F

Under the Microscope

Senior Edition 2017-1

1

INSIDE THIS ISSUE

Introduction

Peter Doherty Lecture

Australian of the Year

Science events 2017

Science dept. news

Student report, Matthew Haigh

year 9 2016

Teacher report exemplar year 10

Chemistry

4 Student report year 12 Miranda Russell

Blurred lines

11

16

2 5

3

6

8

Photo: Bacterial plates from the year 9 science unit “diseases”. Students investigate how many

bacteria really are present on common objects and perform experiments in inhibiting the growth of

a safe common bacteria; m. luteus. (micrococcus luteus)

IJS

This is predominantly a journal to celebrate and continue the scientific process:

observation, questioning, hypothesizing, researching, experimenting, and reporting. In

most schools, the reporting phase is just for a small audience; the student and their

teacher (and with luck, parents). It is now time for the final phase in the scientific process,

being presentation to a wider audience by general publication. Examples of scientific

reports from all year levels will be selected by the editors from submission by teachers

and students to the journal teams.

The journal will not just be about student reports, but report examples and exemplars will

be published to further give illustration to aspiring students. Alongside there will be other

articles like science news, reviews, science-fiction, interviews (this edition with Professor

Peter Doherty Noble Prize Laureate).

The journal will be in two parts: the junior version (Years 7 - 9) coordinated by Jennifer

Lavigne as Editor. Version 2017-1 is named THROUGH THE TELESCOPE. The senior version

(Years 10-12) coordinated by Ginette Richardson is entitled UNDER THE MICROSCOPE.

This truly reflects that science is of the small and large, both microscopic and

macroscopic, specialized and generalized, looking inwards and looking outwards. In

the end, science is a culture and a way of thinking.

It is time to share the wonderful work done in Science by Indooroopilly Students!

Hugo (Year 12)

performing

titrations as part of

his experimental

components in the

IB (International

Baccalaureate)

Chemistry course

INTRODUCTION

IJS-2017-1 1

INTERVIEW WITH PETER DOHERTY article by Ginette Richardson

Last year, Professor Peter

Doherty induced a frenzy

akin to Bieber Fever at his

namesake theatre on

Thursday 21 April 2016. Prof.

Doherty had previously

given a talk in 2012 and this

initiated a series of lectures

(known as “The Peter

Doherty Lecture Series”)

that still occur 2-3 times per

year from other prominent

scientists both local and

international. Teachers,

School Administrators and

Parents were seen amongst

the students of all year

levels in an over-packed

theatre. Like a rock

concert, students were

lined up at the end for

either a question, a “selfie”

or for simply a chance to

rub shoulders with fame.

Professor Doherty attended

ISHS in the 1950s. He

originally started his career

in Veterinary Science,

obtaining his degree from

UQ. After completing a PhD

in Edinburgh, he returned to

ANU in Canberra. Here his

research on how the

immune system recognizes

viral infected cells resulted

in him and his collaborator

Rolf Zinkernagel winning

the Nobel Prize for

medicine in 1995.

Specifically, he determined

how T-cells recognize their

target antigens in

association with the Major

Histocompatibility

Complex.

When questioned about the

often-stated importance of

curiosity in science he agreed

but was keen to point out that

tenacity and the ability to be

emotionally robust were key

elements in being a successful

scientist. Although, when a

student asked the Professor to

take their senior biology class

(as their teacher was on

camp), he declined by

praising science teachers and

stated their general

knowledge and teaching skills

would “win over a Noble prize

winner every time”.

It was both refreshing and

encouraging seeing a

scientist of a much older

generation inspiring so many

students in an age where

heroes are more often sports

players, actors and singers.

Peter Doherty talked with

ease (and often without

obvious breath) on diverse

topics like his university

experiences as an

undergraduate at Vet.

school and qualifications

essential or preferential to

study science. However, he

finally spoke in his area of

expertise of viral

immunology - the field in

which he gained his Nobel

Prize in medicine in 1995. It

was clear that our favourite

Indro alumni, and Nobel

Laureate loved engaging

with young people and was

not keen to leave when

reminded about his

afternoon schedule.

This visit also allowed some of the IJS team a chance to talk with

the Nobel laureate. The junior IJS representatives, Alex, Yasmin

and Samuel asked questions ranging from tips to success in a

Science career to the nature of scientific discovery and

specifics about immunology research. The senior student

representatives; Harine and Caryse were more focused on

specific and topical research interests; vaccines, AIDS and

climate change. Photo from Left; Harine, Sam, Peter Doherty, Alex,

Yasmin.

UNDER THE MICROSCOPE

INTERVIEW WITH PETER DOHERTY Article by Ginette Richardson

IJS-2017-1 2

The scientific field has been slowly growing in

Queensland over the past decade, but perhaps none

is a better example of this than our latest Australian of

the Year.

Emeritus Professor Alan Mackay-Sim, of Griffith

University, was nominated and received the honour of

Australian of the Year on 26 January 2017. What he has

achieved has been described as the “scientific

equivalent of the moon landing.”

The professor and his team have achieved something

previously thought impossible: the regeneration of the

spinal cord.

Through his work, Mackay-Sim has found that the

nose houses some very important cells- olfactory

ensheathing cells, a form of stem cell. The

OEC’s are responsible for regenerating our sense of

smell every day.

To regenerate the spinal cord, the OEC’s are first taken

from the patients nose, purified, and proceed to be

injected into the spinal cord at sites above and below the injury. The injections provide “stepping-

stones” for the nerves in the spine to regrow.

The method is not perfect: a 40-year-old Polish man, after three

years of intensive therapy, is still walking with a frame. But it is

miraculous progress, rendering the thought of spinal regeneration

being an impossibility inaccurate, and allows those with recent

spinal injuries to regain some independence.

Mackay-Sim has also highlighted the role of young people in

science. During his speech, he called upon the public to take

more interest and for the government to invest more funding in

young scientists. “As a nation, we must be part of this and we must invest

in young scientists and give them great careers.

Researchers need a long view,” he stated in his acceptance speech.

Although recently retired, the biomolecular scientist is director of

the National Centre for Adult Stem Cell Research, and is

considered a global authority in his field.

The emeritus Professor did not embark upon his journey alone however: he dedicated the award to

all those who helped him along his way. “I’m so proud, and shocked and honored, and in accepting it

(Australian of the Year) I want to deeply thank and acknowledge all my friends and colleagues and students, the

teams of people who’ve worked with me.”

It is with great excitement that 2017’s scientific ventures begin.

Photo Nerve Map of the Human Body is by Rufus Benjamin Weaver (who took 5 months to complete the dissection.

Photo of Alan Mackay-Simm courtesy of ANDC; https://farm6.staticflickr.com/5830/30906345705_0029939b44_s.jpg

UNDER THE MICROSCOPE

AUSTTRALIAN OF THE YEAR article by Annalise Woods Year 11

IJS-2017-1 3

ALREADY OCCURED. Did you miss it? UPCOMING EVENTS Don't miss these

1. Peter Doherty Lecture No. 1 DONE

Date: 12th May, 11.20 am in the Peter Doherty Theatre

Topic: "Innovate for the Future" by DR Karl Kruszelnicki from Sydney University

2. Enrichment Activities for Year 7 and 8 Students DONE

Date: 6th June, 11.20 am in the Peter Doherty Theatre

Topic: A series of demonstrations and activities by the "Surfing Scientist", Ruben

Meerman from the ABC Catalyst program

3. Peter Doherty Lecture No. 2 DONE

Date: 13th July, 11:20 am in the Peter Doherty Theatre

Topic: “Your immune system and immunization: how does it work?” by Professor Ian

Frazer from the University of Queensland.

4. Lunch with Young Scientists

Date: Late July

Topic: To be determined and presented by 5 PhD students from the Institute of Molecular

Biology at the University of Queensland

5. Science Week Activities

Date: 12-20th August

Topic: A series of enrichment activities performed by teachers of ISHS and parents.

(above) Reuben Meerman (the surfing scientist)

has his laser show in a science lab on the 6th June.

(left) Dr Karl Kruszelnicki presented at ISHS on 13th May. See the article in next edition of IJS. An article on Dr Ian Fraser will also be presented next journal edition.

UNDER THE MICROSCOPE

EVENTS 2017

IJS-2017-1 4

SCIENCE DEPARTMENT NEWS 2016-7

The recent acquisition of a UV-VIS spectrophotometer has allowed much greater diversity

of experiments in senior Chemistry at ISHS. The instrument allows analysis of absorption

across the UV (200-400 nm) and visible (400 - 800 nm) spectrum. This allows concentrations

of substances to be precisely determined (by comparing with standards); and analysis of

absorption profiles for coloured (and UV active) aromatic compounds to be ascertained.

Ethan from (Year 12

IB Chemistry) uses

the UV-VIS

spectrophotometer

for analysis. He is

determining the

effect of sodium

chloride

concentrations on

electrolytic removal

of copper waste.

The Science Department also has access to a multi-sampler HPLC (High Performance

Liquid Chromatography) he HPLC is in the process of being set-up, and methods for

analysing substance concentration (e.g. caffeine, acetaminophen and vitamin-C) are being

elucidated by the custodian of the machine, ex-Organic Chemist, Ginette Richardson.

Senior Journal contributors, 2017-1: Ethan (minutes), Chloe (admin help), Annalise (admin &

article contributor), Matthew (article contributor)

Senior Journal contributors, 2017-2 next edition. (in photo from left): Matthew, Christopher,

Annalise, Ethan, Chloe, Harry, Edmund, Moana

UNDER THE MICROSCOPE

SCIENCE DEPARTMENT NEWS 2016-2017

IJS-2017-1 5

EXEMPLAR REPORTS FROM STUDENTS report by Matthew Haigh (from yr 9 2016)

The relationship between three antibacterial agents and the growth of bacteria.

Matthew Haigh ISHS, 4/06/16

Abstract: To answer the question: how do the antibacterial agents: eucalyptus oil, clove oil and tea tree oil prevent bacterial

growth and what is more reliable, an experiment was conducted to observe the relationship between three antibacterial

agents and their effect on bacterial growth was observed and measured. The Bacterium used was m.luteus on a lawn of

agar with paper cylinders to host the antibacterial. Eucalyptus Oil helped prevent bacteria as well as lower the severity of

the bacteria, Clove Oil also lowered the severity but did not prevent bacterial growth and the Tea Tree Oil did not aid in

the prevention of bacteria. Eucalyptus Oil was the most effective in this experiment.

Introduction:

Bacteria are a micro-organism, micro-organisms are

microscopic organisms mainly being bacterium, fungus or

a virus. Bacteria have their own kingdom in biological

rankings due to their cellular and morphological

characteristics. It is essential to life as it is today, although it

can cause disease some is Helpful and aid us in our lives.

Streptococcus Pyogenes, Esherichia Coli, Vibrio Cholerae,

Enteritis Salmonella and Salmonella Typhi are all types of

harmful bacteria, the causative of some diseases.

Lactobacillus Acidophilus, Bacillus Subtilis, Bifidobacterium

Animalis, Streptococcus Thermophilus and Lactobacillus

Reuteri are types of beneficial bacteria that aid our bodies.

All these bacteria can be classed as: Cocci2; round or

sphere like shape, may be seen in chains or clusters, Bacilli1;

Rod-shaped bacterium, gram positive, Spirilli; cork

screw shaped, gram-negative, Rickettsia; highly

pleomorphic bacteria that may present as cocci2, bacilli1

or spirilli3, gram-negative and Mycoplasma; lacking cell

wall, may be cocci2, bacilli1 or spirilli3, gram-negative. The

bacteria used in this experiment was micrococcus luteus, a

non-pathogenic bacterium and is generally found on the

human skin. It is a gram-positive cocci bacterium. This was

tested with three antibacterial agents, Tea-tree oil,

Eucalyptus oil and lavender oil. Antibacterial agents work

in two different ways, there are: Cidal agents and Static

agents. Cidal agents kill the bacterium by attacking the

cell wall; causing it to disintegrate and destroying the germ

whereas Static agents prevent the bacterium from

reproducing rather than destroying it, usually by

interference with the bacterial protein production. The oils

being used are cidal agents thus the aim of the experiment

is to observe how different antibacterial agents prevent

bacterial growth. It is hypothesized that all the oils will

prevent the growth of bacteria to an amount relatively

close because each oil is a cidal agent of similar strength

and should kill the bacteria around themselves.

Method:

The bacterium M.luteus was spread onto three agar plates

and placed into an incubator at 30° Celsius for two days.

Each plate was then divided into four quadrants using a

permanent marker on the bottom of the plates; having ¾

quadrants with the first letter of the antibacterial agent

being used on that plate and the fourth as ‘O’ for an

oxygen control. Six drops of each antibacterial agent was

dripped onto three different Petri lids. Sterile tweezers were

used to dab three paper cylinders into each agent, then

were dabbed onto a paper towel to reduce excess

antibacterial liquids. The three paper cylinders for each

antibacterial agent were placed into the three separate

quadrants of the plate marked to their corresponding

antibacterial. New lids were placed on the plates and

secured down with tape on the four sides of the plate.

They were then re-incubated for four days at 30° Celsius.

Results were then taken with pictures and notes. The plates

were then sent to an incinerator to prevent the bacteria

that had developed from spreading.

Results:

The eucalyptus oil prevented bacterial growth around the

paper cylinders with a radius of approximately 5mm on

each (Outlined in green). The clove oil did not seem to aid

in the prevention of bacterial growth, Bacteria had spread

across the entire agar plate and around each paper

cylinder it appeared the same as the oxygen control. The

tea tree oil seemed to aid in the growth of bacteria. There

were no signs of prevention around the paper cylinders

and there were five distinct growths of bacteria (Outlines

in red), ranging from 4mm to 1mm in radii, in all of the

quadrants except the oxygen control. There were tears in

the agar on the oxygen control for tea tree oil and across

the bottom quadrant and the oxygen control of the

eucalyptus oil (Outlined in yellow).

UNDER THE MICROSCOPE

EXEMPLAR REPORTS FROM STUDENTS; Report by Matthew Haigh, Year 9 2016

IJS-2017-1 6

Discussion:

The results show that Eucalyptus Oil presented as the best

antibacterial agent for prevention against M.luteus. The

other two oils did not appear to prevent bacterial growth

at all. The Tea Tree Oil appeared to aid in the growth of

bacteria, this may be because Tea Tree Oil is used as a

fungicide not a germicide or Tea Tree Oil may have a

high volatility and evaporated before any effects could

present themselves. Eucalyptus Oil is a reliable cidal

agent for use with M.luteus, although clove oil appeared

to have no effect at all on preventing the bacteria, it and

the eucalyptus had no dense spots of bacteria and was

more spread across the agar lawn. The Tea Tree Oil had

many dense spots of bacteria around the paper cylinders

with nearly no bacteria in the oxygen control. This shows

that both the clove and eucalyptus oil aided in

preventing dense amounts of bacteria forming around

themselves, causing it to spread across the entire agar

plate and the Tea tree oil had no effect and was

overpowered by the bacteria. The eucalyptus oil

appeared to have cidal and static properties as the

bacteria was not around the paper cylinders and was

spread across the entire agar lawn. The Clove oil

appeared to have no cidal effects but only have static

effects as the bacteria was spread out. And the Tea Tree

Oil had no effects on the bacteria. There were tears in the

agar lawn that may have contributed to the Bacterial

growth absence in the tea tree oxygen control, although

on the eucalyptus plate the tear narrowly missed where

the bacteria had been unable to grow, and bacteria

surrounded the top and bottom ends of the tear thus not

affecting the results received from this experiment. No

other errors arose during this experiment however

limitations were present. The air in the lab being used was

not sterile however this was overcome by using oxygen

controls. Paper towels used to remove excess fluid was

not sterile, this was not overcome, the plates were not

immediately placed into the incubator and the quality of

the oils was unknown. Improvements that could have

been made include: using a sterile workplace, fully sterile

equipment, brand new oils and quicker actions to

prevent unwanted results.

Conclusion:

The results refuted the hypothesis that: all the oils will

prevent the growth of bacteria to an amount relatively

close because each oil is a cidal agent of similar strength

and should prevent bacterial growth around themselves.

Only the Eucalyptus Oil prevented growth around itself.

Tea Tree and clove Oil did not prevent bacterial growth

around themselves. The answer to the research question

is: Eucalyptus Oil was the most reliable agent in

preventing bacterial growth. The workplace and

equipment was not fully sterile and there were tears in the

agar although most of these were overcome.

Considering the claims made by these oils it is

recommended that further experimentation is

commenced to determine each agents’ reliability, as

during this experiment there was little control over the

quality of each oil and there were errors in the method.

Evaluation:

There was one problem and some limitations that caused

problems during this experiment. The limitations were: The

equipment was not fully sterile, the work environment was

not sterile and not being able to place the plates

immediately into the incubator. Only one was overcome

by making controls to account for the un-sterile

environment. The problem that arose was the research

question, it was felt that the question was not appropriate

to the experiment after receiving the results however this

was stated with the outcome of both questions.

Acknowledgments:

Group members: Ahmed Julkernain, Matthew Haigh,

Jordan Jo, Ali Tehrani

Lab Assistant:

Teacher/supervisor: Ms Richardson

References:

9sci16 EEI writeup tips, EEI REPORT DISEASES, Ms Richardson

Micrococcus luteus, 2016, Wikipedia, the free

encyclopedia, Viewed 06/07/16,

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micrococcus_luteus

TuftsOpenCourseWare, 2005-2016, Tufts University, viewed

07/07/16,

http://ocw.tufts.edu/Content/24/CourseHome/338156

Types of Bacteria, 2016, New Health Guide, viewed

06/07/16,

http://www.newhealthguide.org/Types-Of-Bacteria.html

Unit 3 _My life in a Balance EEI_2016, EEI (Extended

Experimental Investigation), Indooroopilly State High

School

Editorial: This unit is studied in Year 9 science as part of the topic “My life in balance”

Students generally enjoy the simple yet effective experiment and learning about the very small microbes.

Matthew is now in year 10 and still studying enjoying science. He is part of the IJS team.

IJS-2017-1 7

2- i

Testing the relationship between Cation - Anion pairs and solubility

Ginette Richardson. March 2016,

I n d o o r o o p i l l y S t a t e H i g h S c h o o l . Education Queensland.

Ionic compounds form when a cation (positively charged ion, for example the Lithium

ion; Li+) meet an anion (negatively charged ion, for example the sulfate anion SO42- ).

The ions form large network ionic compounds held together by electrostatic forces, for

example in sodium chloride as shown in figure 1). The ions in the network may be

monatomic (for example, Na+, Cl-, Fe3+) or polyatomic (e.g. +NH4, CO3 2-, -OH). A

precipitate, is a solid that doesn’t dissolve in solution that is formed by mixing previously

soluble ionic solutions. If Ionic solutions are mixed, they may form precipitates if two

ions meet that more tightly interact with themselves rather than waterii. Ionic

compounds that from precipitates are said to be insoluble or poorly soluble. When ions

dissolve in water, they are called soluble and termed aqueous (aq) (see figure 2). Many

experiments have been performed in order to determine compounds that are soluble,

and how soluble they are. This solubility follows a set of rules. These basic rules are shown

in figure 3 (there are more comprehensive tables, but these were the ones used for this

experiment). The solubility of an ionic substance is often quoted in grams per 100 mL or

Litre (for soluble compounds) and if insoluble by a value called the Ksp. The Ksp is the

“solubility product”, and is a number that reflects the product of the concentrations of

the ions that is the maximum concentration that can dissolve. For example, for the

insoluble Copper Carbonate (CuCO3) an example of Ksp is shown in figure 4.

Figure 1: sodium chloride; an ionic

network solid

Figure 2: sodium chloride dissolving to

form aqueous ion.

The aim of this experiment is therefore to predict whether a set series of ionic solutions will produce precipitations upon mixing. It is hypothesized that the precipitations can all be

predicted from the rules, i.e. there is a relationship between the nature of the cation-anion pair and the ability to be soluble. The predictions (figure 5) are based on the rules (figure 3).

UNDER THE MICROSCOPE

TEACHERS MODELLING REPORT WRITING; FOR YEAR 10 CHEMISTRY. By Ginette Richardson 2016

IJS-2017-1 8

Figure 3: General solubility rulesiii

Exceptions RARELY SOLUBLE

* +NH4 (ammonium salts) -

* H+ (strong mineral acids) -

* Na+ K+ (group 1) Most Li+ salts

* NO3- (nitrates) -

Cl- , I- (chlorides & iodides)

Silver, Mercury & Lead

SO4

2- (sulfates) Calcium, Barium, Strontium, Mercury, Lead & Silver

* CO3

2- carbonate

* PO4

3- phosphates

* -OH hydroxides

* S2- sulphides, O2- Oxides

Figure 5: experimental predictions based upon solubility rules (table 3). precipitate predictions highlighted

solutions

Ammonium

carbonate

(NH4)2CO3

Barium

chloride

BaCl2

Copper

sulphate

CuSO4

Lead nitrate

Pb(NO3)2

Potassium

iodide

KI

NaOH NH4OH or Na2CO3 NaCl or Ba(OH)2 Na2SO4 or

Cu(OH)2

NaNO3 or Pb(OH)2

KOH or NaI

(NH4)2CO3 NH4Cl or BaCO3 (NH4)2SO4 or

CuCO3

NH4NO3 or

PbCO3

NH4I or

K2CO3

BaCl2 CuCl2 or

BaSO4

Ba(NO3) or

PbCl2

BaI2 or

KCl

CuSO4 NH4NO3 or

PbSO4

CuI2

or K2SO4

Pb(NO3) KNO3 or PbI2

KI

Assessment of risk

Dilute solutions were used. The Lead solution precipitates were demonstrated by the teacher

and disposed of safely as indicated by the teacher. Hands were washed thoroughly with water

after the experiment and if any spills occurred. Safety glasses were worn.

Figure 4: Ksp for copper carbonate;

𝑪𝒖𝑪𝑶𝟑(𝒔) → 𝑪𝒖𝟐+(𝒂𝒒) + 𝑪𝑶𝟐-(𝒂𝒒) 𝟑 𝑲𝒔𝒑 = [𝑪𝒖𝟐+][𝑪𝑶𝟐−] = 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟗 𝟑

This means that the total amount that can dissolve in 1 litre of each ion is; [𝑪𝒖𝟐+] = [𝑪𝑶𝟐−] = √𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟗 = 𝟖. 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒉 (~𝟎. 𝟎𝟖 𝒎𝒈) 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒊𝒏 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝑳𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒆 𝟑

IJS-2017-1 9

Method

• Two spotting trays (micro-titre tray) were used (see diagram 1)

• 3 drops of each 0.1 Molar solution (shown in left column, table 2) was added to the tray as

set up exactly in order as figure 5.

• Black & white backgrounds were used in order to see any turbidity change more clearly.

• Precipitates and colours were noted.

Diagram 1: a micro-titre (spotting) tray

Results

Table 2. observations (matched to table 1a)

solutions

Ammonium

carbonate

(NH4)2CO3

Barium

chloride

BaCl2

Copper

sulphate

CuSO4

Lead nitrate

Pb(NO3)3

Potassium

iodide

KI

NaOH Clear colourless White ppt in

clear solution

Blue ppt in blue

solution

Slight white ppt Clear colourless

(NH4)2CO3 clear solution Slight cloudiness

in blue solution

Slight cloudiness Clear colourless

BaCl2 Clear colourless no ppt Clear colourless

CuSO4 slight ppt in pale

blue solution

heavy orange-

brown ppt

Pb(NO3) canary yellow

precipitate.

KI

IJS-2017-1 10

Discussion As seen in table 1b, most precipitates were successfully predicted by the simple rules given in figure 3, as

highlighted in yellow. There were some exceptions;

1. Lead chloride precipitate was predicted when lead-II nitrate was mixed with Barium chloride

according to the reaction shown in figure 6;

2. Although most chlorides are soluble, exceptions are with partners of Ag, Pb and Hg. However, not even

slight cloudiness was noted. This may be a dilution factor; only 0.1M solutions were used, and the ksp for

PbCl2 is 5.89 × 10-5. This means that is the solubility product concentration is less than this, the lead chloride

will be soluble. Calculations show that this was the case (figure 7).

3. A precipitate was noted for the mixing of Potassium Iodide and Copper sulfate that wasn't expected.

The double replacement reaction that was expected is shown in figure 8.

4. The simple rules do not specifically state whether copper Iodide is soluble, but implies that copper halides

are soluble. However, research1 indicates that only copper-I iodide exists (with low solubility) and that the

reaction that has occurred here is another type called an electrolytic single-replacement (redox), as shown

in figure 9.

It can be seen in figure 9, that the products of this reaction are metallic copper and iodine. This should

account for the dark brownish colour of the solids in solution seen in table 1a; Copper is an orangey-brown

metal, and Iodine in solution is brown.

Generally, the use of spotting-trays (micro-titre trays) made the reactions easy to see and colours of solution

and formation of precipitates easy to note. It would, in the light if the unexpected results for the lack of seeing

the Lead Chloride precipitate predicted, been advantageous to repeat this with more concentrated solutions

(for example at 0.5M rather than 0.1M). Furthermore, a wider range of solutions could have been tested to

see how well the simple rules apply, as it is known that these do not cover the entirety of solubility predictions2.

Conclusion

The experiment demonstrated a relationship between cation-anion pairs and solubility and thus the

hypothesis is supported. Furthermore, simple rules could be used to predict this solubility. It is suggested that a

more comprehensive range of chemicals at slightly higher concentration be used to extend this work.

References included in original not shown

Editorial: year 10 science has branched into students selecting either or all of Physics, Chemistry or Biology options. This

topic was done as part of the Chemistry unit when year 10 science was all topics combined.

Pb(NO3)2(aq) + BaCl2(aq) → PbCl2(s) + Ba(NO3)2(aq) Figure 6

KI(aq) + CuSO4(aq) → K2SO4(aq) + CuI2(aq) Figure 8

For the solubility of the salt we consider the reaction; BaCl2(aq) → Pb2+(aq) + 2Cl -(aq)

[𝑃𝑏2+][𝐶𝑙−] = 0.01 × 0.012 = 1.00 × 10−6

Figure 7

as 1.00 ×10-6 is smaller than the ksp for PbCl2 of 5.89 × 10-5 it is soluble at this mixture of concentrations!

KI(aq) + CuSO4(aq) → Cu(s) I2(aq) + + K2SO4(aq) Figure 9

IJS-2017-1 11

EFFECTS OF METHANOL-ETHANOL-PETROL BLENDS ON ENGINE

EMISSIONS, AT LOW BLEND RATES

Abstract This study investigates the effects of methanol-ethanol-petrol fuel blends on the emissions of a two-stroke motor. The

blend used contained petrol at a constant 90 vol.%, and contained methanol-ethanol ratios of 3:7, 7:3, and 5:5. The

emissions were analysed using tandem gas chromatograph-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), as well as a simple pH test

performed in an attempt to measure the presence of carbon dioxide. It was not possible to compare the GC-MS results

quantitatively across the samples, however it was found that the majority of the engine emissions were likely to be

aromatic compounds. The only conclusions that could be drawn from the pH tests were that engine emissions from all

of the fuel blends did contain carbon dioxide.

Introduction Air pollution and climate change are two increasingly urgent issues both on a local and global scale. The burning of

liquid fuels such as petrol produces greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, which increase the greenhouse effect and

contribute to global warming, and other airborne pollutants such as nitrates, unburned hydrocarbons, and carbon

monoxide, all of which can have negative health effects, especially on the respiratory system. The Queensland

Government's Department of Transport and Main Roads reports that approximately 70% of south-east Queensland's air

pollution can be attributed to motor vehicles, so it is of great importance that measures are put in place to reduce motor

vehicle emissions (Queensland Government Department of Transport and Main Roads, 2016). There are three main

ways in which this could be done: minimisation of emission-producing behaviour, changes to engines and vehicles to

produce fewer emissions, and changes to fuels to produce fewer emissions. This paper will focus primarily on the latter.

Petrol consists of hundreds of different types of hydrocarbons, with the number of carbon atoms usually ranging from

4-12. Its most abundant constituent hydrocarbons are aromatics, alkenes, and alkanes. Petrol may also contain smaller

amounts of sulphur, nitrogen, oxygen, and trace metals (ENGINEERING.com, Inc., 2009) (Kaiser, 2001). When alkanes

such as octane are completely combusted, they produce carbon dioxide and water vapour, thus: 2C8H18(l) + 25O2(g) → 16CO2(g) + 18H2O(g)+energy However, if there is limited oxygen, incomplete combustion may occur, producing toxic carbon monoxide gas and/or

carbon, thus: 2C8H18(l) + 15O2(g) → 14CO(g) + 2C (s) + 18H2O(g)+energy

(Taylor, Ng, Stubbs, Stokes, & James, 2007).

There has been increasing interest in biofuels as an alternative to fossil-fuel-based petrol, as they are quasi-renewable,

being derived from recently-living biological material which can be replenished. Ethanol, C2H5OH, is the one of the

most frequently used biofuels as it is fairly simple to produce, can be added to regular petrol at rates of up to 10% (E10)

with minimal ill-effects on conventional engines, and can also be used in specialised flex-fuel vehicles at blend rates of

up to 100% ethanol (E100). Ethanol can be produced by hydrating ethylene, however ethanol fuels are almost

exclusively bioethanol. Bioethanol is primarily produced through fermentation of plant-derived sugars and starches from

sources such as sugar cane and corn. The overall equation for the fermentation of glucose into ethanol is: C6H12O6 → 2

C2H5OH + 2 CO2. (Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., 2016)

UNDER THE MICROSCOPE

EXEMPLAR REPORTS FROM STUDENTS Report by Miranda Russell, Year 12 Chemistry 2016

IJS-2017-1 12

- +

Complete combustion of ethanol, like complete combustion of alkanes, produces only CO2 and water, thus:

C2H5OH + 3O2 → 2 CO2 + 3H2O A comparison with the equation for the complete combustion of ethane shows that ethanol requires fewer oxygen

molecules present in the environment. 2 C2H6 + 14 O2 → 4 CO2 + 6 H2O 2 C2H5OH + 6 O2 → 4 CO2 + 6 H2O

Methanol is another potential biofuel, one which has been largely overlooked until recently. While ethanol has a higher

energy density and lower toxicity than methanol, the latter is less expensive to produce sustainably and can be more

easily transported using existing infrastructure. Currently the use of methanol as a fuel is limited to some motorsports

and model vehicles. Methanol at a high concentrations can corrode some metals, particularly aluminium, as it is very

slightly acidic, however low levels can be used in conventional vehicles when combined with cosolvents and corrosion

inhibitors. Methanol can be produced from fossil-fuel hydrocarbons, renewable resources such as biomass, or

synthesised from CO2 and hydrogen. (Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., 2016)

This project investigated the effects of methanol-ethanol-petrol (MEP) blends on the emissions of a two-stroke engine.

The hydrocarbons in the engine exhaust were trapped using a thermal desorption tube (TDT), and then analysed using

tandem gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), a sensitive technique which separates and identifies volatile

compounds within a complex mixture. During the gas chromatography (GC) phase of GC-MS, the analyte is volatilised

and passes through a 30 metre-long column on a stream of inert gas. As the compounds pass through the column they

separate out, eluting with a characteristic retention time. This retention time is then combined with a mass spectrum

(MS) analysis to aid with identification of the compounds. During MS analysis, compounds are ionised and fragmented

in to parts and data are obtained about the mass to charge ratio of the ionised parts. This data, and the retention time of

the compound are compared to a reference database, which provides possible matches for the compounds in the analyte.

The use of this technique allows for a wide range of hydrocarbon exhaust products to be identified.

Materials and Methods Four MEP blends were investigated, with blend ratios of 0:0:100, 5:5:90, 3:7:90, and 7:3:90. 200mL of each blend were

made up, and 4mL of motor oil were added to each mixture. The petrol used was Shell Unleaded 91, and the motor oil

used was Shell Helix HX3 20W-50. An STIHL FS 38 grass trimmer engine was used to burn the fuels, and the exhaust

from each fuel was run through a CarbotrapTM TDT for 2 minutes, and then bubbled through 250mL of distilled water

for 2 minutes. The pH of each water sample was measured, and an estimate made as to how much water had been lost

through spillage. The TDTs were sent to the CSIRO Dutton Park Ecosciences Precinct for analysis using GC-MS.

Results The four fuel blends were combusted in an SITHL FS 38 grass cutter two-stroke engine. The exhaust was bubbled

through 250mL of distilled water for two minutes. The pH of the water was then measured to give an estimate of the

CO2 produced during combustion. The pH results are shown in Table 1:

Table Error! Main Document Only: the pH of distilled water following bubbling of exhaust gases

Fuel Blend (M:E:P) 0:0:100 5:5:90 3:7:90 7:3:90 Distilled water

pH 4.19 4.09 4.00 3.88 5.6

These results all show a decrease from the tested pH of distilled water of 5.6, by 1.41–1.72 pH units. This is because as

the CO2 is bubbled through the water, it reacts forming carbonic acid, which dissociates to bicarbonate, and a hydrogen

ion, thus: CO2 + H2O ⇌ HCO3 + H

From this it would be possible to calculate the amount of CO2 dissolved in the water, however since only one test was

run per fuel blend, it does not provide the replication necessary to determine if there really are differences between the

fuel blends. However, the clear drop in pH in every sample does indicated the production of CO2 by all fuel blends

The results from the GC-MS provided by CSIRO consist of plots of total ion current (TIC) against GC retention time

(RT), and together with tentative assignment of peaks on the basis of mass spectrometry (MS) results (see Appendix 1).

The TIC: retention time (RT) graphs for every sample have very poor resolution due to what appears to be sample

overloading. This conclusion has been drawn from the fact that an example TIC:RT plot of emissions from pure petrol,

which had a much lower abundance of compounds, displays much clearer peaks (see Appendix 2). The sample

overloading means that the MS for many of the peaks may have been performed on a mixture of chemicals, as the

IJS-2017-1 13

compounds would not have separated out well. Therefore the potential for errors in these results is higher than ideal,

and only general conclusions can be made.

Despite the poor resolution, the peak assignments provided by CSIRO suggest that the hydrocarbon emissions of all

four fuel blends are almost all cyclic compounds, most of which are aromatics, including benzene, alkylated benzene

compounds such as 1-ethynyl-4-methyl benzene, toluene, o- and p-xylene, and substituted naphthalene compounds such

as 1-methynaphthalene and 1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-6,7-dimethyl-naphthalene (see Figures 1-9). There is a dearth of aliphatic

compounds, however the analysis of the 3:7:90 MEP reports likely detection of tetradecane (see Figure 10), and the first

peak in the 5:5:90 MEP blend was designated as ethanol which could be suggestive of unburned fuel, though this result

may be unreliable as the reported quality for this peak assignment was very low.

The data displayed the GC-MS plot are the total ion current (TIC) data as detected by the MS. This means that the

abundance of a compound cannot be directly inferred, as different chemical compounds ionise differently and can give

different ion currents for the same quantity of compound. Despite this, it would normally be possible to compare relative

levels of a single compound between different samples. However, the poor resolution of these plots means that the peaks

are indistinct and possibly contain signals from multiple compounds. Therefore quantitate data is difficult to extract,

and quantitative comparisons cannot be made between the different fuel blends.

Discussion In an effort to determine the best low-level MEP blends for reduction of hydrocarbon pollutants, four blends were tested

with the ratios 0:0:100, 5:5:90, 3:7:90, and 7:3:90. Although quantitative analysis was not possible, it is clear that all of

the fuel blends had emissions mostly comprised of cyclic compounds: primarily aromatics such as substituted benzene

compounds, toluene, o- and p-xylene, and substituted naphthalene compounds. There was also a dearth of aliphatic

compounds, with very few clear occurrences other than tetradecane in the 3:7:90 blend. The emissions from each blend

were also passed through distilled water in an attempt to estimate the CO2 emissions produced, however the results from

this were fairly inconclusive due to water spillage and lack of replication. All that can be inferred is that all trials

produced CO2 gas.

Groundwater Management Review, Spring 1990, lists 39 different hydrocarbons contained in petrol. 13 of these

compounds are aromatic, 22 are alkanes and the remaining 4 are alkenes. 10 of the 13 aromatic compounds listed were

detected in the fuel emissions (as suggested by MS peak assignment), but of the 26 non-aromatic compounds, only

2,3,4-trimethylpentane was detected. Considering this, it is likely that the aromatic compounds combust much less

efficiently and completely than the non-aromatics. This conclusion is supported by Burgoyne’s 1937 paper, The

Combustion of Aromatic and Alicyclic Hydrocarbons, which describes the combustion of aromatic compounds as

“slow” relative to aliphatic compounds (Burgoyne, 1937).

Aromatic compounds in fuels are of particular concern, as they can significantly increase emissions of pollutants

including carbon monoxide and particulate matter such as black carbon. Carbon monoxide is highly poisonous to

humans, while particulate matter contributes to smog and can cause various health problems depending on its

composition (National Pollutant Inventory, 2014) (National Pollutant Inventory, 2013). The combustion of aromatics

can also lead to the formation of polycyclic aromatic compounds such as naphthalene and substituted naphthalenes, a

number of which have been cited as “probably carcinogenic to humans” (Karavalakis, 2015) (National Pollutant

Inventory, 2014)

It is also interesting to note the likely presence of tetradecane in the emissions from the 3:7:90 blend. Tetradecane has

an auto-ignition temperature of approximately 200°C (National Center for Biotechnology Information, 2016) whereas

the auto-ignition temperature of octane is approximately 6°C higher (National Center for Biotechnology Information,

2016). Therefore it would be expected that if the octane component of the fuel was combusting, the tetradecane

component would also combust. This blend is the only one which produced tetradecane, so it is unlikely that its

production was caused by the presence of the methanol and ethanol. Therefore its presence is possibly due to a variation

in experimental procedures between trials, failure of the GC-MS to identify the tetradecane in the other samples, or

erroneous detection of tetradecane in this sample.

Despite the lack of quantitative data or analysis of CO2, CO and NOx, it is possible to infer from other studies what the

blends likely produced. Additives such as ethanol and methanol are unlikely to reduce the emissions produced by the

petrol present in a blended fuel. However they are purer, containing fewer contaminants such as aromatic compounds,

so a blended fuel would potentially have lower overall pollutant emissions because there would be less petrol in the fuel.

As the tested fuel blends contained only 10% ethanol and methanol, it would be expected for the pollutant emissions to

drop by no more than 10%. Elfasakhany found in 2015 that methanol-petrol (MP) blends had lower emissions of

unburned hydrocarbons (UHC) than ethanol-petrol (EP) blends and EMP blends, and Sileghem et al. found that neat

IJS-2017-1 14

IJS-2017-1 15

methanol produces lower nitrate (NOx) emissions than neat petrol and blended fuels (Elfasakhany, 2015) (L. Sileghem,

2014). Therefore, it would be expected that the EMP blend containing the most methanol would give the lowest UHC

and NOx emissions. Silgehem et al also commented that some authors suggest that the presence of oxygen in alcohols

may cause a more complete combustion, leading to lower CO emissions, however their study could not confirm this.

There are many factors in this investigation which may influence the reliability of its results. No control was performed

with an unused TDT, so some of the compounds detected by the GC-MS may have been from the TDTs themselves,

rather than the emissions they had trapped. There is also the problem presented by the lack of resolution in the GC-MS

results. This is likely because the TDT was left in the exhaust stream for too long, nd trapped more material than the

GC-MS could accurately analyse, causing the system to become overloaded. The consequence of this is that the MS

analysis was probably performed on mixtures for many of the peaks, reducing their accuracy. There was also no GC-

MS performed on the non-combusted fuel mixtures, so it is difficult to determine which compounds from the exhaust

samples were products of incomplete combustion and which did not combust at all. The pH measurement of the distilled

water is also likely to be erroneous, as pH meters need a higher level of ions present to give an accurate measurement

This problem is not very significant though, as the pH results are almost useless anyway due to the loss of water from

splashing. It is also important to note that two-stroke engines are notoriously dirty, and so the use of a two-stroke engine

in this study slightly reduces its relevance to the potential use of MEP fuel blends in conventional car engines.

In terms of further studies, it would be prudent to repeat this experiment, eliminating the problems outlined in the above

paragraph. Further tests should also be performed using car engines and analysis of their CO, CO2, and NOx emissions,

in addition to hydrocarbon emission, using different MEP blends. It is also possible to obtain quantitative data from the

GC-MS. For this, it must be ensured that the system does not become saturated at either the TDT or GC. A known

amount of an isotopically labelled control compound can then be added to the samples to permit quantification. If

detailed analysis of isomers were required, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) could be used to unambiguously

determine molecular identity. However, it is likely NMR would also have problems with a complex mixture of

substances, so the analyte would need to be properly separated during the GC stage of analysis.

Conclusion In conclusion, although this study was unable to quantitatively asses or closely analyse the emissions from different

MEP fuel blends, it was found that the majority of the engine hydrocarbon emissions were likely to be aromatic

compounds. The GC-MS results also presented a good example of how sensitive this technology is, and its ability to

identify compounds within a complex mixture.

Acknowledgements Many thanks to my lab partner Bagus Laksana for collaborating with me on this, and also to Mr Walker, our class’

student teacher, for his help with the practical side of the investigation and his invaluable advice.

Bibliography & some graphics included in original, but not included here Editorial: this unit was studied in year 12 Chemistry. The experimental unit allowed students to investigate fuels and engine

emissions. It is done in conjunction with QUT who allow a student visit to their laboratory, and who analyze the emission

samples by GC-MS (Gas-Liquid-Chromatography linked to Mass Spectroscopy).

UNDER THE MICROSCOPE

BLURRED LINES Science fact Science fiction Fantasy

Science fiction has generally been considered a separate genre from Fantasy. Science Fiction

deals with improbable possibilities, but reasonable ones. Fantasy with plausible impossibilities. One

starts in an ancient world full of “magic” the other in a modern world where magic is called

technology. One denies science, the other exaggerates it. Are these genres compatible? In both

scenarios, the reader must not necessarily believe, but at least suspend disbelief.

Regarding Science Fiction, Michio Kaku, an American physicist and science commentator and

promoter once said; “You cannot create new science unless you realise where the old science

leaves off and the new science begins, and Science Fiction forces us to confront this”

However, Science Fiction doesn’t just start where Science Fact ends, it overlaps it, encompassing

the possible with the improbable possibilities and transposes these to a new reality; Science Fiction

often transposes once again as Science Fact. Before it becomes fact, it remains possibility.

Possibility is hope, and hope is what drives sentient beings. Improbability, probability, are on the

same scale. An improbable event still has a likelihood, and events with a small likelihood can

occur, and once occurred, now change to probability status of certain. So, probability has some

aroma of inevitability, and it is up to sentient beings to prepare for inevitability. Then there is the

‘but’. “But” cuts a sentence into the political correct fore statement and then the whip of what is

really meant. The “but” is this; Science cannot live without creativity. These two, walk hand in hand

like lovers. Cut off one, and the other not only fails to thrive, but withers, widowed and wanting.

If Science Fiction starts with a new future, then this future is simply not what it used to be. The past

also turns out to be not what it was previously. Past and future change with perceptive shift. Time.

Although some could see time as the fourth dimension - the movement of space - Einstein, and

more recently, Steven Hawking argued that time is a separate concept, and unlike space, only

flows in one direction. The arrow of entropy (disorder). Time. Space-time. Whatever. It is the great

separator of what was, is and will be.

Humankind has long wondered about origins and questions like, “How am I here”? “What’s our

purpose”? “Why do I know that I am here”? And, more recently, “Are there others?” Humankind is

the only species on this planet that seems to be consciously concerned with anything other than

today, or more specifically the now. Looking back to the past. Gazing to the future. Rarely living

the moment. Planning, scheming, reminiscing, manipulating, then justifying that all these choices

were necessary. To find another civilization, and to understand their choices is something not well

learned on this planet. The desire to conquer and control is too great. If there are other sentient

beings elsewhere, what are, or were or will be, their choices?

IJS-2017-1 16

The galaxy in which we live is estimated to have one hundred billion stars. This galaxy is considered

one of one hundred billion other galaxies. This means around ten thousand billion, billion suns in

the universe (1 X 1022 suns). This is a very big number. Mind you, as big as this number seems, to put

this into perspective of the very small, there are still over ten times more atoms of carbon in the

average pencil ‘lead’ than stars in the universe.

In 1961, Frank Drake estimated the probability of life in the universe. He considered the 100 billion

suns in a galaxy (100 000 000 000 or 1 X 1011). He then made some other approximations such as;

out of the many universes, many galaxies, many solar systems and many planets there were billions

that may support “life”. This was estimated to be between 1 in 10 and 1 in 1000 planets. It was

further estimated that the probability that intelligent life develops on one of these planets is

between 1 in 100 and 1 in 10,000. The time factor yet again raises its hand and points out that a

given civilization may only exist for between 100,000 years to 500,000 years in a universe that is 14

billion years old, a mere 0.001-0.005% of the age of the universe. However, there is another

consideration as it is believed that the ‘chemistry’ of life needed about 10-17 million years after the

big bang to kick in, and few more million for more complex forms (but this only takes the possibility

of a simultaneous life window down to around 13 980 000 000 years). These probabilities together

indicate an estimation between none, and about five thousand planets in one galaxy that have

intelligent life at the same window in time (Drake estimates the higher limit much larger).

The lower limit must be at least one. This is the people called humans on a small blue-green planet

in an outer arm of the milky-way galaxy.

What about the other ~4999? Was/Is/Will there be another one like us? At some window in time.

To produce intelligent life is to make it up a ladder of increasing improbability.

By the time planets coalesce out of interstellar dust, they have most of the elements they need.

Elements Hydrogen to Iron (1 to 26) are made by most stars and the rest by supernova and nuclear

decay processes. Similarly, planetary life precursors always started the same way, for the Universe

has the same laws of physics and chemistry. On planets that have the right conditions, simple

molecules are made by the actions of heat and electricity with simple gases like hydrogen, oxygen

and nitrogen to make water and small gases like ammonia and nitrogen oxides. These react with

metals usually on ceramic surfaces with triggers of heat, electricity and solar radiation. Over time

- a lot of time - (as time is a scorned sociopath, patient, seething but scheming) self-replicating

chemicals of varying levels of intricacy were produced. Occasionally on some of these planets,

‘right’ conditions sustained, such that the smallest life forms developed, the environmental

responding microorganisms. In these, the self-replicating chemicals packaged themselves by

fundamental principles of attraction between like chemicals and repulsion of unlike. In some

planets, this life of ‘responders’ evolved and produced more complex multicellular life

forms. These ‘responder’ life forms could often voluntarily move and respond to, environmental

IJS-2017-1 17

cues. But only a small fraction of the ‘responders’ made it through the next sieves and became

the ‘adaptors’. The ability to not just respond but to adapt to the environment became crude

intelligence. But, to develop the intelligence involved in consciousness, and choice making takes

once again the embrace of time to produce the ‘deliberators’.

Further progression to the ability to examine life and nature and determine the rules governing it

produces the ‘scientists’. Usually by this point the ‘scientists’ discard, one-by-one, the Gods they

had worshipped for millennia as the reason for their existence, strangely always with no divine

tantrum ensuing. However, very few ‘scientist' civilizations made it past the first filter to success as

they usually killed themselves in the process by the usual pathways: the desire to dominate and

denigrate to fulfil personal agendas which is linked inextricably to consideration of only short-term

and short-sighted problems and solutions.

The failure to discard their false idols of worship was also a hindrance as these crutches made of

glued ash gave false hopes and prevented linking true relationship between cause and effect. But

more than that, it failed because the beings failed to ascribe responsibility to themselves.

This is the first-filter trap of most civilizations and usually their demise. Sometimes this is referred to as

a civilization’s “great filter”, and humankind is often considered already caught in this sieve.

Irrevocably? Maybe. Maybe not. If not, the next filter may be the ability to manipulate life and

information, matter and energy, and to understand and utilize this sociopath that is space-time.

These civilizations could become the manipulators, and would be a step further towards being the

creators. These are the final rungs on the ladder of unlikelihood. On the top rung, purportedly are

the great authors of their own fate, the Gods themselves, the Effector Mundi.

Some-way up this stairway of improbability were some inhabitants, manipulators, on the planet

Sedain, which rested on an outer arm of what was referred to as the milky-way galaxy. Sedain had

excellent conditions to not just sustain life but to progress it. There were of course the necessary

chemicals like water, oxygen, and an abundance of necessary elements as complements of an

old supernova from the original solar manufactory. More importantly, the planet’s metallic

magnetic core produced a strong field that sheltered their planet from the ravages of the solar

and cosmic radiations. Even more importantly, strangely, was that over time this field protection

fluctuated, and slowly enough that the most robust occupants had not only evolved a protection

from radiation that would normally kill living systems, but, could utilise it to protect and sustain

themselves. The planet Sedain transited two suns, tidally locked with the small close cool sun

named Sedatus sol, such that one side of Sedain always faced this sun (the light-side). Then, this

sun-planet pairing orbited the large, hot, bright, distant sun named Lucidum sol. There was a distant

black hole (named Chaos) pulling more on the dark-side of the planet. This system therefore

produced varying radiation levels and gravitational effects on each side of the planet, and the

inhabitants, quite simply, adapted or died. Because each side required different adaptations,

differences emerged. Speciation. Like many active life-producing planets, there were continents

adrift on tectonic plates in an ocean. The continents fused and broke apart in countless cycles,

but eventually settled as two distinct landmasses. These distinct landmasses also eventually settled

smack plum center on the dark-side and the light-side of the planet as if arranged meticulously by

an obsessive effector-mundi. Either by that or the black hole effect.

IJS-2017-1 18

The ‘light-side’, which had full continuous sunshine from the small sun Sedatus sol due to the tidal-

locking, was fortunately under a mild irradiance. Instead of baking the ground by constant heat,

it mainly added gentle steady light to the large landmass continent that faced it. This continent,

eventually named Relicum, was surrounded and indeed addled by enough water and blessed

with enough air currents to keep a stable environment from heat flow circulated via the waterways

and vast ocean to and from the dark-side of the planet. However, this light-side also rotated into

view of the hot distant sun twice every cycle, albeit from a vast distance when the hot sun only

peeked the horizon at the edges of the continent. Even so, the inhabitants here avoided its rays.

The lower-life forms; the responders, either hid or went dormant. The deliberators that were the

highest life-form there were people known as the Caetera.

They were transient people, methodically moving from the centre, to each side of their continent

and back again, to avoid the harsh radiation when their continent saw the bright sun Lucidum sol

peak over the horizon. They timed this move so perfectly that the lucky ones never saw a Bright-

Sol-rise nor Sol-set.

Fortunately, half the time their continent was not exposed at a time to the bright sun, as it was

either protected by not facing the sun at all, or being in the direct eclipse or radiation-filtering

magnetic penumbra of the mild sun. The Caetera therefore needed to transit their continent every

Sedutus-sol cycle, then, back again; east to west, west to east, perpetually, to avoid contact with

the harsh rays of the bright sun. The necessity of being nomadic during evolution, did therefore not

allow the luxuries a settled civilization would develop, like focus on intellectual and creative

pursuits, and the consequent effect on development. It did however allow for people to develop

cooperative skills and good-will. Their small sun, was the ever-present mild light in their lives during

their constant transits. They had a strict regime of movement, moving every one or two-sleep.

However, some places had more resources, and they would stay longer, up to a five-sleep,

especially at the coasts where they would include the celebration of the transit, before the

‘returning’. They would generally have the luxury of a temporarily settled life when they reached

the continent centre. Here they timed their transit to be protected by the penumbra and or eclipse

or simply it being a Lucidium-night when the planet backed the bright sun. In olden days, the

Caetera walked the cycle and had to walk it constantly. In later history, transits generally involved

faster movement in carriages of increasing complexity stacked sometimes hundreds wide and half

as long to perfectly outpace the bright sun’s path. Therefore, their towns were not circular pockets,

but vast tracks transiting across the whole continent, with empty stations, light ghost-towns along

the way sitting against the rivers. Much later, with assistance, they build vast tracks underground,

and indeed above ground to protect them. However, they needed to do the same transit as the

vegetation adapted to these conditions also by sprouting and going dormant with bright

Lucidium’s radiation levels. Although, some vegetation did the opposite and waited for the first

bright shaft of light from Lucidium in order to grow. Fauna, the creatures with legs, did the same

march. Even in modern times, it was hard to break the surface walk, and there came to be three

IJS-2017-1 19

groups of Catera; surface and underground wanderers and then those that never did move, but

hid deep in caves under the ground.

The inhabitants on the ‘dark-side’ continent called Sedain had long day-night cycles with the large

distant radiant sun Lucidium-sol, but no direct light from the small sun, Sedatus-sol. These people,

the Sedai (for it was these that named the planet), had to become tolerant of intermittent

radiation at high frequencies and of temperatures that vastly fluctuated. Also, due to the effect

of the black hole, there were gravitational anomalies on this side. Eventually the Sedai adapted

to harness the bright sun and have a ready supply of its energy. They adapted to wild ranges in

temperature and gravity fluctuations. Fortunately, like the light-side continent, there was abundant

water. It was an archipelago-type continent and had all types of waterways and lakes traversing

the land. These waterways circulated heat to and from this planetary hemisphere. The Sedai on

this dark-side could settle in towns and eventually cities. These cities were of beautiful artistry and

architecture and their civilization valued all creativity and arts as much as medicine, science,

engineering and technology. All the vegetation on this side also had times of dormancy, waiting

for the bright shafts of light from Lucidium-sol. However, there was no fauna, the Sedai the only

animals that adapted here.

They, the Caetera and the Sedai were, allegedly, once one people, but a slow crystallization

occurred, like the selective precipitation that occurs to produce fine bands and crystals in the

centre of a geode. An effective crystallization that eventually separated them to distinctly different

races and precipitating them to these opposing continents. There was archaeological evidence

for this, that in the past that the ancestors of both races were initially isolated to each side of side

of a vast deep river. This river had soon increased in width, before in time, they realised it was an

ocean between two continents that were waving each other goodbye - that slow wave of

goodbye where it is hard to maintain the plastered smile. It was as if the Effector Mundi, holding

the planet, with a smirk, had shook it just a little, and sanctioned their separation and thus division.

Another legend depicted the two races first meeting at the riverbanks, possibly after many cycles

of the continents meeting and parting. However, on this legendary recorded meeting they

gawked at their similarities and differences and named each other. The name for the river

originated from this time as it came from the word “to see” and as such the ‘See’ was named –

one of the early words from the old language.

So, in time, the two races had separated into their two lands. Only the intelligent Sedai, with their

‘talents’ and with all their advanced resources knew the safe path to cross the enormous and

treacherous See “across the river”. They, in time, could also travel by air, and had, in more time,

started investigating beyond the skies of their own world when they learned the arts of space-time

skipping.

So, it came that the abilities of the peoples of the ‘light’ and ‘dark’ side of Sedain varied

enormously from the differing conditions, especially radiation exposures. The Caetera under the

constant light of Sedatus were methodical, conservative and traditional by necessity. They were

physically hard working, not thinkers, and unfortunately (or maybe fortunately) without guile or

ambition. They lived relatively short lives and evolved slowly with their genetics adapted for milder

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conditions. These Caetera being nomadic in nature were nature driven and dealt with the needs

of the cycle only. They bred easily, and somewhat randomly, which was the usual source of discord

and aggression.

Later in the Sedai history, when the Sedai visited their lands and lured some of them away, some

of them were happy to choose to be servants (or as they more appropriately named, symbionts)

of the intelligent Sedai in the ‘dark’ continent. The Sedai being settled and highly intelligent both

adjusted themselves to their environment and moulded and sculptured it to fit them also. They

were more than ‘deliberators’ like the Caetera, and had even surpassed being tagged as

‘scientists’. They were ‘manipulators’ – one step from the creators and another from the effector

Mundi themselves (for weren’t these the natural next rungs of the ladder of improbability?). The

Sedai treated their Caetera symbionts well, and it was a position that benefitted both races. It was

generally viewed as a privilege to join the Sedai in the ‘dark-side’, protected from Lucidium-sol in

their vast beautiful cities. There was always a stable population of Caetera living in the dark-side,

often stable ancestral family groups. This society became stable, settled, functioning from the

influence of both races.

The Sedai could not breed easily, because they could not breed randomly. Physical signs, in the

colour and luminosity of the eyes, were obvious when there was desire and genetic compatibility.

Breeding also never produced offspring straight away, often only many decades later, when

enough genetic information had been sorted and recombined to optimize outcomes. This was an

innate genetic engineering that could only come from a long-term commitment, another hallmark

of a society which lived long lives and had to consider long term plans. With offspring, only twins

would be born, male and female. The society had advanced to the point where only one set of

twins would be born. A replacement population only. This replacement birth rate was only offset

by the extraordinary long lives of the Sedai, and indeed their ability to not succumb to disease,

injury and ageing. Their ‘talents’ in manipulating physicality, energy and time could be considered

magic, if viewed from a more primitive society.

So, it was on the ‘dark-side’ with the combination of conditions both gentle and severe that

produced inhabitants who had progressed further up the ladder of improbability. The manipulators

of their world. Some of the people had foresight and wisdom early in their civilization and set up

systems that allowed a fair hierarchy. Everyone had a job, everyone was valued, and everyone

had needs met but not always “wants”, as some striving was necessary in driving people to excel.

Those on the ‘top’ of the hierarchy were the true servants of those on the bottom. This hierarchy

wasn't linear. Along with hard rules and traditions, they realised early that valuing all individuals,

was one key to a successful society. Power involved service, sacrifice and altruism not despotism.

It was suggested also, that the ability to sense an appropriate mate and the desire to stay

partnered for life was a key to the societal success. That, and the fact the society was matriarchal,

in contrast to the patriarchal Caetera.

But, planetary forces are chaos, and these forces that created the plate tectonics of Sedain had a

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way of mocking even the most civilised and advanced of cultures. The universe was, after all

on a run dictated by entropy, the Lord of chaos, and the business partner of Time. By the time the

Sedai had determined their world, and calculated their paths they also realised the continents

that supported their existence, the continents that were seemingly finally stable and equidistant,

were now starting an immutable run again towards each other, a run that was not the steady stroll

indicated by past record, but the speeding up as if the predator had finally, irrevocably, noticed

the prey.

Such was the acceleration of the movement that the deductive logicians also correlated that the

forces pushing these continents made them unstable and their planet was becoming unviable for

life. The continents would eventually crumble though earthquakes and volcanism. If the peoples

were to survive they mostly needed to head elsewhere. “Five-hundred more revolutions” was the

projected timeline for safe viability. This was many generations for the Caetera but for the longer-

lived Sedai, this was a small proportion of their general life span.

Fortunately, by the time this news was confirmed, the Sedai knew of many livable planets,

reachable by time-space-skipping. Some places they had even colonised in the past. Usually they

sent the adventurous and the misfits whether Caetera or Sedai, and sometimes their families chose

to accompany them. However, the time had come where the majority Sedai population needed

to leave and start up elsewhere. Many Caetera remained behind, mainly by choice, and

surprisingly also some Sedai to wait their fate. Predicted. Inevitable?

One group travelled on a path familiar, a path to maximize success as they contained selected

members of the current ruling-servant clan of Sedain, the Kha-kin. The destination, a little blue-

green planet, on the outer reaches of their galaxial arm. They had originally colonized it in ages

past with both Sedai and Caetera.

After the space-time skip, it took a while to adjust to the new world. There were slight differences

in gravity and oxygen content but the main difference was having only one Sun with its one

rotation cycle and vastly different solar radiation energy. Indeed, in this world they felt stronger

due to its milder conditions. They, in the past, had even named the sun somewhat after their two

home suns, and simply called it Sol.

These travelers, numbering less than 1000, were about two-thirds Caetera, and the rest Sedai. The

Caetera needed more people to survive as a race lacking the genetic versatility of the Sedai.

Also, the Sedai on all exodus missions were specifically chosen to maximize survival outcomes by

including old and wise Elders along with leader-servants and finally the fine genetic mutability of

young people still growing and thus evolving to conditions. That and the fact they also brought a

genomic library. So, skills and the seeds of the continued existence of both Sedain races was

maximized.

When they arrived at their destination, the planet they had seeded with their own kin, had

produced its own merged populous, no doubt aided by that initial genetic engineering of the

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‘natives’.

However, the Sedai had passed their “controlling and conquering” filter. Their prime protocol was

to leave an inhabited planet or wait for them to fail the inevitable trap of the great filter.

That’s if they followed the prime protocol.

To be continued…..

GLOSSARY;

tidally locked - a planet/moon that has one side permanently facing its gravitational

attraction object.

Relicum - the continent on the light-side of Sedain. Home of the Caetera, with light from

sedatus-sol.

Sedain - the planet and the name of the continent on the dark-side. Home of the Sedai.

Sedai - the people on Sedain, the dark-side of the world with light from Lucidium-sol

the bright.

Caetera - the people on the continent Relicum facing the mild constant sun; sedatus-sol.

Sedatus-sol - the mild sun, constantly shining. Shines on the Caetera in Relicum.

Lucidium-sol - the bright distant sun with harsh radiation. Shines on the Sedai in Sedain.

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祖先 Zǔxiān (The ancestors)

all rights reserved Milllaa Millenski 2015 and Ginette Richardson 2017

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