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  • 11/3/15, 7:10 PMUnified Architectural Theory: Chapter 11 | ArchDaily

    Page 1 of 7http://www.archdaily.com/626429/unified-architectural-theory-chapter-11

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    Unified Architectural Theory: Chapter 11

    We will be publishing Nikos Salingaros book, Unified Architectural Theory, in a series ofinstallments, making it digitally, freely available for students and architects around the world.In Chapter 11, Salingaros introduces and explains a list of 15 properties theorized byChristopher Alexander which give rise to the phenomenon of life in architectural designs. Ifyou missed them, make sure to read the previous installments here.

    Alexanders Fifteen Fundamental Properties

    We have come to the point in this course when we need to present the geometric propertiesresponsible for the deep connectivity that I have discussed in previous chapters.Christopher Alexander has derived a set of 15 properties that all structures that we perceiveto have life possess (Alexander, 2001).

    Note that it is only after separating what has qualities of life from what does not that wehave a body of examples from which to extract the sought-for geometric rules. Those rulesare discovered by observation from these objects, as was achieved by Alexander. Oncewritten down, we can then verify that all objects with the quality of life satisfy these rules.

    The 15 fundamental properties uncovered by Alexander are the important beginnings of amassive ongoing investigation into the properties of matter. The 15 properties arephenomenological, yet we know from experiments that the phenomenon of life is basedupon our biology and the physical properties of matter itself.

    Therefore, starting from these 15 properties opens up a research program to discover whythese geometrical rules are so important, and to explain them. It also drives us to seekfurther complementary factors that refine and improve our understanding of thephenomenon of life. Alexander himself has done this in Volumes 2 to 4 of The Nature ofOrder, and I have also been responsible for results in this topic. [Note: only the results ofThe Nature of Order Volume 1 are discussed in the current book.] Here is a list of the fifteenproperties:

    1. Levels of scale

    2. Strong centers

    3. Thick boundaries

    4. Alternating repetition

    View from St Peter's Basilica, Vatican City. "Strong centers are formed when a substantialregion of space is tied together coherently" . Image Flickr CC user Michael Seljos

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    02 MAY2015by Nikos Salingaros

    News ArticlesUnified Architectural Theory

    Nikos SalingarosChristopher Alexander

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  • 11/3/15, 7:10 PMUnified Architectural Theory: Chapter 11 | ArchDaily

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    5. Positive space

    6. Good shape

    7. Local symmetries

    8. Deep interlock and ambiguity

    9. Contrast

    10. Gradients

    11. Roughness

    12. Echoes

    13. The void

    14. Simplicity and inner calm

    15. Not-separateness

    I am going to use some notes on the fifteen properties from Lecture 6 of my bookAlgorithmic Sustainable Design (2010). The Leitner diagrams illustrating the properties aregiven there, and are now included in his own book (Leitner, 2015). A brief description ofeach property follows:

    1. Levels of scale exist along with a scaling hierarchy. Repeating components of the samesize and similar shape define one scale. Levels of scale have to be spaced closely enoughin size (magnification) for coherence, but not too close to blur the distinction betweennearby scales. Thus, a jump in scale by a factor of 15 is disorienting, whereas a factor of 1.5is too close to distinguish one scale from another. A mathematical rule generates adistribution of scales via the logarithmic constant e 2.7 and the Fibonacci sequence: seeApplications of the Golden Mean to Architecture (Salingaros, 2012). The whole point ofadaptive design is to satisfy needs on the human scales, which range from 2 m down to lessthan 1 mm. The rule only says that you must accommodate all these scales.

    2. Strong centers are formed when a substantial region of space is tied together coherently.It is useful to distinguish two types of centers defined, and implied that overlap andinteract. A defined center has something in the middle to focus attention. An impliedcenter has a boundary that focuses attention on its empty interior. Visual focus is aprecondition for the use of spaces. Each center combines surrounding centers andboundaries to focus on some region. Centers support each other on every scale: this is arecursive hierarchical property.

    3. Thick boundaries. A thick boundary is an implied center. According to the scalinghierarchy, a thick boundary arises as the next scale smaller than what is being bound. Forthis reason, thin boundaries are ineffective, because they skip over one or more terms in thescaling hierarchy, so the boundary is not connected by scaling to what it bounds. Animplied center is defined only through its own thick boundary. Therefore, thick boundariesplay a focusing role as well as a bounding role.

    4. Alternating repetition helps in the informational definition of repeating components.Simplistic repetition is collapsible information, because what repeats is trivially coded (forexample, take an empty or plain module X and repeat it 100 times): see Why MonotonousRepetition is Unsatisfying (Salingaros, 2011). Contrast, acting together with repetition,reinforces each component through alternation. This alternation helps to better defineessential translational symmetry.

    Palace of Versailles, France. "In organized complex structures, we have multiplesubsymmetries acting within larger symmetries. All the symmetries should be nested

    hierarchically". Image Flickr CC user Cristian Bortes

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  • 11/3/15, 7:10 PMUnified Architectural Theory: Chapter 11 | ArchDaily

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    5. Positive space refers to Gestalt psychology, and links geometry with the basis of humanperception. Convexity plays a major role in defining an object or a space, whether this is anarea or a volume. We feel comfortable or uncomfortable in the spaces we inhabit for acombination of mathematical and psychological reasons. We strongly feel a threat fromobjects sticking out. We need to apply the positive space concept to both figure andbackground. Not only the buildings interior space but also urban space must be positive:see Urban space and its information field (Salingaros, 1999).

    6. Good shape arises when symmetries reduce the information overload. Perceivableobjects produce a represented shape from many separate 2-D views, which the brain cancomputationally manipulate in 3-D. Good means easily graspable, satisfying the brainsinnate need to compact information. Shapes that are not easily represented strain mentalcomputation, hence they induce anxiety.

    7. Local symmetries are symmetries within the scaling hierarchy. Symmetries must act onevery distinct scale. Symmetry does not mean overall symmetry on the largest scale, as isusually understood. In organized complex structures, we have multiple subsymmetriesacting within larger symmetries. All the symmetries should be nested hierarchically.

    8. Deep interlock and ambiguity are other strong ways of connecting. Forms interpenetrateto link together. An analogy comes from fractals, where crinkled lines tend to fill portions ofspace, and surfaces grow with accretions. Two regions can interpenetrate at a semi-permeable interface, which enables a transition from one region to another. There isambiguity as to which side of the interface one belongs while inside the transition region,and this is a good feature. Abrupt transitions such as a clean straight line, however, do notbind objects coming up to each other.

    9. Contrast is necessary to establish distinct subunits and to distinguish between adjoiningunits. Contrast is also needed to provide figure-ground symmetry of opposites. Stronglycontrasted regions can also be strongly connected. For example, the space under anarcade contrasts with open street space. False transparency reduces contrast, and reducedcontrast weakens the design. An example of weak (ineffective) contrast is inside versusoutside space separated by a glass curtain wall.

    10. Gradients represent controlled transitions. They provide a method of getting away fromuniformity, because that is a non-adaptive state. Subdivision also does this, howeversometimes we should not divide a form into discrete pieces, but instead need to change itgradually. Examples include the urban transect: city transitioning to countryside, and ininterior spaces: public transitioning to private realms.

    11. Roughness. A fractal structure goes all the way down in scales nothing is smooth:see Scaling and Fractals (Mehaffy & Salingaros, 2012). Ornament can be interpreted ascontrolled roughness in a smooth geometry. The relaxation of strict geometry to allowimperfections makes it more tolerant. So-called imperfections differentiate repeated unitsto make them similar but not identical for example, hand-painted tiles. There is deliberateroughness in repetition that avoids monotony. Approximate symmetry breaking preventsinformational collapse. Adaptation to local conditions creates roughness, since it breaksregularity and perfect symmetry.

    12. Echoes. There are two types of echoes in design. First, translational symmetry: similarforms found on the same scale but at a distance. Second, scaling symmetry: similar formsexisting magnified at different scales. Mathematical fractals are exactly self-similar. But allnatural fractals obey only approximate, or statistical self-similarity not exactly the samewhen magnified, but only echoes.

    13. The void can be identified with plain structure at the largest scale of a fractal. Thelargest open component of a fractal survives as the void. It is not possible to fill in all of afractal with detail. In implied centers, a complex boundary focuses on the open middle the void. Therefore, an empty portion in necessary to balance regions of intense detail.

    14. Simplicity and inner calm. This is a more subtle quality. Balance is achieved by anoverall coherence and lack of clutter. Symmetries are all cooperating to support each other,with nothing extraneous or distracting. Coherent design appears effortless (but is in factvery difficult to achieve). We see this simplicity in nature, though it is never actually simplein the sense of being minimalist. Simple in nature means extremely complex but highlycoherent. A system appears simple to us because it is so perfect.

    15. Not-separateness comes after achieving coherence. Coherence is an emergentproperty not present in the individual components. In a larger coherent whole, no piececan be taken away. Decomposition is neither obvious, nor possible. When every componentis cooperating to give a coherent whole, nothing looks separate, and nothing draws

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    attention to itself. This is the goal of adaptive design: a seamless blending of an enormousnumber of complex components. This is the opposite of willful separateness. Not-separateness goes beyond internal coherence, because the whole connects as much aspossible to its environment.

    The fifteen properties give rise to coherent form, which is so natural that it is hardly noticed like nature herself! But we do perceive this coherence subconsciously, and it affects usdeeply. Coherence is healing. We also immediately notice incoherence, in which the fifteenproperties are absent. It disturbs, alarms, and excites us at the same time. This type ofexcitement is unhealthy in the long term. Architects and students most often wish to drawattention to their designs, and accomplish this by violating the fifteen properties. Doing socauses physiological anxiety for the users.

    Whether consciously or unconsciously, architectural design since the beginning of the 20thcentury has cultivated the absence of the 15 properties. As a result, students and architectsrespond emotionally (very negatively) to them, reacting from their image-based conditioning.One cannot hide behind the excuse that what Im talking about is only very recentknowledge, because architects have always been aware in some way of the fifteenproperties. Form languages that we use widely today were developed to contrast withtraditional form languages, and thus to deliberately break the 15 properties: see WhyPrimitive Form Languages Spread (Salingaros, 2006).

    Since architects have avoided the 15 properties for one century, why apply them today todesign the built environment? The reason is that we are still part of nature: human biologyhas not changed in one century. Yet during that time, we have been desensitized to goagainst nature and our reactions to natural and unnatural forms, denying our own biologicalmakeup. Everybody agrees that our society is stressed, and that it would improve our healthto go back to building structures and environments that help us to heal. This type ofarchitecture can make a significant contribution to raising the quality of life.

    It is true that part of the motivation for abandoning design according to the 15 properties

    Colonnade at the entrance to the British Museum, London. "Two regions can interpenetrateat a semi-permeable interface, which enables a transition from one region to another. Thereis ambiguity as to which side of the interface one belongs while inside the transition region,

    and this is a good feature". Image Flickr CC user Jon Himoff

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    Cite:Nikos Salingaros. "Unified Architectural Theory: Chapter 11" 02 May 2015. ArchDaily. Accessed 3 Nov 2015.

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    was for practical reasons: a more rapid design process, standardization, manufacturingefficiency, strictly generic spaces to allow maximum flexibility of use, a sleek, modern look,etc. But now its time to recover what we have lost. Its time to become reconnected withnature directly, as well as through the geometrical properties of what we build. With present-day technological sophistication, it is just as easy to implement architectural solutions thatexemplify the 15 properties, as it is to continue to disregard the problem.

    The question of styles needs some clarification. People grow tired of a style, then adoptanother different one. But what we observe since the introduction of modernist architectureis a cycling through a related group of styles, all of which violate the 15 properties. Formlanguages did indeed change during the last several decades, but what they have incommon is that they avoid the 15 properties. Innovative form languages have not comeback to adopting the 15 properties, but remain in a geometrical domain of violation. Thiscannot be accidental there is a meta-selection rule that keeps architects from using the15 properties for design, considered as somehow improper. But we wish to focus on andimplement whats best for people, not to continue a biased stylistic dictate.

    Order the International edition of Unified Architectural Theory here, and the USedition here.

    Readings:

    Christopher Alexander (2001) Fifteen Fundamental Properties, Chapter 5 of ThePhenomenon of Life: Book 1 of The Nature of Order, Center for Environmental Structure,Berkeley, California.

    Helmut Leitner (2015) Pattern Theory, CreateSpace, Amazon.

    Michael Mehaffy & Nikos Salingaros (2012) Scaling and Fractals, Metropolis, 28 May.Reprinted as Chapter 6 of Design for a Living Planet, Sustasis Press, Portland, Oregon(2015).

    Nikos Salingaros (1999) Urban space and its information field, Journal of Urban Design,Volume 4, pages 29-49. Reprinted as Chapter 2 of Principles of Urban Structure, TechnePress, Amsterdam, Holland (2005); reprinted 2014, Sustasis Press, Portland, Oregonand Vajra Books, Kathmandu, Nepal.

    Nikos Salingaros (2006) A Theory of Architecture, Umbau-Verlag, Solingen, Germany;reprinted 2014, Sustasis Press, Portland, Oregon and Vajra Books, Kathmandu, Nepal.Chapter 11: Two Languages for Architecture is published online by ArchDaily HERE.

    Nikos Salingaros (2010) Algorithmic Sustainable Design: Twelve Lectures OnArchitecture, Umbau-Verlag, Solingen, Germany; reprinted 2014, Sustasis Press,Portland, Oregon and Vajra Books, Kathmandu, Nepal. The original video lectures areavailable online HERE.

    Nikos Salingaros (2011) Why Monotonous Repetition is Unsatisfying, MeanderingThrough Mathematics, 2 September.

    Nikos Salingaros (2012) Applications of the Golden Mean to Architecture, MeanderingThrough Mathematics, 21 February.