deliver outstanding presentations will be awarded certificates of merit by the Dean.

Writing Skills

All postgraduate students will have to present several papers during the course of their studies. In order to help the students to develop writing skills, all students are required to submit two essays per year to supervisors, who should decide on the exact format. The score of essays submitted within a student's probationary period of study would be used as one of the factors in deciding whether the candidature should be confirmed.

Coursework

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Students registered of Ph.D. studies are required to undertake coursework organized by the Graduate School and the Faculty/Department as part of research training.

Progress Reports

All students are required to submit progress reports at six-monthly intervals.

http://www.hku.hk/anatomy/Postgrad/postgrad.htm

D. Fees in UK

These cover the cost of your study at the University and, except where stated, include charges for registration, tuition/supervision, examination and graduation (where appropriate), and entitle a student to membership of the Library, the Students' Union, and the Athletic Union.

In order to complete registration, all students must be able to either provide documentary evidence from their sponsor which confirms that full fees will be paid on receipt of an invoice, or confirm that they are personally able to meet the full cost of tuition fees and where applicable, bench fees. Students whose fees are not paid by the due dates will incur a late payment charge, so if you need to make formal arrangements for the transfer of funds to the United Kingdom you must ensure that those arrangements are started in good time.

You can pay tuition fees by the following methods: cash, personal cheque, building society cheque, bankers draft, travellers cheques, euro-cheques (for amounts above £50), credit card and debit card. They can also be paid by four instalments (for postgraduate students) throughout the year by direct debit.

Please note that The University of Manchester has a loyalty bursary scheme that entitles graduates of the Victoria University of Manchester and UMIST (home and overseas) to a reduction of 20% on any portion of the tuition fee that you have to pay from your own resources, if you enrol on certain postgraduate programmes.

1. UK/EU students

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It is expected that the Department for Education and Skills will set the standard UK/EU student tuition fees for 2005/2006 in Spring 2005. As a guide, the 2004/2005 tuition fees are listed below. A small percentage increase should be anticipated for the 2005/2006 Session in the light of inflation.

Full-time Postgraduates (except Diplomas) - £3,010 per year Full-time Postgraduate Diplomas - £2,007 per year Part-time Postgraduates (except Diplomas) - £1,505 per year Part-time Postgraduate Diplomas - £1,003 per year

Some UK/EU students are charged higher fees for premium programmes so you should clarify this with the Student Services Centre before accepting an offer of admission.

2. International students

Studying in the UK is great value for money. UK degree programmes are generally shorter than in the USA and Australia because they are more intensive (eg full-time postgraduate masters courses are only one year compared to two in most other countries) and therefore more efficient in terms of your time and your money. Any offer of a place at the University is made on the understanding that you have sufficient funds to pay for your tuition fees, bench fees (if applicable), and living expenses during your period of study. You need to ensure at the outset that you have enough money to complete your programme.

2005/6 tuition fees for international students are listed below, with most programmes banded into arts, science, and clinical categories. Prospective international students should ensure that they ascertain in advance into which category the programme they wish to follow falls. Please also be aware that some programmes fall outside the banded categories and attract premium fees. Further information may be obtained from the Student Services Centre.

a) Arts-based programmes - £8,300 per year b) Science-based programmes - £10,750 per year c) Clinical programmes - £19,450 per year

a) Arts-based programmes include:

(i) All programmes in the Faculty of Humanities except for those programmes specified as Science-based in (b) below.

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(ii) Plus the following postgraduate programmes in the Faculties of Engineering and Physical Sciences, and Medical and Human Sciences:

Research/MSc Statistics Research in Science and Technology Policy Research/MSc History of Science, Technology and Medicine Research in PREST Research in Mathematics MSc Mathematics Dip/MSc in Applied Psychology MSc Technical Change and Industrial Strategy MSc Mathematical Logic and the Foundations of the Computer MPhil/PhD in Epidemiology and Health Sciences (non-lab) Dip/MPhil/MSc/PhD in Nursing Dip/MSc in Psychiatric Social Work MPhil/PhD in Psychiatry

b) Science-based programmes include:

(i) All programmes in the Faculties of Engineering and Physical Sciences, Life Sciences, and Medical and Human Sciences except for those specified in (a)(ii) above and (c) below. (ii) Plus the following postgraduate programmes in the Faculty of Humanities:

MPhil Music Master of Town Planning (MTPl) Diploma in Drama MPhil/PhD in Psychology Diploma in Urban Planning Diploma/MSc in Educational Audiology Postgraduate Certificate in Education All postgraduate programmes in the School of Informatics

Please also note that programmes in IDPM, School of Environment and Development within the Faculty of Humanities attract non-standard fees. For further details please contact the Student Services Centre.

c) Clinical Programmes include:

All research and taught degrees in clinical subjects, eg Medicine and Dentistry, which require contact with patients.

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http://www.manchester.ac.uk/studyhere/postgraduates/costofaprogramme/

UNIT 8 Finding Out About Student Aid

Key WordsStudent Financial Aid; grant; loan; dependency status; student eligibility; applying; special circumstances; deadline; SAR submission; telephone numbers

General ImpressionThis passage is comprehensible to English freshmen and sophomores.

Reading GuidanceThis chapter tells you about federal student financial aid (SFA) programs and how to apply for them. Education or training after high school costs more than ever, and you need to learn about as many sources of aid as you can.

Thinking Tasks1. Where can you find information about student financial aid?2. What are the major student financial aid (SFA) programs?

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3. How can a student be eligible to receive aid from the major student aid programs?

4. Who are more likely to receive SFA, dependent or independent students? And why?

5. How can a student apply for SFA?

Education or training after high school costs more than ever, and you need to learn about as many sources of aid as you can. Sources you can use to find out about student aid include:

The financial aid administrator (FAA) at each school in which you're interested can tell you what aid programs are available there and how much the total cost of attendance will be.

The state higher education agency in your home state can give you information about state aid, including aid from the State Student Incentive Grant (SSIG) Program, which is jointly funded by individual states and the U.S. Department of Education.

The agency in your state responsible for public elementary and secondary schools can give you information on the Robert C. Byrd Honors Scholarship Program (Byrd Program). To qualify for aid under the Byrd Program, you must demonstrate outstanding academic achievement and show promise of continued academic excellence.

For the address and telephone number of the appropriate state agency, contact your school's financial aid office or call: 1-800-4-FED-AID (1-800-433-3243).

The AmeriCorps program provides full-time educational awards in return for work in community service. You can work before, during, or after your postsecondary education, and you can use the funds either to pay current educational expenses or to repay federal student loans. For more information on this program, call 1-800-942-2677 or write to: The Corporation for National and Community Service, 1201 New York Avenue, N.W., Washington, DC 20525.

Your public library is an excellent source of information on state and private sources of aid.

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Many companies, as well as labor unions, have programs to help pay the cost of postsecondary education for employees, members, or their children.

Check foundations, religious organizations, fraternities or sororities, and town or city clubs. Include community organizations and civic groups such as the American Legion, YMCA, 4-H Club, Elks, Kiwanis, Jaycees, Chamber of Commerce, and the Girl or Boy Scouts.

Don't overlook aid from organizations connected with your field of interest (for example, the American Medical Association or the American Bar Association). These organizations are listed in the U.S. Department of Labor's Occupational Outlook Handbook and are also listed in various directories of associations available at your public library.

If you (or your spouse) are a veteran or the dependent of a veteran, veterans educational benefits may be available. Check with your local Veterans' Affairs office.

A. General Information

The U.S. Department of Education has the following major student financial aid (SFA) programs:

Federal Pell Grants Federal Stafford Loans Federal PLUS Loans Federal Consolidation Loans Federal Supplemental Educational Opportunity Grants

(FSEOG) Federal Work-Study (FWS) Federal Perkins Loans

Grants are financial aid you don't have to pay back.

Work-Study lets you work and earn money to help pay for school.

Loans are borrowed money that you must repay with interest.

Undergraduates may receive all three types of financial aid. Graduate students may receive loans or Federal Work-Study, but not Federal Pell Grants or FSEOG. Not all schools take part in all the programs. To find out which ones are available at a particular school, contact the financial aid office.

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B. Student Eligibility

To receive aid from the major student aid programs discussed in the Guide, you must

have financial need, except for some loan programs. (See below.)

have a high school diploma or a General Education Development (GED) Certificate, pass a test approved by the U.S. Department of Education, or meet other standards your state establishes that are approved by the U.S. Department of Education. See your financial aid administrator for more information.

be enrolled or accepted for enrollment as a regular student working toward a degree or certificate in an eligible program. (You may not receive aid for correspondence or telecommunications courses unless they are part of an associate, bachelor's, or graduate degree program.)

be a U.S. citizen or eligible noncitizen. have a valid Social Security Number. make satisfactory academic progress. sign a statement of educational purpose and a certification

statement on overpayment and default (both found on the Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA)).

register with the Selective Service, if required.

C. Financial Need

Aid from most of the major programs discussed in the Guide is awarded on the basis of financial need (except for unsubsidized Stafford, all PLUS and Consolidation loans).

When you apply for federal student aid, the information you report is used in a formula, established by the U.S. Congress, that calculates your Expected Family Contribution (EFC), an amount you and your family are expected to contribute toward your education. If your EFC is below a certain amount, you'll be eligible for a Federal Pell Grant, assuming you meet all other eligibility requirements.

There isn't a maximum EFC that defines eligibility for the other financial aid programs. Instead, your EFC is used in an equation to determine your financial need:

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Cost of attendance - Expected Family Contribution

(EFC) ___________________________________

= Financial Need

Your financial aid administrator (FAA) calculates your cost of attendance (COA), and subtracts the amount you and your family are expected to contribute toward that cost. If there's anything left over, you're considered to have financial need. In determining your need for aid from the SFA programs, your FAA must first consider other aid you're expected to receive.

Your FAA can adjust the EFC formula's data elements or adjust your COA if he or she believes your family's financial circumstances warrant it based on the documentation you provide. However, the FAA does not have to make such an adjustment. See Special Circumstances for more information.

You can get a booklet called the "Expected Family Contribution (EFC) Formulas," which describes how the EFC formulas are calculated, by writing to:

Federal Student Aid Information Center P.O. Box 84Washington, DC 20044

D. Dependency Status

When you apply for federal student aid, your answers to certain questions will determine whether you're considered dependent on your parents -- and must report their income and assets as well as your own -- or whether you're independent and must report only your own income and assets (and those of your spouse, if you're married).

Students are classified as dependent or independent because federal student aid programs are based on the idea that students (and their parents or spouse, if applicable) have the primary responsibility for paying for their postsecondary education. Students who have access to parental support (dependent students) should not receive need-based federal funds at the expense of students who do not have such access (independent students).

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You're an independent student if at least one of the following applies to you:

you were born before January 1, 1973; you're married; you're enrolled in a graduate or professional educational

program; you have legal dependents other than a spouse; you're an orphan or ward of the court (or were a ward of the

court until age 18); or you're a veteran of the U.S. Armed Forces.

If you claim to be an independent student, your school may ask you to submit proof before you can receive any federal student aid. If you think you have unusual circumstances that would make you independent even though none of the above criteria apply to you, talk to your aid administrator. He or she can change your status if he or she thinks your circumstances warrant it based on the documentation you provide. But remember, the aid administrator won't automatically do this. That decision is based on his or her judgment, and it's final--you can't appeal it to the U.S. Department of Education.

E. Applying

What form do I use? If you did not apply for federal student aid for the 1995-96 school year, you can apply for federal aid for the 1996-97 school year either by completing and mailing the 1996-97 Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA), by applying electronically (through your school), or by using the U.S. Department of Education's new FAFSA Express software. You can get a FAFSA from your school or from the Federal Student Aid Information Center.

If you did apply for federal student aid for the 1995-96 school year, you probably will be able to file a 1996-97 Renewal Free Application for Federal Student Aid (Renewal FAFSA). You'll either receive it at your home address or from your school. (You may also be able to file a Renewal FAFSA electronically.) Not all schools have electronic application capability; check with your school or the schools that interest you.

If you qualify to use the Renewal FAFSA, you'll have fewer questions to answer. Most of the information on the form will be preprinted

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and will be the same as the information you gave in 1995-96 (plus any of your corrections that were processed). You'll only have to write in some new information and information that has changed since 1995-96 (for example, family size). Check with your aid administrator if you have questions about the Renewal FAFSA.

For most of the federal student aid programs, the FAFSA (or Renewal FAFSA) is the only form you need to file. To receive a Federal Family Education Loan (FFEL) Stafford Loan or a PLUS Loan, you will have to complete additional forms.

Remember, applying for federal student aid is FREE.

However, to be considered for nonfederal aid, such as institutional aid, you may have to fill out additional forms and pay a processing fee. Check with your school to see which nonfederal application to fill out, if any.

Read the instructions carefully when you complete the FAFSA or the Renewal FAFSA. Most mistakes are made because students don't follow instructions. Pay special attention to any questions on income, because most errors occur in this area.

When you apply, you should have certain records on hand. These records are listed on the application. You should save all records and all other materials used in completing the application because you may need them later to prove that the information you reported is correct. This process is called verification.

If verification is required, and you don't provide it, you won't receive aid from the SFA programs, and you might not receive aid from other sources. You should make a photocopy of your application before you submit it. This way, you have a copy of the data you submitted for your own records. So be sure you keep all documents, and that the information you report is accurate!

When do I apply? Apply as soon AFTER January 1, 1996 as possible. (You can't apply before this date.) It's easier to complete the application when you already have your tax return, so you may want to consider filing your taxes as early as possible. Do not sign, date, or send your application before January 1, 1996. If you apply by mail, send your completed application using the envelope that came with it. It is

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already addressed, and using it will ensure that your application reaches the correct address.

NOTE: You must reapply for federal aid every year. Also, if you change schools, your aid doesn't go with you. Check with your new school to find out what steps you must take to continue receiving aid.

What happens after I apply? If you apply by mail, your application will be processed in approximately four weeks. Then, you'll receive a Student Aid Report (SAR) in the mail. The SAR will report the information from your application and, if there are no questions or problems with your application, your Expected Family Contribution (the number used in determining your eligibility for federal student aid). Each school you listed on the application may also receive your application information if the school participates electronically.

If you apply electronically, your application will be processed in about a week. The results will be sent electronically to your school. You'll also receive a SAR in the mail.

When you receive the SAR, you must review it carefully to make sure it's correct. If any changes are necessary, your school may submit the corrections electronically, or, if you applied by mail, you may make corrections on Part 2 of the SAR and return it to the address given at the end of Part 2.

If the data are correct and you don't need to make changes, you can receive financial aid on the basis of that information. If your school has not received your application information electronically, you must take your SAR to the school.

If it's been more than four weeks since you mailed in your application and you haven't heard anything, you can check on your application by calling 1-319-337- 5665 (Monday - Friday, 9:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m., Eastern Time). Or, you can write to:

Federal Student Aid Information Center P.O. Box 84 Washington, DC 20044

You can also use this phone number and address to request a duplicate copy of your SAR, or you can request a duplicate copy by

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writing to the address given at the end of Part 2 of the SAR. You'll receive the duplicate SAR in 2-3 weeks.

If you write, make sure you include in your letter your full name, permanent address, Social Security Number, date of birth, and signature.

Your duplicate SAR will be sent to the address you reported on your application. If your address has changed since then, you can correct your address by writing to the FAFSA processor where you sent your application or to the Federal Student Aid Information Center at the address given above. You can't change your address over the phone because your signature is required.

F. Special Circumstances

Although the process of determining a student's eligibility for federal student aid is basically the same for all applicants, there is some flexibility. For instance, if your financial aid administrator (FAA) believes it's appropriate, based on the documentation you provided, he or she can change your status from dependent to independent.

In some cases, your FAA may adjust your cost of attendance (COA) or the income information used to calculate your Expected Family Contribution (EFC) to take into account circumstances that might affect the amount you and your family are expected to contribute toward your education. These circumstances could include a family's unusual medical or dental expenses, or tuition expenses for children attending a private elementary or secondary school. Also, an adjustment may be made if you, your spouse, or either of your parents (if applicable) have been recently unemployed. If conditions such as these apply to you or your family, contact your FAA.

Check with your FAA if you feel you have any other special circumstances that might affect the amount you and your family are expected to contribute. But remember, there have to be very good reasons for the FAA to make any adjustments, and you'll have to provide adequate proof to support those adjustments. Also, remember that the FAA's decision is final and cannot be appealed to the U.S. Department of Education.

G. Deadlines

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Application Submission Whether you apply electronically or by mail, your application must be received by the application processor by June 30, 1997 for the 1996-97 school year.

THERE ARE NO EXCEPTIONS TO THIS DEADLINE.

Apply as soon AFTER January 1, 1996 as you can. (Do not sign, date, or send your application before this date.) Schools often set deadlines early in the calendar year. Students must meet these deadlines to receive certain types of funds, including Federal Supplemental Educational Opportunity Grant (FSEOG), Federal Work-Study, and Federal Perkins Loan program funds.

H. SAR Submission Your correct, complete application information must be at your school by your last day of enrollment in 1996-97 or by August 29, 1997, whichever is earlier (see your FAA). If your school has not received your application information electronically, you must submit your SAR to the school by the appropriate deadline. Be sure you know your last day of enrollment in 1996-97--it may be earlier than August 29.

NOTE: If you're selected for verification, additional deadlines apply to you. Your financial aid administrator can tell you what they are.

Telephone Numbers

If you need answers right away to questions about federal student aid, call the appropriate number listed below at the Federal Student Aid Information Center between 9:00 a.m. and 8:00 p.m. (Eastern Time), Monday through Friday:

1-800-4-FED-AID (1-800-433-3243), this is a toll-free number.

The Information Center will:

assist you in completing the FAFSA tell you whether a school participates in the federal student

aid programs, and that school's default rate. explain federal student aid eligibility requirements. explain the process of determining financial need and

awarding aid. send federal student aid publications to you.

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1-319-337-5665

Call this number at the Information Center if you want to find out if your federal student financial aid application has been processed or if you want a copy of your Student Aid Report (SAR). Please note that you'll have to pay for this call. Collect calls cannot be accepted, and this service is not available on the toll-free number given above.

1-800-730-8913

If you're hearing-impaired you may call this toll-free TDD number at the Information Center for help with any federal student aid questions you may have.

1-800-MIS-USED (1-800-647-8733)

If you have reason to suspect any fraud, waste, or abuse involving federal student aid funds, you may call this toll-free number, which is the hotline to the U.S. Department of Education's Inspector General's office. You may remain anonymous, if you wish.

If you are interested in the financial aid, you can browse the following website.

http://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/financial.part.html

UNIT 9 Adult Education and Literacy

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Key WordsAdult Education and Literacy; GED; Adult Secondary Education programs; Affirmative Action

General ImpressionThis passage is comprehensible to English freshmen and sophomores.

Reading GuidanceThis chapter discusses adult education and literacy with concerns about the education for minority groups, women, and disabled people. It provides plenty of data to reveal the problems faced by some adults. And adult education and literacy programs can help them a lot.

Thinking Tasks1. Can you name some adult education and literacy programs?2. How are adult education and literacy programs funded?3. Please introduce GED.4. Why do critics attack affirmative action policies?

Only in the past two centuries has the field of adult education acquired definite organization. Its relatively recent development results from numerous social trends—the general spread of public education, the intensification of economic competition with a resulting premium on skills, the complexities of national and international politics demanding constant study, the stimulating effects of urbanization, the opportunity offered by increased leisure time, and increased interest in educational activities on the part of many older men and women. Modern and formal adult education probably originated in European political groups and, after the Industrial Revolution, in vocational classes for workers. Continuation schools for workers in Germany and Switzerland were common. The folk high school in Denmark, founded by Bishop Grundtvig , stressed intellectual studies, and the Adult Schools of the Society of Friends in England (1845) fostered the education of the poor.

The earliest American forms of adult education were the public lectures given in the lyceum (c.1826) and the Lowell Institute of Boston endowed by John Lowell (1836). In 1873 the Chautauqua movement introduced the discussion group and modified lecture system. Free public lectures supported by the Dept. of Education of New York City were inaugurated in 1904. In 1926 the Carnegie

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Corporation organized the American Association for Adult Education, which later became the Adult Education Association of the U.S.A. In 1982 it merged with the National Association for Public Continuing Adult Education to form the American Association for Adult and Continuing Education. This group, through its research and publications, works not only to promote education as a lifelong learning process but also to systematize the methods and philosophy of the field.

Federal funding and support for adult education have been provided through the Vocational Education Act (1963), the Economic Opportunity Act (1964), the Manpower Act (1965), the Adult Education Act (1966, amended 1970), the Comprehensive Employment and Training Act (1973), the Lifelong Learning Act (1976), and for a broader spectrum of learners by the Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Applied Technology Act (1984). The Office of Vocational and Adult Education, under the U.S. Dept. of Education, administers grant, contract, and technical assistance programs for adult education, literacy, and occupational training. Most federal funding for these programs is administered through the states, counties, and individual communities. Other major federal providers of adult education are the Dept. of Agriculture and the Dept. of Defense.

A. Adult Education and Literacy

Adult Education and Literacy was previously known as Adult Basic Education. The Division of Adult Education and Literacy (DAEL) promotes programs that help American adults get the basic skills they need to be productive workers, family members and citizens. The major areas of support are Adult Basic Education, Adult Secondary Education and English Language Acquisition. These programs emphasize basic skills such as reading, writing, math, English language competency and problem-solving.

Adult education and literacy programs are funded through federal grants to the states. The amount each state receives is based on a formula established by Congress. States, in turn, distribute funds to local eligible entities to provide adult education and literacy services. Individuals and local providers cannot receive grant money directly from the Office of Vocational and Adult Education (OVAE).

Ensuring that adults have the literacy skills needed to survive and succeed in the 21st Century requires a comprehensive and

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preventive approach. First, to serve current needs, adult education programs must be research-based and accountable for results; second, to reduce the future need, accountability and high standards must be brought to schools at every grade level, including high school.

Today, a new report from the National Assessment of Adult Literacy [NAAL] adds urgency to the task. “A First Look at the Literacy of America’s Adults in the 21st Century” represents the first national findings on adult literacy since 1992. The report shows definite progress:

• Overall, average quantitative literacy skills rose 8 points from 1992-2003.

• Adults scoring “basic” or better – i.e., showing at least those skills necessary to perform simple and

everyday quantitative tasks – rose from 75 to 79 percent.

• African Americans’ prose and document literacy scores increased by 6 and 8 points, respectively.

• Asian/Pacific Islanders’ prose literacy scores increased 16 points.

However, it also found areas where improvement was needed.

• Average prose and document literacy scores for Hispanic American adults fell by 18 and 14 points, respectively, between 1992 and 2003.

http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ovae/pi/AdultEd/index.htmlhttp://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ovae/pi/AdultEd/naalfactsheet.pdf

B. Adult Secondary Education

Adult Secondary Education (ASE) programs are designed for students who did not complete high school and are aged 16 and older. In FY 2000 723,863 (25%) adults participated in Adult Secondary Education programs. A majority of adult secondary education students are preparing for the General Educational Development (GED) Tests that are offered in each state. In 2000 worldwide 513,203 adults took the GED test. An alternative to the GED is the National External Diploma Program (NEDP) and the Adult

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High School Credit The goal of the program is to work with students to help them progress toward completing graduation requirements from their home high schools.  

The program is offered to students who:

have dropped out of school are at risk of school failure in their regular school environment

are between the ages of 16-21

obtain permission from the sending high school

The ASE program offers the following services:

an intensive, comprehensive program for dropout youth, including education, counseling, support services, community service activities, and internship opportunities.

an educational program allowing students the opportunity to earn credit toward high school graduation

a program of counseling and communication for students, parents, and staff

assessment and counseling in academic, vocational, and life skill areas.

http://www.jal.cc.il.us/abse/ase.html

http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ovae/pi/AdultEd/ase.html

C. General Educational Development (GED) TESTS

The Tests of General Educational Development (GED) are developed by the American Council on Education to enable persons who have not graduated from high school to demonstrate the attainment of abilities normally associated with completion of a high school program of study. The GED program provides an opportunity to recognize the educational development of individuals as a result of their life and/or employment experiences.

The GED Battery includes five tests that measure the skills considered to be the major outcomes of a high school education. The tests focus on the major use of skills and concepts rather than

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upon recall of specific facts. The questions focus on the general abilities to analyze, evaluate, and draw conclusions. The subject areas of the tests are as follow:Test 1 – Language Arts - WritingTest 2 – Language Arts - ReadingTest 3 – ScienceTest 4 – Social StudiesTest 5 – Mathematics

Current Requirements for Issuing GED Certificates:– Register by completing the GED application for testing at the

local school division in which you live and pay the appropriate testing fee(s). There is a $35.00 fee required to take the entire battery of five tests and a $7.00 fee for each individual test; and

– Receive a standard score battery average of 450 (total score of 2,250) or higher with no individual test score below 410 to qualify for a GED Certificate.

D. Affirmative Action

Policies referred to as “affirmative action” are generally those in which an institution or organization engages in an active effort to improve the employment or educational opportunities of members of minority groups or women. Such policies can be implemented in a variety of situations. For instance, the term “affirmative action” is applied equally when referring to policies or programs that govern admission to education institutions or that impact the awarding of contracts to minority-owned businesses. On this issue site, however, affirmative action is considered only in the context of the education environment.

Much of the debate in recent years surrounding the use of affirmative action policies in the realm of education has focused on the higher education admissions process. The justifications given for implementing affirmative action policies vary widely. Several arguments, however, are most frequently cited, including:

1. Affirmative action policies are needed to remedy the negative effects of past and present discrimination on the group in question.

2. There are inherent benefits to society, the higher education institution and the student body when affirmative action

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policies are utilized to ensure the creation of diverse student bodies.

3. Racially based affirmative action policies are no different from other policies long used by higher education institutions to favor specific applicant groups.

Critics attack affirmative action policies on several grounds, including:

1. Affirmative action can magnify racial prejudice and hinder the country’s movement towards a race-neutral society.

2. It is morally and ethically wrong to exclude white or male students with high grades and standardized test scores while accepting minority or female students with lower corresponding grades and scores.

3. Unqualified students admitted to an institution based on their membership in a particular racial or gender class can be demoralized and stigmatized by having to compete with more qualified classmates who have greater academic ability.

A few states have passed laws or taken executive action to eliminate affirmative action in higher education. In 1996, California passed Proposition 209 amending the state constitution to specifically prohibit public universities from granting preferential treatment to any individual or group on the basis of race, sex, color, ethnicity or national origin. In 1998, Washington State voters passed Initiative 200, which barred the consideration of race or ethnicity in college admissions decisions (similar to California's Proposition 209). In 1999, as part of his “One Florida” initiative, Governor Jeb Bush issued Executive Order 99-281 banning all use of affirmative action in admissions to state schools.

For the most part, however, the legality of affirmative action policies has been left for the courts to decide. The U.S. Supreme Court first attempted to establish the “law of the land” regarding higher education affirmative action policies in Regents of the Univ. of California v. Bakke, 438 U.S. 265 (1978). In a heavily divided opinion, the court struck down the use of policies that apply strict “quotas” on the number or percentage of students of a particular racial or ethnic background who are admitted to an education institution. The court, however, allowed the consideration of race to be used as one factor among several for the specific purpose of achieving student body diversity. Promoting student body diversity has evolved into the primary rationale for affirmative action relied upon by selective colleges and universities and has become the

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main focus of continued legal challenges.

The split in the Supreme Court’s opinion regarding the diversity rationale and changing public attitudes towards the fairness of affirmative action policies in general have given rise to a series of conflicting appellate court decisions attempting to interpret Bakke and the constitutionality of affirmative action. Most notable among these appellate cases is a 1996 ruling by the 5th Circuit Court of Appeals in Hopwood v. Texas that race-based affirmative action could not be justified on the basis of encouraging campus diversity. The Hopwood case currently represents the only example of a federal Circuit Court of Appeals directly contradicting the Bakke decision.

While the legal status of affirmative action remains unclear, states and higher education institutions have attempted to develop new methods of supplying pools of qualified students from underrepresented groups. One such method is to mandate acceptance into the state’s public universities for a top percentage of students from all high schools in the state. Such a program can level the admissions playing field for students from typically underrepresented inner city and rural high schools. Thus far, California (top 4%), Texas (top 10%) and Florida (top 20%) have instituted such polices for the top high school students in their states. These programs, which are still very much in their infancy, are both praised and criticized for their ability to replace higher education affirmative action programs in a “race-neutral” manner.

Outside of the few states that have implemented their own policies, the absence of a clear ruling from the Supreme Court means the legality of a specific affirmative action policy now depends on the jurisdiction in which a lawsuit is brought. Many observers currently believe that, in the coming year, the Supreme Court will revisit this issue. Were the court to take such action, it remains unlikely that the issue will be definitively put to rest. The passion that affirmative action naturally engenders guarantees that states will continue to face pressure through ballot initiatives and proposed legislation from those groups who believe their interests have not been adequately or fairly addressed.

http://www.ecs.org/ecsmain.asp?page=/html/issues.asp?am=1

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UNIT 10 Career and Technical Education

Key Wordscareer and technical education; career academies; college and career guidance and counseling; Tech Prep education; standards and assessments

General ImpressionThis passage is comprehensible to English freshmen and sophomores.

Reading GuidanceThis chapter explains what career and technical education are with many facts and figures. Career academies, a school-within-a-school organizational structure, are often geared toward students who are not achieving their full academic potential. Tech Prep is designed to help students gain academic knowledge and technical skills, and often earn college credit for their secondary coursework.

Thinking Tasks1. What is career academy?2. What do activities associated with career guidance and

counseling programs typically include?3. What is Tech Prep?A. Career and technical education

Career and technical education, commonly known as vocational education, is a massive enterprise in the U.S. Thousands of comprehensive high schools, vocational and technical high schools, area vocational centers, and community colleges offer vocational education programs. Virtually every high school student takes at least one vocational education course, and one in four students takes three or more courses in a single program area. One-third of college students are involved in vocational programs, and as many as 40 million adults engage in short-term postsecondary occupational training.

Today, eighty-five years after the passage of the first piece of federal vocational education legislation, vocational education is evolving from its original focus on preparing students for work

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immediately following high school. With national and state school reform efforts focused on academic achievement, and with the fastest-growing occupations now requiring some postsecondary education, vocational education is seeking effective ways to contribute to these goals.

http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ovae/pi/cte/index.html

B. Career academies

Career academies have emerged over the last decade as a key reform strategy of states, districts, and local schools to address the many challenges faced by large comprehensive high schools. It is estimated that nearly 2,500 (about 24%) of the nation's high schools have a career academy. Among the distinguishing features of career academies are:

A school-within-a-school organizational structure. Curricula that combines academic and occupational courses

based on a career theme.

Partnerships with employers and the local community.

Although academies are appropriate for all high school students, they are often geared toward students who are not achieving their full academic potential, including those at risk of dropping out. In this, supporters and implementers of career academies generally believe that by offering academic and technical courses in a real-world context and smaller learning environment, students will experience improvement in their academic achievement, graduation rate, and transition to postsecondary education or work.

Some studies of career academies (identified below) show promise for improving students' school engagement and participation in courses that combine academic and technical content. However, the most rigorous study of career academies to date did not find evidence that career academies had an impact on students' academic achievement, likelihood of staying in school and graduating, or transitioning to postsecondary education or employment. However, the full story of career academies from this study is still unfolding and the use of career academies as a school reform model-particularly in the area of career and technical education-shows no sign of slowing down.

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http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ovae/pi/cte/academies.html

C. College and career guidance and counseling

College and career guidance and counseling programs aim to help students make more informed and better educational and career choices. Among other things, programs offer information on high school course offerings, career options, the type of academic and occupational training needed to succeed in the workplace, and postsecondary opportunities that are associated with their field of interest. Programs also often provide teachers, administrators, and parents with information they can use to support students' career exploration and postsecondary educational opportunities.

Activities associated with career guidance and counseling programs typically include:

Advising students and parents on high school programs and academic curriculum, preparing them for college application and admission .

Arranging dual/concurrent enrollment and Advanced Placement credits to prepare students for the rigour of postsecondary education.

Planning and preparation for college admissions tests, SAT and ACT.

Informing students about postsecondary financing that can be used to support advanced education and training.

Developing career portfolios, which include test and grades results, examples of student work, and resumes and cover letters to prospective employers.

Arranging job shadowing, work placements, and community-based learning programs to allow students to directly experience workplace situations.

Sponsoring workshops, classes, focus groups, and special presentations that focus on job skills and personal development.

Providing specialized counseling and intervention services to provide students with individualized attention.

http://www.ed.gov/policy/sectech/guid/cte/guidance.html

D. Tech Prep education

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Tech Prep, which began in the early 1980s as a small, locally driven high school improvement strategy, has grown into a major national strategy for improving students' academic knowledge and technical skills. As defined in the Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Technical Education Act (Perkins), Tech Prep is a sequenced program of study that combines at least two years of secondary and two years of postsecondary education. It is designed to help students gain academic knowledge and technical skills, and often earn college credit for their secondary coursework. Programs are intended to lead to an associate's degree or a certificate in a specific career field, and ultimately, to high wage, high skill employment or advanced postsecondary training.

To date, roughly 47% of the nation's high schools (or 7,400 high schools) offer one or more Tech Prep programs. Nearly every community and technical college in the nation participates in a Tech Prep consortium, as do many four-year colleges and universities, private businesses, and employer and union organizations.

Research on the effectiveness of Tech Prep programs is inconclusive. State evaluations in Texas and New York found some evidence that Tech Prep improved students' grade point averages, lowered dropout, reduced absences, increased high school completion, and improved postsecondary enrollment. However, these evaluations did not find evidence that Tech Prep improved students' scores on standardized academic achievement tests, and findings were mixed on whether Tech Prep improved students' postsecondary achievement or labor market outcomes. The last national evaluation of Tech Prep programs, conducted in 1997, found that Tech Prep programs were not always implemented as envisioned in the legislation, perhaps lessening their impact on student outcomes.

The Department provides funding under the Perkins Act to help states and local educational agencies implement effective Tech Prep programs. The Act also supports the Tech Prep Demonstration Program, which currently provides funds to nine consortia that operate Tech Prep programs at high schools located on community college campuses. These programs support students' transitions to postsecondary education through dual enrollment, access to advanced facilities and labs, and exposure to college life.

http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ovae/pi/cte/tpreptopic.html

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UNIT 11 Education of Special Groups

Key Wordsbilingual education; native American education; people with disabilities; New Freedom Initiative

General ImpressionThis passage is comprehensible to English freshmen and sophomores.

Reading GuidanceTo a certain extent, some special groups cannot receive equal education as the normal people. This chapter introduces bilingual education, education for native American in North America, and people with disabilities. Readers can get a general picture about these usually neglected special groups.

Thinking Tasks1. How can native Americans in North America receive education?2. What are the goals of the New Freedom Initiative?

A. Bilingual education

Bilingual education is not an invention of the 1960s. Contrary to popular misconception, earlier waves of immigrants often enrolled their children in bilingual or non-English-language schools -- public and private.In 1839, Ohio became the first state to adopt a bilingual education law, authorizing German-English instruction at parents' request. Louisiana enacted an identical provision for French and English in 1847, and the New Mexico Territory did so for Spanish and English in 1850. By the end of the 19th century, about a dozen states had passed similar laws. Elsewhere, many localities provided bilingual instruction without state sanction, in languages as diverse as Norwegian, Italian, Polish, Czech, and Cherokee.

Enrollment surveys at the turn of the 20th century reported that at least 600,000 primary school students (public and parochial) were receiving part or all of their instruction in the German language -- about 4% of all American children in the elementary grades. That's larger than the percentage of students enrolled in Spanish-English programs today. (Until recently, German was the dominant minority

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language.)

But political winds shifted during the World War I era. Fears about the loyalty of non-English speakers in general, and of German Americans in particular, prompted a majority of states to enact English-only instruction laws designed to "Americanize" these groups. Some went so far as to ban the study of foreign languages in the early grades -- a restriction that was struck down as unconstitutional in 1923.

Nonetheless, by the mid-1920s, bilingual schooling was largely dismantled throughout the country. English-only instruction continued as the norm for LEP students until its failure could no longer be ignored. LEP students in English-only classrooms were falling behind in their academic studies and dropping out of school at alarming rates.

The Bilingual Education Act of 1968 -- passed during an era of growing immigration and an energized civil rights movement -- provided federal funding to encourage local school districts to try approaches incorporating native-language instruction. Most states followed the lead of the federal government, enacting bilingual education laws of their own or at least decriminalizing the use of other languages in the classroom.Soon after, the Supreme Court recognized that leaving LEP students to "sink or swim" in English-only classrooms made "a mockery of public education" -- which must be equally available to all students. The court's decision in the landmark Lau v. Nichols case required schools to take "affirmative steps" to overcome language barriers impeding children's access to the curriculum. Congress immediately endorsed this principle in the Equal Educational Opportunity Act of 1974.

Neither the Bilingual Education Act nor the Lau decision requires any particular methodology for teaching LEP students. That is, there is no federal mandate for bilingual education (although a few states mandate it under certain circumstances). What civil rights laws do require are educational programs that offer equal opportunities for LEP children. To enforce this principle, the federal courts and the federal Office for Civil Rights apply a three-step test to ensure that schools provide:

Research-based programs that are viewed as theoretically sound by experts in the field;

Adequate resources -- such as staff, training, and materials --

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to implement the program; and Standards and procedures to evaluate the program and a

continuing obligation to modify a program that fails to produce results.

Politically inspired efforts to eliminate bilingual education, such as the Unz initiative in California, would have a hard time passing this test. States or school districts that persist in such civil rights violations could face severe sanctions, including the loss of all federal education funding. The National Association for Bilingual Education (founded 1975) is the main U.S. professional and advocacy organization for bilingual education. Critics (including the national group English First), who maintain that some students never join mainstream classes, have attempted to make English the “official” language in several states and cities; state ballot initiatives approved in California (1998) and Arizona (2000) mostly eliminated bilingual education programs there. Bilingualism proponents note the importance of ethnic heritage and the preservation of language and culture, as well as the need to educate non-English-speaking students in all subjects, not just English.

http://www.rethinkingschools.org/archive/12_03/langhst.shtml

B. Native American education in North America

The United StatesFor generations, federal and state governments have controlled the formal education of Native American children nationwide. Of the 600,000 Native American elementary and secondary schoolchildren in the United States, about 75 percent attend public schools, even on Indian reservations. Less than 10 percent of the student population attends BIA-operated elementary and secondary schools. Private, parochial, and tribally run schools serve the remaining Native American students.

In general, federal and state control of education has been disastrous for American Indian students in the United States. For the most part, public schools have been unable to address the needs of Indian communities because Indian educational programs are chronically underfunded. There are few Native American teachers, little parental involvement, and the curriculum lacks a Native American viewpoint. In the public schools, Native American students

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have the highest dropout rate of any racial or ethnic group—36 percent in 1990.

College graduation rates for Native Americans are also low. In 1995 Native American students accounted for less than 1 percent of all students in higher education. The majority of these students attended two-year institutions rather than four-year schools. Also that year, the graduation rate for Native Americans at a group of more than 300 colleges and universities was only 37 percent, the lowest among major ethnic minority groups. In addition to educational and economic hurdles, many social barriers have prevented Native American students from attending college. Cultural and language differences as well as the geographic isolation of most reservations have often inhibited student access to or persistence in mainstream colleges.

After a history of compulsory Western methods of learning, attempts to eradicate tribal cultures, and high dropout rates for Native Americans, Indian educational leaders wanted to rethink Native American education. They built on the success of the self-determination movement of the 1960s to explore other ways of educating Native Americans. Since that time Indian communities have had a growing voice in and control over the education of their children. In 1966 the Navajo Nation created Rough Rock Demonstration School, a highly successful Indian-controlled elementary school located on the reservation. It has an all-Indian school board, classes in Navajo and English, and a community-developed curriculum. By the 2000 school year, 65 percent of BIA-funded schools were controlled by tribes or tribal organizations in the United States.

Native American educators have also recognized the importance of postsecondary education and its ability to strengthen reservations and tribal cultures. Federal legislation in the 1970s provided funds to help develop postsecondary educational institutions for Native Americans. In 1968 the Navajo Nation created the first tribally controlled college, now called Diné College. Other tribal colleges quickly developed. Most are located on remote reservations and have a relatively small, predominantly Native American student population. All began as two-year institutions and have open admissions policies. In 2001 most tribal colleges were fully accredited.

Cana

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daFor more than 300 years, the dominant Euro-Canadian society educated aboriginal peoples in Canada. However, a new era in education began in 1972, when the National Indian Brotherhood published a policy paper entitled “Indian Control of Indian Education.” This paper led aboriginal people to take greater control of their children’s schooling. Since then, Indian-controlled education has played a major role in revitalizing Indian cultures. It ensures that Indian values, identity, languages, and traditions are passed to younger generations.

Education is a provincial and territorial responsibility. The federal government also provides funds for schools in the territories and on Indian reserves. Status Indians on reserves may attend elementary and secondary schools operated by First Nations or federal schools operated by the Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development (DIAND). Status Indians off reserves can attend provincially administered schools. Territorial governments provide educational services for Status Indians and Inuit in the Yukon, the Northwest Territories, and Nunavut. DIAND also provides financial assistance, through First Nations councils and other authorities, to eligible Status Indian students enrolled in, or accepted to, eligible postsecondary educational programs.

During the 1999-2000 school year, there were more than 480 reserve-controlled schools, up from 53 in 1975. That same school year, 60 percent of Indians who lived on reserves attended elementary and secondary schools run by bands, 37 percent attended provincial schools, 2 percent attended private schools, and 1 percent attended schools run by the federal government. The Nisga’a Indians of British Columbia were one of the first bands, in 1974, to take charge of a separate Indian school district that emphasized a bicultural, bilingual curriculum. In 1975 the James Bay Cree assumed control of schools on their reserve. A Cree school board controls a substantial budget and provides services to the students. It has implemented a Cree-oriented curriculum and in-service training for Cree teachers.

The new era in Indian education has also led to an increase in Indian curricular materials in the public schools. Federal and provincial governments have financed curriculum development, special education programs for indigenous peoples, and teacher training in Indian languages. Increasingly, many of the country’s public schools have added learning materials written from an Indian perspective to

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the curriculum. In some provinces, teachers can take courses in aboriginal studies at the university level; these courses count as credit for subjects they can later teach.

The new emphasis on Indian education at elementary and high school levels has been matched at the postsecondary level. Enrollment by Status Indians and Inuit at universities and colleges has dramatically increased from 60 students in 1960 to an estimated 27,000 in 2000-2001. According to DIAND, the rate of graduation is 13 percent. In 1976 a First Nations-controlled university-college, the Saskatchewan Indian Federated College, opened. Its mission has been to “preserve, protect, and interpret the history, language, culture, and artistic heritage of First Nations.” Nicola Valley Institute of Technology in British Columbia and the Six Nations Polytechnic in Ontario also provide culturally relevant educations for Canada’s aboriginal population.

Despite these successes, much remains to be done. In a 2001 report on the education of Indian children on reserves, a federal auditor gave DIAND a failing grade. Only 37 percent of aboriginal students graduated from high school in 1996. More aboriginal teachers are also needed in the classrooms. In provincial public schools, only about 1 percent of the educators are aboriginal. Almost three-quarters of these teachers are in special education programs where aboriginal students are overrepresented.

http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761570777_31/Native_Americans_of_North_America.html#p668

C. Education for people with disabilitiesDisabilities include:

Hearing Impairments and Deafness . Language and Speech Impairments . Learning Disabilities . Mental Illness and Retardation .

Education for people with disabilities:

Physical Impairments and Accommodation . Visual Impairments and Blindness . Teaching Reading, Writing and Mathematics to the Learning

Disabled . Higher Education . Accessibility and Universal Design .

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With the passage of No Child Left Behind and the development of the New Freedom Initiative, the Administration has made a commitment to provide individuals with disabilities with a high-quality education and an equal opportunity to participate in work and public services, including access to adult education.

The New Freedom Initiative is part of a nationwide effort to remove barriers to community living for people with disabilities. The Initiative's goals are to:

Increase access to assistive and universally designed technologies;

Expand educational opportunities; Promote homeownership; Integrate Americans with disabilities into the workforce; Expand transportation options; and Promote full access to community life.

According to the National Center on Secondary Education and Transition,

About 14% of all youth 18 years and older do not complete high school. Of this number, 36% have learning disabilities and 59% have emotional/behavioral disabilities.

More than 80% of individuals incarcerated are high school dropouts. Arrest rates for youth with disabilities who drop out of school are 73% for students with emotional/behavioral disabilities and 62% for students with learning disabilities.

The statistics concerning employment show the need for removing barriers in this area as well.

Among adults with disabilities of working age (18 to 64 years of age), 29% work full or part-time, compared to 79% of those without disabilities.

Among those with disabilities ages 16 to 64 who are not employed, 72% say that they would prefer to work.

Thirty-four percent of adults with disabilities lived in a household that had an annual income of less than $15,000 in 1997, compared to 12% of those without disabilities.

http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ovae/pi/AdultEd/disability.html

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UNIT 12 Education Trends

Key WordsExtended School Year; global education Internet resources; mixed age grouping; multiculcural children’s literature;

General ImpressionThis passage is comprehensible to English freshmen and sophomores.

Reading GuidanceThis chapter introduces some latest education trends and reforms, such as Extended School Year, global education Internet resources, mixed age grouping and multiculcural children’s literature. From this chapter, readers can get an idea that education will be become more extended, flexible, and even worldwide.

Thinking Tasks1. What is ESY? And How is Eligibility for ESY Determined?2. What is a good global education curriculum?3. What are the benefits of mixed age grouping?4. What does multicultural literature contain?

A. Extended School Year

The term Extended School Year, a special education and related services beyond the normal school year that are provided to a child with a disability, for instance, in the summer of during school vacations, encompasses a range of options in providing programs in excess of the traditional 180-day school year. The issues of regression and recoupment have been pivotal in the litigation that has advanced the concept of extended school year (Armstrong v. Kline, 1979; Battle v. Commonwealth 1980). Regression has been described as the lack of maintenance or loss of skills over the summer recess. Recoupment is getting back that which was lost.

According to a survey of State Directors of Special Education, 49 states currently have statutes or policies that either require extended year programs or allow them to be provided as district

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options. There is great variability among providers in determining eligibility for and delivery of ESY services.

When is ESY Needed?

ESY is needed whenever a student would experience unacceptable regression and recoupment. Research conducted by Tilley, Cox, and Staybrook (1986) found that most students experience some regression over the summer months. Students in regular education regressed by about 4% as measured by standardized tests. The study also found that students with mild handicaps, serious behavior disorders, and hearing impairments regressed at about the same rate as regular education students. Students with moderate and severe handicaps showed a faster rate of regression and a slower rate of recoupment. Regression occurred in language, gross motor, fine motor, and self-help skills as well as in academic areas. ESY should be made available whenever there is an indication of substantially greater regression and slower recoupment than for regular education students. Tilley, Cox, and Staybrook (1986) assumed that there would be no regression in language, gross motor, and self-help skills by regular class students; therefore, any regression in these areas by a handicapped student might automatically fulfill eligibility criteria. The issue of self-sufficiency has been a major factor in litigation and has been interpreted as the attainment of functional skills.

How is Eligibility for ESY Determined?

The most appropriate method for determining eligibility for ESY is direct, ongoing assessment of individualized education program (IEP) objectives as they relate to the regression and recoupment a child experiences (Browder, 1987; Browder & Lentz, 1985). According to Alper and Noie (1987), 25 states currently rely on IEP teams that include teachers, administrators, related services personnel, and parents to assess eligibility on an individual basis. Browder, Lentz, Knoster, and Wilansky (1988) made the point that assessment of IEP objectives should be clearly defined and consistent to avoid an esoteric approach. The advantages of this method are that:

assessment can be matched to each objective in every student's IEP

cross-time trends can be noted

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the data obtained can be compared and used for subsequent evaluation of service effectiveness.

A series of measurements is valuable in providing a baseline to document regression and a point from which to measure recoupment. Edgar, Spence, and Kennowitz (1977) recommended a four-point schedule for collecting data about student progress:

1. at the end of the regular school year 2. at the end of the summer program 3. at the beginning of the subsequent year 4. at the end of the subsequent school year.

Parent and teacher reports are integral to accurate assessment of a child's need for ESY. They are necessary in order to form a complete picture of the child's level of functioning and to supply information such as regression and recoupment history, current instructional strategies, maintenance strategies, family circumstances, and recent behavioral and medical problems.

What Are Some Factors That Could Mandate a Need For ESY?

1. Type and severity of the handicap. 2. Presence of medically diagnosed health impairments. 3. The child's age. 4. Attainment of self-sufficiency.

The severity of the handicap is a major factor in providing ESY services. Litigation has been geared primarily to individuals with moderate and severe handicaps, because regression and recoupment are more marked in these individuals. Younger students with medically diagnosed health impairments are more likely to receive ESY services, possibly because teachers consider them to be especially at risk for regression due to degenerative diseases or school-year absenteeism (Browder et al., 1988).

The attainment of self-sufficiency has been a key issue in ESY eligibility, although only one study has specifically addressed it in terms of regression and recoupment. McMahon (1983) analyzed teacher ratings on 10 areas of self-sufficiency for 26 ESY students attending a private 6-week summer program. He found that regression did occur when instruction was interrupted, but there was improvement when it was resumed

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What Other Factors May Be Considered in Offering an ESY Program?

1. Need for recreational programs. 2. Respite care for parents. 3. Family environmental factors (family stress levels).

Although they are not supported by litigation, recreation and respite care for parents are two critical areas of concern in considering ESY programs. It may be argued that these factors are valid considerations because they affect both regression and recoupment. Stress levels can influence a family's ability to implement maintenance procedures (Browder et al., 1988). Respite care and recreation may be effective in decreasing family stress levels and providing support for parents and, in turn, may promote recoupment.

What Types of Delivery Models Are Available?

There is a range of options available in providing ESY services beyond those found in typical center-based summer programs. Programming should involve modification of the regular-year instruction in order to maximize the potential for generalization and maintenance during the summer interruption of instruction (Sobsey, 1985).

Instruction should be based on established IEP objectives, but methods may need to be altered in order to provide maintenance, as opposed to acquisition of skills. Partial mastery of IEP objectives may also indicate that summer support is required until complete mastery is achieved.

Delivery options for ESY services include but are not limited to the following:

1. The traditional 2- to 6-week school-based summer program. 2. Home consultation to provide support and instruction to

parents in preventing regression. 3. Residential placement in a boarding facility. 4. Summer camp or recreational programs that provide

opportunities for maintenance of skills. 5. Private summer school programs providing the least

restrictive environment available.

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Support services should also be made available when they are required for maintenance of skills. These services may include speech therapy, physical and occupational therapy, and adaptive physical education.

http://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content3/extended.school.k12.2.html

B. Global education Internet resources

Developments over the past two decades have increased the media exposure of nations and interactions among them in politics, trade, education, science, medicine, entertainment, and athletics, as well as other arenas. Such attempts at international cooperation are frequently marred or thwarted by cultural misunderstandings. When citizens are reasonably informed about the cultures of other nations, the possibility of effective, fruitful interactions among nations is enhanced. In preparing today's students for the realities of life in the global age, global education is becoming crucial to the curriculum.

A good global education curriculum consists of more than simply facts and figures about nations and their relations with one another; it also encourages understanding of cultural differences and similarities, tolerance, and a globally interdependent view of the world. The goals of global education may be realized as never before through the use of telecommunications technologies such as the World Wide Web, electronic mail, and teleconferencing. These tools allow teachers to take global education beyond the textbook by connecting their classes with other students and even politicians, scientists, authors, CEOs, and other leaders from around the world. Opportunities for students and teachers to talk and work with people in other nations via these new communication media are opportunities to dispel stereotypes and forge camaraderie, both elemental steps toward building the mutual respect required for international relations in the global age.

Over the past 30 years, numerous non-profit organizations and grassroots groups have formed to further the cause of global education. Many of these groups produce curricula, newsletters, and books; develop education standards; conduct workshops and conferences; and support collaborative projects such as pen and keypal programs and exchange programs. Appropriately, many of these organizations maintain World Wide Web sites describing their programs and sometimes featuring on-line versions of their

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publications and other resources. This Digest points to the websites of some of the leading global education organizations, programs, and resources currently on the World Wide Web.

http://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content5/global.ed.int.res.html

C. Mixed age grouping

Parents can feel intimidated by the jargon used by teachers and school officials. Some terms may be new to those who have not spent much time in educational settings. As the school year draws to a close, some parents may find that in the coming school year, their child will be placed in a "mixed-age classroom." This article provides some basic information about mixed-age grouping and examines research on mixed-aged grouping. Finally, a list of questions is provided--questions parents can pose to prospective mixed-age group teachers or the school’s principal--about how they will address parents’ concerns.

Mixed-age grouping is a way of grouping children in which the children's age range is larger than a year--sometimes 2 years and sometimes more. It is intended to optimize the educative potential of the mixture itself. In a mixed-age classroom, children stay with the same teacher for several years. For example, in a classroom with children who are 5, 6, and 7 years old, the children who enter at the age of 5 remain with the teacher for 3 years.

In The Benefits of Mixed Age Grouping (1995), Katz provides a clear understanding of what "mixed-age grouping" means. She writes that "Although humans are not usually born in litters, we seem to insist that they be educated in them." In most families children are born one at a time, and if the parents opt to have more than one child, the children are spaced out over a few years. In the home, the older children help the younger ones with certain tasks. In this helping relationship, the younger and older children work together to help the younger learn new skills. Take, for example, tying shoes. Older children who have mastered this skill will often help younger siblings tie their shoes. The older child has the opportunity to develop her patience, as well as the verbal skills necessary to communicate the steps to the younger child, while the younger learns how to tie her shoes. Often, an older child may read a story to a younger child, occasionally pointing out letters of the alphabet as they read. The older child has the opportunity to develop and solidify reading abilities, while the

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younger has an opportunity to develop listening and early reading skills.

These sorts of opportunities occur naturally in a home environment. However, as more parents join the work force, and children enter child care settings in which they are grouped according to age, there are fewer opportunities for children to learn from older or younger children in a natural way. Mixed-age classrooms allow this sort of interaction between older and younger children to occur.

The research supporting mixed-age classrooms indicates that academic achievement is the same as, or better than, the academic achievement of children in same-grade classrooms. Mixed-age classrooms do not negatively affect student achievement, and students in these classrooms have significantly more positive attitudes toward school, themselves, and others (Stone, 1998; Veenman, 1996). The Association for Childhood Education International (ACEI) lists the following benefits of multiage classrooms:

Children are able to spend several years with the same teacher. This allows the teacher to develop a deeper understanding of a child’s strengths and needs, and is therefore in a better position to support the child’s learning.

Children have several years to develop, and are able to see themselves as progressive, successful learners.

Children are viewed as unique individuals. The teacher focuses on teaching each child according to his or her own strengths, unlike in same-grade classrooms that often expect all children to be at the same place at the same time with regard to ability.

Children are not labeled according to their ability. For example, children in same-grade classrooms may be labeled "below grade level" or "low." These children may stop trying, while those labeled as "above grade level" or "high" may not feel challenged.

Children learn at their own rate, with no fear of retention. In same-grade classrooms, children are retained if they do not master content by the end of the year. In mixed-age classrooms, children have more time to master content, and this removes their fear of being retained in school.

Children develop a sense of family with their classmates. They become a "family of learners" who support and care for each other.

Older children have the opportunity to serve as mentors and

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to take leadership roles. Children are more likely to cooperate than compete. The spirit

of cooperation and caring makes it possible for children to help each other as individuals, not see each other as competitors.

Older children model more sophisticated approaches to problem solving, and younger children are able to accomplish tasks they could not do without the assistance of older children. This dynamic increases the older child’s level of independence and competence.

Children are invited to take charge of their learning, by making choices at centers and with project work. This sense of "ownership" and self-direction is the foundation for lifelong learning.

Children have almost an extra month of teaching time, because the teacher does not have to spend the early weeks in the school year getting to know each child. Less review of prior instruction is needed before proceeding with new content.

However, some researchers suggest that it is important to examine the way in which mixed-age grouping is implemented in a particular school district. Mason and Burns (1996) have identified important differences in how mixed-age classrooms are implemented that relate to why the school district has chosen to implement a multiage program:

The school district has chosen to implement the program based on research. The mixed-age program is carefully designed, and teachers who teach in these classrooms do so by choice. The teacher is well prepared to work with this situation and has the curricular materials and training necessary to effectively teach in this classroom.

Or, The mixed-age classroom is set up because of budgetary

constraints. A principal is forced to combine different age children in a single classroom because the district cannot afford to hire additional teachers, or because of declining enrollment that often occurs in rural districts. In this situation the teacher has not chosen to be a mixed-age group teacher, and she may have negative attitudes as a result of not being prepared and not having the proper curricular materials to meet the needs of all the children in the class. As a result, the same benefits that occur in the first situation may not in fact be realized in the second.

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Another factor that may affect the positive outcomes of mixed-age grouping, according to Mason and Burns, is that the principal, in an effort to reduce the burden on the teacher, will place children who are more cooperative, and more independent, in the mixed-age classroom. In some cases, the principal will assign the more-able teacher to the mixed-age classroom, believing that person needs more experience and skills in order to manage the range of children’s abilities.

What can parents do with this information?

Mixed-age grouping has great potential, but only if its implementation is carefully and knowledgeably planned (Gaustad, 1995). Parents who have the option of choosing their child’s teacher and classroom for the coming year may want ask these questions when deciding whether to request a mixed-age classroom: (1) Was the classroom established based on an educational decision or a budgetary one? (2) Did the teacher choose to work in that classroom? (3) Does the teacher feels she has the curricular materials necessary to work with all the children in the class? (4) How does the teacher ensure that younger children are not overwhelmed by older or more competent children? (5) How has the curriculum been modified to take advantage of the heterogeneity of the classroom? Asking the teacher or principal these questions can help parents make the best decision for their child.

http://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content4/mixed.age.group.pn.html

D. Multiculcural children’s literature in the elementary classrooms

"When I was a child, the teacher read, 'Once upon a time, there were five Chinese brothers and they all looked exactly alike'...Cautiously the pairs of eyes stole a quick glance back. I, the child, looked down to the floor...

The situation, however, has undergone changes in the past twenty years. With the increasing number of linguistic and cultural minorities in the United States, the American society today looks very different than that of Aoki's childhood. These changes in demographic trends impact the education system. Not only do schools need to prepare all children to become competent citizens, but also to create an environment that fosters mutual

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understanding.

Importance of Multicultural Children's Literature

Jenkins and Austin (1987) suggest that cultural understanding can be reached in many ways, such as by making friends with people from different cultures, and by traveling to other countries. They also emphasize the value of good literature, for it can reflect many aspects of a culture--its values, beliefs, ways of life, and patterns of thinking. A piece of good literature can transcend time, space, and language, and help readers to "learn about an individual or a group of people whose stories take place in a specific historical and physical setting" .

In addition, exposure to quality multicultural literature also helps children appreciate the idiosyncrasies of other ethnic groups, eliminate cultural ethnocentrism, and develop multiple perspectives. Dowd (1992) also argues that "...from reading, hearing, and using culturally diverse materials, young people learn that beneath surface differences of color, culture or ethnicity, all people experience universal feelings of love, sadness, self-worth, justice and kindness."

Finally, quality literature about a particular ethnic group benefits cultural and linguistic minority children as well. From reading stories about their own culture, children have opportunities to see how others go through experiences similar to theirs, develop strategies to cope with issues in their life, and identify themselves with their inherited culture. It is, therefore, important that educators incorporate multicultural literature into the curriculum and make it part of children's everyday life. The following sections will provide guidelines and resources for selecting multicultural literature in the elementary classroom.

Guidelines for Selecting Multicultural Children's LiteratureThe following guidelines for material selection were developed by adopting recommendations from various language arts and multicultural educators: Beilke (1986), Harada (1995), Harris (1991), and Pang, Colvin, Tran, & Yang (1992). They recommend that multicultural literature contain: 1. Positive portrayals of characters with authentic and realistic behaviors, to avoid stereotypes of a particular cultural group. 2. Authentic illustrations to enhance the quality of the text, since illustrations can have a strong impact on children.

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3. Pluralistic themes to foster belief in cultural diversity as a national asset as well as to reflect the changing nature of this country's population. 4. Contemporary as well as historical fiction that captures changing trends in the roles played by minority groups in America. 5. High literary quality, including strong plots and well-developed characterization. 6. Historical accuracy when appropriate. 7. Reflections of the cultural values of the characters. 8. Settings in the United States that help readers build an accurate conception of the culturally diverse nature of this country and the legacy of various minority groups.

The guidelines above are by no means an exhaustive list. They are meant to provide a starting point from which teachers can explore the many aspects of multicultural children's literature. In addition, teachers may wish to consult with colleagues, parents, and the local ethnic community, drawing upon their specialized knowledge and unique perspectives.

http://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content5/multi.cult.lit.class.html

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