uma sankar sekar - crja

84 landscape no. 34 | january–march 2012

iterature affords many glimpses into landscapes of theperiod of its time. Some pieces give elaborate descrip-tions, while others offer brief snapshots, to be sought

out by a discerning reader. Some talk of royal palaces and theirlavish gardens, others describe seemingly ordinary landscapes.In the latter category is the Kuruntogai.

The Kuruntogai, a collection of 401 short poems, was written inthe Sangam period of Tamil literature. This period is thought tohave extended from the 2nd century BCE to the 5th century AD.At the time, the Tamil country, encompassed much of present-day South India, including Tamil Nadu and parts of Kerala,Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Sri Lanka, Maldives andLakshadweep. The Sangam period is considered by many tohave been the golden period of Tamil literature. Ettuthogai (EightAnthologies), a collection of 2,371 poems, is an early exampleof the period. The Kuruntogai is one of these anthologies.

Uma Sankar Sekar

l a n d s c a p e i n i n d i a n l i t e r a t u r e |

This is concluding of the three articles in the series on landscape in indian literature

landscape no. 34 | january–march 2012 85

In early Sangam literature, poetry wasbroadly classified into Akam (that whichdealt with the inside: human emotionsand relationships) and Puram (thatwhich dealt with the outside: war, valor,customs). The Kuruntogai is a prime ex-ample of Akam poetry. It is a collectionof verses by several poets, some ofwhom remain unidentified.

As literature, Akam poetry and theKuruntogai are unique. These poemsdeal not with any particular individual,but talk instead of generic human beingswho are subject to universal emotionsof love, passion, sorrow, and yearningand who undergo universal experiencesof loss, separation and reconciliation.Each poem is separate andunconnected. Reading these poems doesnot require knowledge of a historical orcultural context; there are no intricateplots to follow, no character is identifiedby name. The Kuruntogai does notcontain the bias of any one particularauthor. There is seldom any religiousimagery. Instead, the short poems,almost haiku-like in their brevity, capturemoments of human emotion, that areintimate and spontaneous.

Equally unique to Akam poetry, is therecognition that human emotions are in-timately influenced by their physical set-ting. The Tamil country was divided intofive different regions or tinai, and theimages associated with each region usedto portray a distinct mood or experience.

Each of these tinai: kurinci (hills), mullai(forest), marutam (agricultural lands),neytal (seashore) and palai (arid tracts),is named after a characteristic plant.

Set in these different tinai, the poemsprovide us not just with moments of emo-tion, but with vivid snapshots of nature.

Whether he comes, my friendor whether he doesn’t,what can we mean to each other now?Already, the green buds of the blue lotussway in the water,the flowers of the karuvilailike vivid eyes on a peacock’s tailshake in the tall grass,and the pink buds of the eenkaiwith its fine little thornshave opened,and their clear bright blossomsare being scatteredunder the cruel buffetingof the cold north wind.Yet it doesn’t even occur to himto think of what is happening to me.(Poem 110)

The tinai are not necessarily discretelandscapes; they can also be understoodas dynamic ecological communities thatare continually evolving, whether due tonatural forces or human activity. Wholemountain ranges (kurinci) turn to desert(palai) due to prolonged drought, hillsidesget converted into paddy fields(marutam), and arid plains (palai) revertto woodlands (mullai) with the onset of

the rains. Here is a description of thecharacteristics of each of these tinai.

Kurinci (Hills)...the land of mountainslying range upon rangewhere torrents rushdown the mountainsidelike snakes slithering to ground,crashing into bouldersand tearing at the tall stout trunksof the venkai treeswhich grow among the rocksleaving their swayingblossom-laden branchesempty.(p 134)

This tinai is named after the kurinciflower (Strobilanthes kunthiana), a shrubthat mass blooms once every 12 years,covering the hillsides with its blue blos-soms, thus the name “Nil-giri” (BlueMountains).

The poems pertaining to this tinai re-peatedly invoke the beauty of the moun-tain region. This is a “glorious hill coun-try”, home to elk, deer, elephants, moun-tain sheep, monkeys, peacocks, andegrets. The soaring heights of the moun-tains (over whose high peaks the cloudsmeekly crawl), rapidly flowing water(where silver streams roar down fromlofty peaks) and the playfulness of ani-mals lend it an energy and vitality notseen in the other tinai.


the short poems, almost haiku-like in theirbrevity, capture moments of human emotion,

that are intimate and spontaneous



THIS PAGE | KurinciFACING PAGE | Neytal


Water is at its most animated here:...where long silver streams,born amongst the tall summits,come roaring down the mountainsidesounding like the measured drumbeatsof a dancing troupe,...(p 78)

Even the plants seem to be in a state ofmotion, whether real as in the tall sway-ing glades of bamboo,...from the mountainswhere the green bamboo grows,so springy that if you bend it backit flashes upward to touch the heavens,as swift as a spirited horsewhen its tether is loose.(p 74)

Or imagined, as in the case of the Irri:...the Irri tree, festoonedwith hanging vines,spreads its silvery roots over the rocksso that they look like streamsrunning down the hillside.(p 106)

Torches lit, high above the tree tops“which twinkle here and there like starsin the distant heavens” keep the moun-tain landscape alive even at night.

Neytal (Seashore)...in a secret placeunder a tightly-woven canopy of cassiabranchescovered with new green buds,


...our pretty little villagewhere the ocean’s waves,smelling of fishand the dark shoreline forestsmeet like moonlight anddarkness,and where the fronds of youngpalmyra treesbend invitingly to the ground...(p 81)

The neytal is a landscape de-fined by the ocean, backwa-ters, mangroves, salt marshesand sand dunes, into coastaltowns and fishing villages.This tinai is a recognition ofthe fact that most of the Tamilcountry resides “on the greatocean’s margin”.

The neytal landscape derivesits name from the water lily....from the cool shores wherethe dark oceanteems with shoals of fish,and where blue water lilies,rising high on tall stalksabove their green pads,sway back and forthin the shallows’ gentle swell...(p 9)

Yet it is the trees that line the shores thatassume greater importance. One suchtree is the screw pine:...from the gentle seashoresguarded by screwpine

with their thick saw-edged leavesstanding in serried rankslike a hedge of planted spears...(p 245)

...from the cool shores where the dark oceanteems with shoals of fish, and where blue waterlilies, rising high on tall stalks above their green

pads, sway back and forth ...


Another, the palmyra:...of the seashoreswhere the tall palmyra palmsappear short,their swaying trunkshalf-buried in the spreading sand dunespiled up by the west windand covered in adumpu creepers.(p 248)

Another major tree of this region is thepunnai. Punnai trees not only provideshade along the seashore:That grove of flowering punnai treeswith their black brancheswhere the deep shadowslike night distilledare moist and cooland where on one sidelike heaped up moonlightstands a bank of white sandquite emptyfor he has not yet come...(p 123)

but extend the coastal vocabulary intothe seaside towns:...of this villagewhose fine streets are lined by punnaitrees,in whose branches birds twitteramongst the golden clusters of openingbuds.(p 320)

Groves of these trees provide nestingplaces for herons and white egrets, andclandestine meeting places for lovers.

Their fragrant flowers serve to compen-sate to some extent, for the smell fromthe fish left to dry on the shores.

It is perhaps at night that the coastal land-scape is most magical. The crashing ofthe ocean waves and the cries of theherons roosting under the palmyra palmsenliven the dark night. The groves oftrees further darken the shoreline, oceanwaters shimmer under the moon and thewhite sand dunes themselves resemble“heaped-up moonlight.” Under themoonlight, the flowers of the screwpineare apt to be mistaken for white herons.

Palai (Arid area/ wilderness)...that waterless desertwhere in the last days of springthe tem and tumpi beetlessuck on a single cluster of blossomin the hot, upraised branchesof a scorched, stunted kadambu tree,and come away still hungry.(p 211)

The desert is not a landscape type natu-ral to Tamil Nadu. This is a temporary,seasonal landscape that occurs whenone of the other regions suffers fromextreme heat or drought. As a tinai, it isunique in that it does not seem to have afeature plant associated with it (the word“palai” has been variously translated asManilkara hexandra Dubard or Alsto-nia scholaris or sometimes simply asdesert plant). Instead, this region is char-

acterized by a lack of water: this is aplace “where no cloud drops its rain”.

The palai is portrayed as a lonely place,fraught with danger. The sun bears downincessantly, the land is parched, and thewinds are hot and drying. Water is in theform of muddied puddles and dried-uppools that look like termite holes. Baremountain tops shimmer in the scorch-ing sun. The trees are withered orstunted....that desertwhere even the tall bamboois parched and shriveledfor lack of water...(p 331)

Elephants strip off bark from trees in aneffort to find food. The land is homeonly to a few birds and armed robbers,waiting to ambush lonely travelers.

Any of the other four regions could bedescribed as palai: it is defined only bya lack of water. Palai can occur withinthe mountains:...his pathlies through mountain deserts,difficult to crosswhere a cruel wind blows,its searing gustsrattling the dry seedsin the ripened pods of the vagai trees(p 39)


...that waterless desert where in the last days of springthe tem and tumpi beetles suck on a single cluster ofblossom in the hot, upraised branches of a scorched,stunted kadambu tree, and come away still hungry



Or within forests:...through the parched forestwhere the tanks, once brimming,are all dried up,and where a vakai sapling’sfragrant blossom, with its long stalk,looks like the head crestof a graceful dark blue peacock,(p 347)

In this desiccated and almost lifeless land-scape, any sound can be striking: the callof a red-legged lizard, the lonely cry ofkites, the bursting of the fruits of a deserttree. Equally noticeable are small burstsof color that provide relief to one’s eyes,whether it is the jewel – like berries of theuka, or the flowers of the vagai.

Away he went across that wildernessof sun-scorched kalli busheswhere a neem tree’s shiny berrycaught in a parrot’s curving beaklooks just like a bright, goldenmedallion...(p 67)

BELOW | Palai


Marutam (Agricultural land)...The hill farmers have reaped theirbroad fieldsof small-eared milletand planted a second crop of avaraibeans.Already their fleshy stalks have put forthflowers,and the cold dew of winter lies upon theground.Yet still he has not come.(p 82)

The marutam is another region that canoccur within a woodland, hillside or sea-shore setting. Paddy fields are carvedinto hills, forest tracts cleared for culti-vation, and sugarcane crops grow onsandy shores.

...where hill paddy,planted on cloud-veiled slopes,is nurtured by mountain streams.(P 371)

Water takes the form of canals, bathingplaces and rivers, and the marutam tree(Lagerstroemia flos-reginae) afterwhich the region is named, appears tohave been often planted on the riverbanks.

Covered over with tiny cassia flowersthat look like white pepper,and the marutam trees’ faded pink blos-soms,the bathing places in his villagelook really pretty...(p 50)

Millet, paddy, avarai beans, sugarcane,sesame, mung and sweet potato are someof the crops mentioned.

Mullai (Woodlands)Alongside the stubble leftafter stags have nibbledat the bare stalks of the millet cropthat flourished under earlier rainsin fields newly prepared,fragrant jasmine blossomsare unfolding from the little budsthat softly enclose the mature flowers,looking like a wildcat’s grinning teeth.Evening, with its clouds of flying insects,is upon the woodlands, my friend,but see, he has not returned,he who left to seek his fortune.(p 220)

The mullai, usually portrayed in therainy season, is a landscape of renewal.In this sense, it is the antithesis/trans-formation of the palai. What was oncedesiccated and dull is now rejuvenatedand green. Water once again claims itsplace in the landscape.

In spirit, mullai could also be seen asthe yin to the kurinci’s yang. Althoughthe landscape is at a time of growth, it isthe quiet beauty of the woodlands that isportrayed. Water does not gush and roarlike the streams of the kurinci, but ap-pears calm and clear in woodland poolsand shallow streams.

A stag drinks from the clear poolswhich lie amongst the hard pebbles,returns to his cherished mate,and they prance with delightas the rainy season comesbringing cool showers...(p 65)

Unlike the energetic and animatedkurinci, the mullai, with its calm andserene undertones, talks of quiet hopeand grace.

Trees such as the kondrai, kaya, punku,venkai and kadambam are in their fullglory, bursting with flowers. Yet it is themullai or jasmine after which the regionis named, that is its crowning glory. Itsfragrant starry flowers “mirror thebeauty of the ruddy evening sky”, in-deed,...In this cold season of rainsthe jasmine buds have burst into flowerand with their floweringthe beauty of these broad woodlandshas become complete...(p 188)

Perhaps no other tinai is as defined byits plant as the mullai. Several kinds ofjasmine including Jasminum humile,Jasminum sambac and Jasminumofficinale grandiflorum form the under-growth.


FACING PAGE: TOP | MarutamFACING PAGE: BELOW | Mullai

the mullai, usually portrayed in the rainy season, isa landscape of renewal – and in this sense, it isthe antithesis of the palai


l a n d s c a p e i n i n d i a n l i t e r a t u r e |Pla

nts m

entio

ned i

n the

Kuru

ntog

ai

Mood Union

Plant Strobilanthes

Tamil Name Latin Name

Akil Aquilaria agollacha

Cembu Colocasia esculenta

Cholai Vazhai Musa paradisiaca

Curapunnai (or Valai) Ochrocarpus longifolius

Irri Ficus virens

Kantal Gloriosa superba

Kurinci Strobilanthes kunthiana

Kutalam Solanum trilobatum

Mamaram Mangifera indica

Maral Sansevieria zeylanica

Maricam/ milaku Piper nigrum

Munkil, Untul Bambusa arundinacea

Nelli Phyllanthus emblica

Nerunci Tribulus terrestris

Pala Artocarpus heterophyllus

Parii Gossypium herbaceum

Santanam Santalum album

Venkai Pterocarpus marsupium

Mood Separation


Aruga Cynodon dactylon

Iruppai Bassia longifolia/ Madhuca indica

Kalli Euphorbia tirucall?

Nelli Phyllanthus emblica

Palai Alstonia scholaris

Palai Manilkara hexandra Dubard

Uka Salvadora persica

Vagai Albizzia lebbeck

Vembu Azadirachta indica

Kurinci - Hillside

Palai - Arid Tracts/ Wilderness

Mood Anxious waiting, pining

Plant Water lily


Atumpu Ipomoea biloba

Eruvai Arundo donax

Kandal Rhizophora mucronata

Kavir Erythrina indica

Mamaram Mangifera indica

Naral Cassia sophera

Neytal Nymphaea lotus

Panai Borassus flabellifer

Pancay Cyperus rotundus tuberosus

Punnai Calophyllum inophyllum

Punku Pongamia glabra

Talai Pandanus oderatissimus

Mood Sulking

Plant Lagerstroemia


Ellu Sesamum indicum

Kanci Thespesia populnea

Karimpu Saccharum officinarum

Mangai Mangifera indica

Marutam Lagerstroemia flos-reginae

Nazhal Cassia sophera

Nel Oryza sativa

Payaru Vigna radiata

Valli Ipomoea batatas

Mood Patient waiting

Plant Jasmine


Arugu Cynodon dactylon

Avarai Dolchios lablab

Kondrai Cassia fistula

Kadamba Anthocephalus cadamba

Kaya Memecylon edule

Kuravam Webera corymbosa

Kuruntu Atalantia ceylanica

Mullai Jasminum sambac

Nerunci Tribulus terrestris

Punku Pongamia glabra

Talavam/Cem mullai Jasminum humile

Valli Convulvulus/ Ipomoea batatas

Vetci Ixora coccinea

Neytal - Seashore

Marutam - Agricultural land

Mullai - Forest and pasture



Our literary heritage offers us many win-dows to our natural heritage. We look backso that we can look forward in an informedway. The choice might be as simple as aninspired planting palette or as complete as(re)creating a design vocabulary. The intentis not to craft landscapes that are frozen intime; instead, the challenge is to create eco-logically viable landscapes with which weare also emotionally connected.

May the hot sunnot beat down,may there be the shade of trees,may the mountain pathbe deeply spread with sandand may a cool rain fallin the wilderness...(p 378)

The green creepers of the jasmineare drenched in cool raindropsand the air is filledwith the honeyed scentof its opening buds,and with that of the golden jasminewhose many flowerscover the undergrowth.this is not the real rain, for sure.If it were really winter,and this rain not out of season,wouldn’t our lover already be back?(p 382)

These five tinai provide us with glimpsesof a vernacular landscape as it existedalmost 2,000 years ago: a landscape thatis timeless, just like the emotions andexperiences portrayed. The poems of-fer not only actual descriptions, but hintat the significance of the everyday land-scape in the lives and minds of thepeople. How can we use these portray-als of seemingly ordinary landscapes,whether natural, naturalized or human-influenced, in informing our design pro-cess today? Will the neytal provide uswith inspiration as we undertake coastalrestoration projects, or the marutam inthe preservation of agricultural villages?Will we seek to design landscapes thathave the energy of the kurinci, or theserenity of the mullai? Or are we creat-ing the only landscape that is portrayedas truly fraught with danger, the palai?

Uma Sankar Sekar is a landscape architect based in Boston, Massachusetts, practicing in the area for over 15 years.

She is currently independently studying landscape imagery as it appears in ancient Indian literature. Uma can be

reached at [email protected]

Notes1. This article is based upon “Kuruntogai” translated and annotated by Robert Butler, 2010, privatelypublished.2. The illustrations are not historically accurate, nor meant to be taken literally. They are pictorialimpressions of verbal descriptions.

| All illustrations by the author

not to craft landscapes that are frozen in time;instead, to create ecologically viable landscapes

with which we are also emotionally connected

uma sankar sekar - crja

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