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Constitutional Provision

Constitutional provision or weaker sect ions

Contribution of Social Organizations

Criminal Tribes

Scheduled Castes and Tribal People

NPE 1992

Education of Women

Committee on Women’s Education (1958-59)

Education for Rural Population in India

Mean of Rural Education

PAPER-II



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INTRODUCTION

Education, which was monopolized by the socially privileged class of the society in the

ancient and medieval period and by economically strong sections of the society during the

British period, w as for the f irst time opened to all w ithout discriminat ion of caste reed, or

color w hen India got independence in 1947. But this w as not enough for educational

equality. A large section of Indian society was so poor that it could not avail the opportunity

because of the follow ing reasons:

• They w ere not motivated to receive education because of social factors.

• They could not af ford the cost of education because of their poverty.

• Their w ards w ere the earning members of the family even from their tender ages. Sending

them to school w as a sort of direct economic loss.

• Women and girls w ere socially conf ined w ithin the four walls of the family. They w ere

considered as private property of males of the society. Leaving them in the open either for

schooling or for any other purpose was thought as raid or usurping this property.

• Very few employ ment opportunities w ere available after education. So, poor people could

not take the risk of unemployment. Teaching of vocational skills w ithin the family w as a safe

procedure to make youth earning members of the family.

• Even primary schools were not there in villages. Children had to Walk miles to attend

schools. Only w ell of families could afford the cost of private schooling and conveyance.

• Constitutional Provis ion

Indian Constitut ion has made the follow ing provision for education and improvement of

scheduled caste and the tribal people:

• Clause 17– Through the clause 17, untouchability has been declared as a social crime.

The persons practicing it may be prosecuted.

• Clause 15 – The clause 15 gives freedom to the scheduled caste people to use w ells,

ponds hotels and river-ghats like people of other castes.



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• Clause 25 – According to clause 25, all the worship places of Hindus have been opened

for them as w ell.

• Clause 29 – The clause 29 gives equal right to admission in all schools and college

maintained by public funds.

• Clause 16– According to the clauses 16 and 335, reservation have been made in favor of

scheduled cast and scheduled tribes in all public services.

• CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISION FOR WEAKER SECTIONS

• National objectives declared in the preamble: India w as declared a sovereign, socialist,

secular democratic republic w hose objectives w ill be to provide equality, liberty, f raternity

and justice. It means that every citizen of the county irrespective of caste, creed or color w ill

have his say in the political, and social af fairs of the country. Equal opportunities w ill be

available to all of them in the matters of education and employment.

• Fundam ental rights: Right to equality, right to freedom and right to education upto class

VIII are three rights given to cit izens w hich are safeguarded by judiciary and nobody and not

even government can deny them of these rights.

Article 46: The state shall promote w ith special care the education and economic interest of

the people particularly, the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes and shall protect them

from social injustice and all forms of exploitations.

Article 15: Nothing in this article or in clause (2) of article 29 shall prevent the state form

making any special provisions and educationally backw ard classes of citizens or for

scheduled castes and scheduled tribes.

Article 15(3): Nothing in this article shall prevent the state from making any special

provision for women and children.

Article 16(4): State can make any special provision for SCs and STs and can provide

reservation to them in government jobs.

Article 330: Reservation provision is there or scheduled castes in public services.



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Article 15(1): No citizen shall be discriminated on the ground of caste, creed color or sex.

Thus w omen w ere for the first time given status equivalent to men.

Article 39. Men and w omen w ill be given equal rights by the state in getting means of

livelihood and equal pay for equal w ork formula w ill be followed. Thus pay for equal w ork

formula w ill be follow ed. Thus, discrimination against women were abolished in the matters

of employ ment and pay.

Article 51(a): It is the duty of every citizen to respect women and to remove every such

tradition w hich goes for dishonor of women.

• Reservation in privately m anaged educations inst itution Act 2005: At the order of the

government even private educational institutions w ere asked to give 12.5 % reservation of

admission seats for SCs. 7.5% for STs and 27% reservation of seats for OBCs. These

institutions went to the supreme court against this GO & got 100% relief and thus order of

reservation of seats for SCs & STs in engineering , medical or management colleges w as

abolished. At this move, Indian parliament brought a bill in the w inter session of parliament

in 2005 in order to provide reservation facilities of weaker sections of the society even in

private educational institutions. Finally, the bill was passed.

• Women Reservation Bill: Women reservation bill is also pending in parliament for the last

few years in order to give 33% separate reservation to w omen in education and

employ ment.

• Development Schemes for SCs and STs: Since socio educational problems of these

section of the society are deeply rooted in economic problems. Government has launched a

number of such schemes w hich can improve their economic conditions. Once economic

conditions are improved, social and educational conditions w ill automatically improve. Some

of these schemes and development programs are described below :

• Most of the Indian states are providing them books and stationery, f ree uniforms, schools

bags everything free of cost.

• Scheduled castes students have been exempted from paying and school or college even

then their tuition fee is paid by the state government.



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• Free coaching facilities for competit ive examinations have also been made available or

them by some states.

• Post metric scholarship scheme have been launched in many states to provide them

economic support for higher education.

• Dr. Ambedkar National Scholarship Scheme was started for talented students of SCs and

STs from 2002-03. The purpose of this scheme is to identify the talented student in

scheduled castes and tribes through national level test and to support them economically

for higher education and research.

• Sarva Siksha Abhiyan is another program started in the last decade for the children of SCs

and STs. The purpose of this program is to promote 100% enrolment of those students w ho

belong to SCs and STs in schools.

• 457,29 crore rupees w ere pent on 21 lac students belonging to scheduled castes in the

ninth f ive year plan for their higher education including professional and technical education.

• 118.10 crore rupees were spent for the construction of hostel for students (body and girls)

belonging to scheduled castes in the ninth plan.

• Special component plan: w as started in 2002-03 for uplif tment of scheduled castes people.

• All above facilities have also been made available for the children belonging to scheduled

tribes and tribes of Asam, Meghalya, Tripura and Mizoram and have been given preference

w ith some additional reservation facilit ies over others in the matters of education and

employ ment.

• Panchasheel principles were accepted in 1956 or the development for tribal communities.

• Establishment of special f inancial institutions for tribal like Tribal Cooperative Market ing

Development Mahasangh (1987) and National Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes

Finance and Development Corporation (1989).

• Establishment of separate ministry for tribes (1999).

• Development schemes and programs for w omen:

• Kanya Vidya Dan Yojna: This program w as started by UP Government in 2004 to

promote higher education among girls. Under this scheme a cash composite amount of Rs



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20000 rs given to all those girls who secure more than 60% marks at intermediate level. Nor

all girls living below poverty line are given this scholarship after [passing intermediate

whatsoever may be their percentage of marks in the exam.

• Hostel facilities: 102 hostels were constructed for 8000 w orking women in the ninth plan

in order to provide them cheap residence aw ay form home.

• Nation Women’s Fund: This fund w as created in 1993 in order to provide loans to w omen

at cheaper rate of interest. Once their education is improved they w ill go for the education of

their sons and daughters.

• National Women’s Commission: It was established in 1002 in order to protect the rights

of women in general.

• Kasturba Gandhi Education Plan: This program was started on August 15, 1997. The

purpose of this plan is to establish education institutions in those areas were women’s

literacy rate is very low.

• Balika Sam riddhi Yojna: This plan was started in 1997. Under this plan Rs. 500/ are

given to the family at the birth of a daughter. When that daughter goes to school, a

scholarship of Rs. 300/ per year is to be given to the child upto class VIII. This amount is

raised to Rs. 1000/per anum in class IXth and Xth. This plan is basically for girls who are

living below poverty line.

• Maulana Azad National Scholarship Scheme: Maulana Azad Education Foundat ion

New Delhi was established during VIIth f ive year plan for the promotion of Girl’s education in

the country. Foundation started Maulana Azad Nat ional scholarship scheme on August 1,

2003 The purpose of this scheme is to identify talented girls among minorities and to provide

them special scholarship facilitates for their education.

• Mid day Meal Scheme: Mid day Meal Scheme w as started in Primary Schools to provide

free lunch to school going children. This scheme w as started in 1995-96.

• Girls ’ Em powerment Scheme: The purpose of this scheme is to accelerate authority and

self know ledge among unmarried girls. Under this scheme, drop out girl living below poverty

line, are selected. These girls are put in aangan-w adi centers for six months where they get



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education and vocational training both, and become self dependent and empow ered before

marriage.

• Sarva siksha Abhiyan: This scheme w as stated just before tenth f ive year plan. The

purpose of this scheme is to provide primary education free of cost for children in the age

education free of cost for children in the age group of 6-14 years. This scheme also aims at

improving primary education through community participat ion in order to impart quality

education to children. Girls, and children belonging to SCs and STs have especially been

targeted under this scheme.

• NPE (New Education Policy) (1986) and Education for women’s Equality:

Education w ill be used as an agent to change the status of w omen. National Education

system w ill play a posit ive and interventional role in the empow erment of w omen. It w ill

establish new values in the society through redesigned curriculum, text books, the training

and orientation of teachers, decision makers and administrators and through the active

involvement of educational institutions.

Women’s studies w ill be promoted as a part of various academic courses and educational

institutions w ill be encouraged to take up active programs to further w omen’s development.

literacy among w omen w ill be removed by encouraging their enrolment in formal education

institutions and obstacles inhibiting their access to elementary education w ill also be

removed by providing special support services and effective monitoring.

Major emphasis w ill be laid on w omen’s participation in vocation, technical and professional

education at dif ferent levels. They should not be disseminated on the ground of sex in these

institutions at any step.

Women’s participation in non tradit ional occupations and new emerging technologies w ill be

promoted.

• NPE and Education of SCs and STs: NPE’s view points regarding the educat ion of SCs

and STs are given below -

• Incent ives should be given to poor families to send their children to schools regularly till

they reach the age of 14.



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• Parametr ic scholarship schemes should be introduced for children of families engaged in

occupation such as scavenging, f laying etc. Such scheme should start f rom class f irst. All

children of such families regardless of income w ill be covered by this scheme and t ime

bound target w ill be f ixed for the purpose.

• Constant micro planning, monitoring and verification should be ensured of that enrolment,

retention and successful completion of courses by these students do not fall at any stage

and provision of remedial courses should also be made to improve their prospects for further

education and employ ment.

• Recruitment of teachers from these communit ies should be made on priority basis.

• Hostel facility should be provided to SC and ST students at d istrict headquarters in a

phased manner.

• Schools and adult education centers should be opened in such places w here these

students can easily avail the facilities.

• Constant innovation in methodologies and approaches are also necessary to increase the

participation of SC and ST students in the educat ion process.

• Contribution of Social Organizations

Many social organization are running education institutions for education of scheduled caste

and tribal people. These have instituted scholarships and freeships and tribal people to

receive education. Sometimes adequate f inancial assistance is also arranged for books,

clothing, lodging and boarding. Fif teen crores of rupees in the First Five Year Plan, 41

corers in the Second Plan, 53 crores in the Third Plan.

• The Dhebar Comm ission of 1960-61

The Government appointed a Commission under the Chairmanship of Dhebar in 1960-61 for

f inding out the condit ion and problems of the f inding out the condit ion and problems of the

scheduled caste and tribal people. The Commission observed that adequate arrangements

have not yet been made for the education of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. It

requested the Central Education Ministry to study this problem for doing the needful tow ards

education of these people. It considered residential Ashram Schools useful for children of



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scheduled and tribal people, because they serve as centers of social and cultural education

of these children.

• Recommendations

The Commission made the follow ing recommendations for the expansion of primary

education–

• The children of scheduled and tribal people should be trained in some handicraft or

practical skills.

• The teacher appointed to teach scheduled caste and tribal children should be given special

allowances and residential facilit ies.

• Children in schools for scheduled caste and tribal should be given food, clothing books and

stationary free.

• Teachers should be appointed for teaching scheduled caste and tribal children should be

trained in training colleges established in their area in order that during the training period,

they may get acquainted w ith the life style of the scheduled and tribal people.

• Teachers appointed to teach scheduled and tribal children should be fully conversant w ith

their culture.

• Primary education for scheduled and tribal children should be given through their mother-

tongue. Suitable books should be published for this purpose in mother-tongue.

• the Kothari Commission, 1964-66

In addition to the recommendation of the Dhebar Commission, the Kothar i Commission has

given w elcoming suggestions for various level of education of scheduled caste and tribal

children.

• Prim ary Education– Primary Educat ion for scheduled case and tribal children should be

better organized. More schools should be opened in the densely populated areas of

scheduled an tribal people.

• Secondary Education– More secondary schools should be opened w ith facilities for

hostels and stipends.



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• Higher Education– More scholarships should be instituted for higher education. Those

engaged in the service for scheduled caste and tribal people should be assigned a separate

caste. In the beginning, non-scheduled and non-tribal people may be appointed in th is

cadre, but later on suitable persons from the scheduled and tribal groups alone should be

appointed in th is cadre.

The conditions of the scheduled caste and tribal people w ill be improved a great deal, if the

recommendation of the Dhebar and Kothari Commissions are implemented.

• Criminal Tribes

The criminal tribes include those who, by way of habit, are generally engaged in such crimes

as committ ing theft nights, loot ing passersby and stealing away domestic animals. People

of this tribe generally roam about from one place to another, as they have no permanent

abode anywhere. They are landless and houseless.

• Before Independence- Prior to 1947 some Chr istian missionaries tried to educate and

uplif t the standard of living or criminal tribes. Through the Criminal Tribes Act passed by the

Government, a right has been obtained to inhabitate these people at some particular places.

Some of the people of these tribes have been encouraged to settle dow n at some places.

Some boarding schools have been opened for education of their children.. The Government

has given financial assistance to missionaries and other organization for looking after

welfare of these people.

• After Independence– After independence the Criminal Tribe Act was cancelled, as it w as

not considered proper to call any tribe criminal. Resident ial schools w ere opened for

education of children of these tribes. An attempt w as made to employ adults from this group

at suitable places. The Government made some provisions for education of the tribes in the

various Five Year Plans.

• The Nom ads

The nomads do not have any specif ic place to stay at. In search of daily sustenance, they

remain w andering form one place to another throughout the whole country. They carry their



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children and the ent ire family w ith them. At times they may seek shelters beneath bridges,

tunnels and footpaths of boards.

• Measures of Reform

Under the circumstances, it is extremely dif ficult to educate them and their children.

However., follow ing measures have been suggested for their reforms:

• They should be encouraged to settle dow n at some specif ic place donated to them free of

charge. In the State of Rajasthan some nomad people w ere given places to settle dow n at.

But they could not stay there and moved out for other places.

• Some provisions should be made for mobile schools for nomads, children. Theses schools

should follow their movement from time to t ime. Thus their children w ill be gett ing education

w ithout any break. This experiment has succeeded w ithout any break. This experiment has

succeeded in the State of Jammu and Kashmir. There the nomads people reside at hill-tops

during summer and they descend dow n in valleys during w inter. Mobile schools have been

organized for education of their children. Upon 1961 there were 53 such schools in this

state. Some persons of the same nomad group w ere appointed as teachers for their

children. This arrangement could be accepted as a temporary measure only. The real

solution requires gett ing them settled ow n at some specif ic places.

• Scheduled Castes and Tribal People

The follow ing three types of programs have been organized by the Government for the

scheduled and tribal people–

• The w ork directly done by the Central Government.

• The w ork done under the supervision of the Government.

• The w ork done by the various states in the country.

• The work directly done by the Central Government– The Central Government grants

reservations in government services in favour of scheduled and tribal people. But many

reserved posts are not f illed in by the scheduled and tribal people, because suitable hands

from them are no available. For improving this situation, the Government has opened

Coaching-cum-Guidance Centers at Madras, Jabalpur and Kanpur in order to trans mit



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information regarding employment scheduled caste and tribal people for specif ic jobs. Since

1953 more than tw o dozen scholarships have been instituted for sending persons of

scheduled and tribe groups of foreign countries for obtaining education . per cent of seats in

education institutions have been reserved for scheduled caste and tribal.

• The Work done under the Supervis ion of the Central Government–

• After passing high school examination, the schedule caste an tribal student are granted

scholarships or continuing the further education. These days about three lac scholarships

are aw arded to students of scheduled castes and about a lac scholarship to the students

belonging to the tr ibal classes.

• There are about 18 centers all over the country for coaching persons for scheduled and

tribal classes for I.A.S. and I.P.S. services.

• The Central Government gives grants to the various State Governments for instituting

scholarships for scheduled caste and tribal students.

• More than tw enty centers have been established throughout the country for doing research

on scheduled caste and tribal people.

• A Central Research Advisory Council has been established for correlating the activities of

these research centers spread over the country.

• The Central Government gives various kind of f inancial assistance for rehabilitation and

education of scheduled caste and tribal people. Through this assistance, provisions have

been made for meals, hostels, residential schools, examination fees, students from these

groups.

• The Work done by the various States–

The f inancial assistance received from the Central Government by the various State

Governments are treated as loans and block grants. Through this assistance the State

Government run the follow ing types of programs of scheduled castes and tribal people–

• To open Ashram Schools.



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• To organize teaching materia ls.

• To establish schools and hostels.

• To give stipends for primary and junior high schools education.

• To arrange for mid-day meals.

• To exempt from tuition and examinat ion fees.

• Suggestion for Improvement

The w elfare of the scheduled caste and tribal people cannot be guaranteed through

Government help alone. The co-operation of the society is very necessary for it, as their

problem is very necessary for it, as their problem is a social problem w hich concerns the

whole country. Their condition cannot be improved only through Government Laws and

Regulation. In various States in our country, we f ind various types of scheduled caste and

tribal people. A general consciousness has to be generated throughout the country for the

reforms of people of this group. It has been suggested to introduce compulsory education

for improving the condit ion of these people.

The follow ing programs may be suggested for education of scheduled caste and tribal

people–

• To make survey of places for opening schools for children.

• To open resident ial schools for children to these people.

• To organize suitable teaching materia ls in all the schools meant for scheduled caste and

triable children.

• To provide free meals, books stationery and other facilit ies to the children of these people.

• To prepare favorable atmosphere for compulsory education of their children.

• NPE 1992

The National Policy on Education (NPE 1986 as updated in 1992 lays special emphasis on

removal of disparities and equalization of educational opportunities attending to the specif ic

need of those who have been denied equality particularly scheduled castes, scheduled

tribes and educationally backw ard minorities. Some of the important provision are as

follows:



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• Norms of opening of primary school have been relaxed to have a primary school w ithin one

kilometre walking distance from habilitations having a populat ion of 200 persons instead of

the earlier criteria of 300 persons;

• Abolition of tuit ion fee in all states in government schools at least up to Upper Pr imary

level. Most of the states have abolished tuition fee for SC/ST students up to senior

secondary level and provide incentives like textbooks, uniforms, schools bags, etc. to these

students:

• The major programs education like Universalization of Elementary Education Operat ion

Blackboard, Non-Formal Education, District Primary Education Program, etc., accord priority

to areas of concentration of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes.

• Reservation of seats for SCs and STs in Central government institut ion of higher

education including IITs, Regional Engineering Colleges, Central Universities, Kendriya

Vidyalayas and Navodya Vidyalayas, etc. Reservation in universities and colleges and

technical institutions is a part from relaxation in the minimum qualifying cut off stages for

admission. The UGC has established SC/ST Cells in 98 universities including Central

Universities to ensure proper implementation of the reservation policy.

• Remedial and special coaching is provided for SC and ST students. in order to improve the

academic skills and linguistic prof iciency of students in various subjects and raising their

level of comprehension. IITs have a scheme under which SC/ST students who marginally

fail in the entrance examinat ion are provided one year training and then admitted to the First

Year of B.Tech course;

• Out of 43,000 scholarships, 13,000 scholarships provided to SC/ST students under the

scheme of Nat ional Scholarship at the secondary stage for talented children from rural

secondary stages.

• Junior Research Fellowship (So annually), scholarships, (25), Research Associateship

(20), and Fellowships, (50) are awarded by UGC exclusively to SC/ST students:

• The Central Institute of Indian Languages (CIIL) Mysore, prepares textbooks, pr imers,

grammar books, dictionaries, bilingual text-books facilitation translat ion from regional

languages, etc., into tribal languages.



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• The NCERT has prepared/developed/ published 10 textbooks in tribal dialects and

prepared teaching learning material in 15 tribal dialects.

• Education of Women

Historical Review

In India w oman education w as encouraged in ancient days. One f inds mention of numerous

learned w omen in the Vedic and Upanishadic periods w ho were well versed in various

disciplines of study. But situation changed during the Muslim period of India. The w omen

were sent behind Purdah under the Muslim inf luence and the unsafe condition prevailing in

their society. But by the middle of the nineteenth century, some progressive Indians and

Englishmen started w orking for their reaw akening. This encouraged the development of

their education. According to the recommendation of the Education Commission of 1882,

some schools for women were opened w ith government grants. Certain private organization

also came forw ard and opened many schools and colleges for girls. By the beginning of the

tw entieth century, there were about 6107 schools for girls and there w ere 4, 47, 470 gir ls

studying in them. Out of these 6107 schools, twelve w ere colleges, 4567 secondary schools

and the rest w ere primary schools. In 1904 Mrs. Annie Besent took a historical step for

women education by starting the Central Hindu Girls Schools in Varanasi. In 1916 Lady

Hardinge Medical College w as established in Delhi. Henceforward many new schools and

colleges for girls w ere instituted as encouragement to poorer ones. Arrangements for

transport many schools for girls. Inspectress of schools were also appointed by the

government for looking after the new ly opened schools for girls.

After the First World War was over in 1918, great ef forts w ere made for expansion of w omen

education. Mahatma Gandhi w as the leader of this expansion. With him there w ere many

top leaders and ladies of the country. Their ef forts bore fruits and by 1947 there were 31,

14,860 girls studying in schools. Out of this number 40,843 w ere in vocational schools. Thus

by 1947, the progress in women education w as three times.

After Independence the government considered its sacred duty to expand w omen education

its sacred duty to expand women education and many voluntary organization also came

forward to work for expansion of the same. In various Five-Year. Plans Separate funds have



Page 16

been allocated for women education. An attempt has also been made to introduce changes

in the curriculum at all the levels of education corresponding the special interests and life-

duties of girls.

• Aims of Women Education

While good progress has been made in the sphere of women education but this progress is

not very heartening keeping in view the high number of women in the country. How ever,

during the last f if ty years India has produced great women in dif ferent walks of life, science,

literatures, various disciplines of studies in the universities an in political life of the country.

These great w omen are comparable to any w omen in any part of the world in their specif ic

spheres concerned. Various Committees concerned. Various Committees and Commissions

on education appointed by the government have emphasized the unique need and nature of

women education unique need and nature of w omen education.

• The Government Efforts

General Structure- In India the Central Government has been constitutionally made

responsible for women education. But since women education is considered as a part of

general education, it is regarded as the responsibility of the State. It is the State government

that does everything for expansion of w omen education. The administration of w omen

education is just like that of education for boys.

There are regional inspectresses of schools and other government off icers for the inspection

and supervision of girls’ schools. The Director of Education is the chief of women education

as he is for body education. In 1959 a National Council for Women Education w as

established for looking after the education of girls. It recommended that the w omen

education should be treated separate unit of education and the State Governments should

establish Advisory Council for Women Education and there should be a joint Director for

women education.

Higher Education for Women– In view of the great zeal shown by girls for higher

education, it is hoped that their number in universities and degree colleges w ill ever be on

increase. Some necessary changes are also being introduced in the curriculum in order to



Page 17

suit their special interests and apt itudes. The girls are also attracted tow ards various

professional courses, such as medical, engineering, teaching and nursing, etc.

• Secondary Education for Girls– At the secondary stage the growth of women education

has been more satisfactory. As the time passed, the old conservative traditions w ere relaxed

and the girls w ere encouraged to get education w hich they desire. The curriculum has also

been suitably modif ied the secondary stage in order to suit their special requirements and

tastes.

• Prim ary Education for Girls– Primary education is the base for the development of

secondary and higher education. Its development ultimately affects the development of

onw ard stages of education. However, it has been estimated that only 30 per cent of the

girls of primary school reach the f if th class i.e., they drop out earlier for one reason or the

other. The government has special responsibility for enforcing compulsory education for

girls up to the secondary stage.

• Problems of Women Education

Indian w omen are as capable as any w omen in any party of the world. But unlike women in

many Western countries, Indian women are denied equal opportunit ies for w orking w ith men

in many equal opportunities and for working w ith men in many spheres of life.

Constitut ionally, Indian women practically peaking, they are kept much behind men in

various life activities. Hence, the women should be given equal rights w ith men every w here

according to their special interests and legitimate demands. While framing the courses of

study for girls, special care should be taken of their unique life responsibilities and domestic

demand.

Co-education should be permitted.

But for secondary education, separate schools should be opened in various parts of the

country as many parents do not like co-education at the secondary stage. So w omen should

be specially trained in various professional courses. India requires a large number of w omen

teachers for primary and secondary schools. Hence, more training colleges should be

opened for training of women teachers and more seats or women should be reserved in



Page 18

training colleges. Similarly, more seats should be reserved for women candidates in medical

engineering and other professional colleges. This w ill facilitate the growth of w omen

education in various areas. If trained w omen w orkers or lady doctors ad teachers are sent to

work in rural areas, they should be given higher salaries and immediate facilities of

residence and other minimum amenities for obvious reasons.

• Comm ittee on Women’s Education (1958-59)

Introduction

At its meeting held in July, 1957, Education panel of the Planning Commission

recommended that, “A suitable Committee should be a appointed to go into he various

aspects of the question relating to the nature of education for girls at the elementary,

secondary and adult stages and to examine w hether he present system w as helping them to

lead a happier and more useful life.” This w as placed before the Conference of the State

Education Ministers (held in September, 1957). They agreed that a special committee

should be appointed to examine the w hole question of women’s education. Accordingly, the

Nat ional the Government of India in the Ministry of Education, w ith Smt. Durgabai

Deshmukh. Chairman, Central Social Welfare Board as Chair person.

• Major Recommendations

Special recommendation needing top priority

Determ ined Efforts– The education of women should be regarded as major and a special

problem in education for a good many years to come and a bold and determined efforts

should be made to face its diff iculties and magnitude and to close the existing gap betw een

the education of men and w omen in a short a time as possible. The funds required for the

purpose should be considered to be the f irst charge on the sums set aside for the

development of education.

Nation Council– Steps should be taken to constitute as early as possible a Nation Council

for the education of girls and w omen.



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Rapid Development– The problem of the education of women is so vital and of such

national signif icance that it is absolutely necessary for the Centre to assume more

responsibility for its rapid development.

• Education for Rural Population in India

If we objectively and dispassionately analyze the causes of the various problems

encountered in rural India, w e shall f ind that the most basic cause of misery, squalor and

backw ardness of an average India villager is his lack of education. Being illiterate, villager,

are innocent of modern scientif ic developments and of new and w ider horizons of

knowledge Furthermore, being illiterate, orthodox and superstitious an consequently, hostile

and unresponsive to new know ledge and suggestion.

They are so inured to their traditional ways that they are afraid of making any changes in

them. One account of illiteracy, modern farming and diversif ied cottage industries cannot

take roots and f lourish in villages. Due to superstitions, villages are averse to changing their

unhygienic surroundings and are continuously subject to disease and epidemic. They are

unable to maintain even minimum standards of health and hygiene, they take squalor and

f ilth or granted. Being illiterate, they can be easily duped. That is w hy the majority of

villagers are subject to merciless exploitation by moneylenders and law yers. It is precisely

due to their illiteracy and consequent narrowness of their attitude that they of easily fall into

litigation and internecine quarrels. Given a broad and generous out look, 90% of their

quarrels would be automatically resolve and by their united energy the would achieve

prosperity in no time. As village women folk are illiterate, orthodox and tradition-bound, they

do not bring up their children in a proper w ay. As a result of this improper care and rearing

of children, their personalities do not f lower and become stunted Illiteracy is a vicious circle.

It breeds and poverty because illiterate persons have fewer opportunities of employ ment

and poverty makes for illiteracy because the poor have neither w here w ithal to educate

themselves.

• Rural Education in Pre-British Days

Before the advent of British , the condition of education in India w as not good. On account of

decline in pow ers of Hindu Rajas and Mughal Kings, the governmental a id to education



Page 20

institutions has stopped. In villages w e had tw o types of education institutions. One types

was run by Hindus and was called Pathshala; and the second types w as run by Moslems

and was know n as Maktaba. Not every village had provision of education. In several villages

there used to be a single Pathshala or Maktab and students from far off distances used to

come to them. The majority of people, how ever, were indif ferent to education. There w ere

no separate institutions for professional education and training. Accordingly, professional or

occupational training and education w as imparted by means of apprenticeship, that is a child

or man learned a profession by actually entering it, and by receiving guidance from ustads

or masters who w ere actually engaged in the profession. While actually doing things, they

learned a lot by mere imitation and complicated matters w ere explained to them. Thus they

became perfect in profession or trade by the time of becoming adults. The social education

was imparted exclusively in the family. In joint families elders use to instruct young ones in

morals and conduct. Among pr imit ives dormitories used to be the places of education and

training. Among primit ives dormitories used to be the places of education and training. The

religious educat ion w as imparted by Priests, Maulvis, Sadhus, Fakirs and professional story-

tellers. Ramayan, a Hindu epic based on the life of Lord Rama, his consort Sita and demon

Ravana, w as a primary source of moral and religious education.

• Rural Education in British Period

Though the rule of Britishers brought many changes in India, and some of these were

salutary, there w as no signif icant improvement in the condit ion of rural education. In urban

centres, Britishers set up educational institutions w ith a view to turning out cheap clerks. In

educating Indians Britishers had no interest in the development of the personality of the

educated; development of the personality of the educated; heir primary interest w as to

create subordinate and junior off icials and administrators. Under these circumstances,

neglect of rural education w as natural. There were no provisions to given aid on behalf of

government to education institutions in villages.

Generally, whatever education institutions had existed in pre-British days it languished and

became extinct in due course. The fundamental principles, upon w hich education in cities

was based, w ere foreign and not indigenous.



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• Rural Education in Modern India

It is now generally recognized that there are basic differences in local rural and urban

conditions and, therefore, it is not advisable to a adopt a single pattern of education for

villages and tow n. The urban education is intellect or iented and does not lay adequate

emphasis on other factors of personality. In rural education mere training and gymnastic of

intellect w ould no do; the rural educat ion must also aim at, besides intellectual ref inement,

physical emotional and moral developments of man. The Constitut ion of India declares our

county to be based on the universal principles of equality, f reedom and fraternity. In order to

attain such high aim, w e need to overhaul the w hole Indian society.

This is so because the integral development in villages is not possible w ithout general co-

operation and the spirit of give and take. With this aims numerous primary and middle

schools have been started in villages. In primary schools education is given upto class IVth

or Vth. In Middle or Junior Schools education upto V th. In Middle or Junior Schools

education Schools there is provision for education upto High Schools. Besides, many basic

schools have been started in villages under inspiration from education reforms launched by

Mahatma Gandhi, the father of nation.

• Mean of Rural Education

Besides schools and educational institut ions, there are certain other means of rural

education:

The include:

• Libraries,

• Reading Rooms,

• Radio,

• Movies,

• Mobile Vans,

• Exhibition,

• Museums, and

• Play grounds or Entertainment Centers.



Page 22

However, rural education should be integral. Under the follow ing heads w e can study and

discuss the means of rural education.

Libraries – It is essential for the adequate spread and disseminat ion of learning the there

should be good libraries in villages. By reading books of their ow n choice, villagers learn

and enjoy simultaneously. A w ide choice of books is bound to be attractive and it i possible

to give everyone a book of his choice of subject matter or get up. Some people may feel like

reading a book on account of its beautiful photos or something of practical interest in it. As it

i not feasible to provide every village w ith a good library, mobile libraries consists of motor

driven vans stocked w ith books and maintaining a record register show ing issue and return

of books.

The selection of books for village libraries should be made w ith due direction. Besides books

for entertainment and children books on culture, economics, literature, religion and

philosophy must be given due share. That is, the stock of f iction and light reading should not

be more than 25% of the total stock.

Reading Rooms– More important than libraries is the provision of reading rooms in villages.

In the w orld of today w hen things happen fast an the impact of tense happenings is far and

w ide and hardly any body hold know what is happening around. For this purpose it is

essential that there should be centers in villages w here newspapers an magazines are

available freely for study. The provision of reading rooms and study centers, where

new spapers and periodic literature is available, w ill go a long w as in imparting proper

education to villagers.

Radio– Radio or w ireless is also an eminent means of education. Now almost w hole of India

is covered w ith radio net work and practically all panchayati centers and equipped w ith a

radio. Now , or course, radio is being gradually replaced by television. Television has the

duly benef it, that is, it is an audio-visual source of know ledge and education.

Movies– The picture and movies have tremendous impact on the minds of villagers. The

visual impression is, of course, deeper than auditory. In order to acquaint villagers about

developments in various parts in India; in order to educate villagers in matters of hygiene

and physiology; in order to matters of hygiene an physiology; in order to educate them about



Page 23

other cultures and in order to teach them w ithout tears movies have proved to be ideal.

However, there is no adequate provision for show ing movies in most of the villages and this

all important source of education and entertainment is seriously neglected.

Mobile Vans -Mobile vans are an important means of rural education. Mobile vans contain

books, photographic exhibits, musical records, tapes of important speeches and lout-

speakers. These vans visit one village after another and try to attract attention of people to

important thing by providing them w ith entertainment. Such Vans, on account of variety of

attractive material in them, can be highly fertile source of rural education; but unfortunately,

the number of such vehicles is very limited in India.

Exculpations– For technical and professional education, arrangement of exhibitions is

required in w hich latest techniques can be actually demonstrated by putt ing together all

necessary materials. Such exhibitions draw big crow d form far and w ide; people from distant

places come to visit these exhibitions. This is so because, by seeing actual exhibit ions of

new techniques and methods, they can adapt them to their professional and make practical

gain.



Page 1

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SAMPLE THEORY

Types of Curriculum

Elements/Components of the Curriculum

Models of Curriculum Development

Curriculum Approaches

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Development Foundation Curriculum

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Curriculum development

Meaning and Principles of Curriculum Construction

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PAPER-III



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DEVELOPMENT FOUNDATION CURRICULUM

Definition of Curriculum

The Term “Curriculum” has various interpretations formulated by experts in the f ield of

curriculum development since the past until today. These interpretations dif fer f rom one

another, in accordance w ith the core reemphasis and views from the experts concerned.

Discuss the term comes from the Lat in curriculum, namely “Curricula”, meaning the distance

that must be followed by a runner. Curriculum is a set of plans and setting of objectives,

content and teaching materia ls and methods used to guide the implementation of

instructional activities to achieve certain educational goals. Curriculums is the core of

education and have an impact on all educational activities. Given the importance of

curriculum in education and human life, then the curriculum can not be done arbitrarily.

Preparat ion of the curriculum requires strong foundations, w hich are based on the results of

deep thinking and research. The curriculum is structured to achieve national education goals

w ith the stage of development of learners and conformance w ith the environment, national

development needs, development of science and technology and the arts, according to the

types and levels of each educational unit.

Curriculum Development based on the follow ing factors:

1. The Objective of National Education Philosophy and serve as a basis for formulat ing

institutional objectives that in turn become the basis in formulating curriculum objectives, is a

unit of education.

2. Social Culture and Religion prevailing in our society.

3. The Development of Students, w hich refers to characteristics of the development of

learners.

4. Environmental circumstances, which in a broad sense includes Humane Environment

(interpersonal), Environmental Science and Technology Culture, including the (cultural), and

the Environment (bioekologi), and the Natural Environment (geoekologis).



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5. Development Needs, w hich include the needs of development in the economic, welfare,

legal, defense, and so forth.

6. Developments in Science and Technology in accordance w ith value systems and cultural

nation and humanity.

Sixth factor-crochet hooks to each other w ith each other. Philosophy and educational goals.

Educational philosophy contains the values or ideals of society. Educational philosophy

became the basis for designing educational objectives, principles of learning, and computer

learning experiences that are educational. Philosophy of education is inf luenced by tw o

main points, namely

(1) Ideals of community, and (2) Needs of the students w ho live in the community. The

values of educational philosophy should be implemented in everyday behavior. This

shows the importance of philosophy of educations the foundation for the development of

curriculum

CURRICULUM FOUNDATION

Nana Syaodih Sukmadinata (1997) suggested four main runw ay in curriculum

development, namely (1) Philosophical, (2) Psychological, (3) Socio-Cultural, and (4)

Science and Technology.

1. Philosophical Foundation

Philosophy plays an important role in the development curriculum. Just as in the Philosophy

of Education, w e are introduced to various schools of philosophy, such as: Perenialis me,

Essentia lis m, Existentia lis m, Progressivism, and Reconstructionis m. In curriculum

development w as always grounded in the f low - the f low of a certain philosophy, so that w ill

color to concept and implementat ion of a curriculum that is developed. By referring to

thoughts Ella Yulaelaw ati (2003), below -described on the content of the respective schools

of philosophy, related to curriculum development.



Page 4

a. Perenialisme more emphasis on immortality, ideals, truth and beauty of cultural heritage and

social impact of certain. Know ledge is considered more important and less attention to their

daily activities.

b. Essensialisme stressed the importance of cultural inheritance and gif t of know ledge and

skills so that learners can become a useful member of society.

c. Existent ialism emphasizes the individual as a source of know ledge about life and meaning.

To memahamu life one must understand himself.

d. Progresivis me emphasizes the importance of serving the individual dif ferences, learner-

centered, experiential learning and process variations. Progresivisme a basis for studying

the development of active learners.

e. Rekonstruktivis me is a further elaboration of progresivisme f low. In rekonstruksivis me, future

of human civilization is emphasized.

2 Psychological Foundation

Nana Syaodih Sukmadinata (1997) suggested that there are at least two areas of

psychology that underlies the development of curriculum that is :

(1) Psychology of Development and (2) Psychology of Learning.

Developmental Psychology is the study of individual behavior w ith respect to its

development. Still regarding the psychological foundation, Ella Yulaelaw ati presents

psychological theories that underlie Competency-Based Curriculum. Cit ing thought Spencer,

Ella Yulaelaw ati competence suggested the notion of competence is “a fundamental

characteristic of someone w ho is a causal relationship w ith the reference criteria and

effective or the best performance in a job at a situation.”Furthermore, also raised about f ive

types of competence, namely:

a. Motifs; something that one has to th ink consistently or desire to perform an action;

b. Congenital; namely f isisk characteristics that consistently respond to various situations or

information;

c. Self concept; i.e. behavior, value or image of a person;

d. Knowledge; namely a person has specif ic information;



Page 5

e. Skills; the ability to do the job physically and mentally.

The f if th competency has practical implications for human resource planning or education.

Skills and know ledge tend to be more visible on the surface characteristics of a person,

while the concept of self , an innate and hidden motives more and more deeply, and is

central to one’s personality. Surface competence (know ledge and skills) are more easily

developed training is appropriate to ensure these capabilities.

Socio-Cultural Foundation

The Curriculum can be view ed as a design education. As a design, curriculum

implementation and determine educational outcomes. We understood that education is an

effort to prepare students to enter publickelingkungan. Education is not just for education

alone, but it gives stock of know ledge, skills and values to live, w ork and achieve

further development in the community. Each community-each has its own culture that

govern social life patterns and the pattern of relationships between members of the

community. One important aspect in the socio-cultural system is the order of the values that

govern how berkehidupan and its citizens behave. can be derived from relig ious, cultural,

polit ical or other aspects of life. Thus, the curriculum should be developed

mempertimbankan, respond to and based on socio-cultural development in a society,

whether in the context of local, national and global.

The Foundation of Science and Technology

At First, Science and Technology of Human Beings is still relatively simple, but since the

Middle Ages the strong growth. Several discoveries of new theories continue until now and

certainly w ill continue to progressively expand in the future. Human mind has been able to

reach those things which previously was impossible. In ancient t imes, maybe people w ould

consider impossible if humans can set foot on the Moon, but thanks to advances in the f ield

of Science and Technology in the mid-20th century, the aircraft successfully landed on the

Moon Apollo and Neil Armstrong w as the f irst person to set foot on the Moon. Rapid

progress of the w orld in the f ield of information and technology in the last two decades has



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an effect on human civilizat ion beyond the reach of human thought previously. This

inf luence is seen in the shif ting social order, economy and politics that require a new

balance betw een the values, thoughts and ways of life that applies to local and global

context.

In addition, current know ledge in this century required a knowledge society through lifelong

learning and high quality standards. The nature of know ledge and skills that must be

controlled society is very diverse and sophisticated, so we need a curriculum that is

accompanied by meta-cognitive ability and competence to think and learn how to learn

(learning to learn) to access, select and assess the know ledge, as well as an ambiguous

situation and menngatasi adaptable to any uncertainty. Developments in the field of Science

and Technology, particularly in the areas of transportation and communication have been

able to change the order of human life. Therefore, the curriculum should be able to

accommodate and ant icipate the speed of developments in science and technology for

human w elfare and survival.

Meaning and Principles of Curriculum Construction

Introduction:

Curriculum is an important element of education. Aims of education are ref lected in the

curriculum. In other w ords, the curriculum is determined by the aims of life and society. Aims

of life and society are subject to constant change.

Hence, the aims of education are also subject to change and dynamic. The aims of

education are attained by the school programmes, concerning know ledge, experiences,

activities, skills and values. The dif ferent school programmes are jointly know n as

Curriculum.

Meaning of Curriculum :

The term curriculum has been der ived from a Latin word ‘Currere’ w hich means a ‘race

course’ or a runw ay on which one runs to reach a goal. Accordingly, a curriculum is the

instructional and the educat ive programme by follow ing w hich the pupils achieve their goals,



Page 7

ideals and aspirations of life. It is curriculum through w hich the general aims of a school

education receive concrete expression.

Principle of Curriculum Construction:

The content of curriculum is determined on the basis of some academic principles which are

stated below:

(1) Aims of Education and Objectivity:

Life is complex. A Curriculum should ref lect the complexit ies of life. In other words, in

farming the curriculum one should take into consideration the aims and objectives of

education.

(2) Child-Centric Principle:

The curriculum should be framed according to the actual needs, interests and capacities of

the child. That means a curriculum must be child-centric as modern education is child-

centered.

(3) Principles of Civic and Social Needs:

Man is a social being. He lives in the society. The child develops in the society. Modern

education aims at both developments of the individuality of the child as well as the

development of the society.

(4) Principle of Conservation:

Man has conserved experiences very carefully for better adaptability. Education is regarded

as a means of deserving the cultural heritage of humanity. The school serves tw o-fold

functions in this regard- preservation of the past experiences and transmission of

experiences.

(5) Principles of Creativeness:

Education not only conserves that past experiences of humanity but also helps an individual

to develop his innate potentia lities.

(6) Principle of Forw ard-looking:

The aim of life-centered education is not limited to the present life-situations in the family

and society. Hence, education must prepare the child of shouldering future responsibilities.



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So in farming the curriculum w e must take into consideration the future needs of the child as

well as the needs of the society.

(7) Principle of Preparation for Living:

The children should know the various activities of the environment around them and how

these activities are enabling people to meet their basic needs of food, shelter, clothing,

recreation, health and education.

(8) Principle of Integration and Correlation:

Subjects should be arranged Logically and Psychologically in accordance w ith the child’s

developing interests.

(9) Principle of learning Ability:

Every item should be learnt. An item should not only be learnable, it should also have utility.

(10) Principle of Individual Difference:

The curriculum should be framed in such a w ay that every individual can have opportunity

for self-expression and development. The curriculum should be based on the psychology of

individual difference, which can meet the complexities of modern democratic society.

(11) Principle of Social Relevancy and Utility:

Subjects should not be determined on the basis of their disciplinary value but on the basis of

their intrinsic value, social re levancy and utility.

(12) Principle for Utilization of Leisure:

Variety of subjects such as games and sports, f ine arts, subjects of aesthetic value are to be

introduced in the school programme to utilize leisure.

(13) Principle of Variety and Flexibility:

The curriculum should include such activities and experiences, which may facilitate his

normal development. The curriculum for girls should naturally be different from that of boys;

boys and girls have dif ferent needs and attitudes.

(14) Principle of Time:

Relative signif icance and importance of each subject in the curriculum has to be judged and

determined in the light of the t ime available in the timetable, which is regarded as the mirror

of the school programme



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Types of Curriculum

Educators are curriculum developers, yet f inding a common definit ion for the term curriculum

can be a daunt ing challenge. According to English (2000), “curriculum is any document that

exists in a school that defines the w ork of teachers by identifying the content to be taught

and the methods to be used”.

Teachers and administrators often focus on the Big Three, the written, taught and tested

curriculum, in order to maximize the learned curriculum (Glatthorn, 1987). The brief

descriptions below w ill introduce educators to types of curriculum w hich impact student

achievement. This short list can assist collaborative teams in ident ifying areas of strengths

and w eaknesses w ithin a school as teachers and administrators continue to develop

curriculum and assess student understanding of key concepts and skills. A general

aw areness of each of the curriculum types listed below can assist teachers and

administrators in increasing student understanding and raising student achievement.

Listed in Alphabetical Order



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Curriculum Type Description Aligned “Teaching alone will not improve test scores.

Teaching has to be aligned (on task) and purposive (cumulative)” “One of the tasks of curriculum leadership is to use the right methods to bring the written, the taught, the supported, and the tested curriculums into closer alignment, so that the learned curriculum is maximized” (Glatthorn, 1987).

Concept-Based “Teachers in thinking classrooms understand how to use concepts to integrate student thinking at a deeper level of understanding – a level where knowledge can be transferred to other situations and times” (Erickson, 2007). Concepts are timeless, universal, abstract and broad. The conceptual transfer of knowledge includes the application of concepts or universal generalizations across time, cultures or situations (Erickson, 2007).

Differentiated Differentiated instruction occurs when a teacher proactively plans varied approaches to what students need to learn, how they will learn it, and/or how they can express what they have learned in order to increase the likelihood that each student will learn as much as he or she can as efficiently as possible (Tomlinson, 2003). “In differentiated classrooms, teachers provide specific ways for each individual to learn as deeply as possible and as quickly as possible, without assuming one student's road map for learning is identical to anyone else’s” (Tomlinson, 1999).



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Hidden The messages of hidden curriculum may support or contrad ict each other as well as the wr itten curr iculum. For example, while school social studies curriculum typ ically emphasizes and even celebrates democratic political systems and principles, such as one person-one vote, majority rule and minority rights, separation o f church and state, equality before the law, and due process, these principles are not a lways practiced in public school classrooms and co rridors.

Guaranteed and Viable “If teachers can lay out a sound – a viable – set of standards and can then guarantee (more or less) that these standards actually get taught, we can raise levels of achievement immensely” (Schmoker, 2006 ). In his book What Works in Schools, Robert Marzano (2003) shares research that affirms the fact that the number one factor that increases levels of learning is what gets taught. Marzano calls this a “gua ranteed and viable curriculum.”

Learned The learned curriculum is what the students actually learn from the taught curriculum. Common formative assessments assist educators in monitoring the wr itten and taught curriculum while assessing student understanding. “The gap between what is taught and what is learned—both intended and unintended—is large” (C uban, 1992).

Null The null curriculum is that which is not taught in schools. Eisner (1994) suggests that what curr iculum designers and/or teachers choose to leave out of the curriculum—the null curriculum—sends a covert message about what is to be valued .



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Purposeful “All learners benefit from and should receive instruction that reflects clarity about purposes and priorities of content” (Tomlinson & McTighe, 2006). “Many educational programs do not have clearly defined purposes” (Tyler, 1949). “Schooling at its best reflects a purposeful arrangement of parts and details, organized with deliberate intention, for achieving the kinds of learning we seek”.

Received The received curriculum is not always the intended or taught curriculum. Each student br ings their own background and prior knowledge to the classroom. Student understanding is impacted by each student’s perception of the aligned, hidden, null, spiral, and tested curricula. Understanding of the received curriculum is critically important as it guides the curriculum and instruction decisions made by teachers and administrators. Just because content was taught does not necessarily mean it was caught. In a Professional Learning Community educators meet on a regular basis to assess the received curriculum and to provide information on student understanding to teachers and administrators at the next grade level.

Rigorous “Academic rigor is an essential characteristic of effective curriculum, instruction and assessment. Students learn when they are challenged to use the full range of their talents and intellectual ab ilities to address authentic and complex academic tasks in professional and real- life events. All students should have the opportunity to participate in qualitatively different academic environments that build upon their interests, strengths and personal goals” (NCDPI).



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Tested The tested curriculum provides valuable feedback about each student’s understanding of essentia l content, concepts and skills. If the tested curriculum is not aligned with the written curr iculum then teachers, students and parents will have a difficult t ime assessing the student understand ing. “The extent to which any test is useful in reteaching any given curriculum is the extent to which that test does indeed measure the curriculum in the first p lace”

Spiral Bruner (1960) wrote, “A curriculum as it develops should revisit this basic ideas repeatedly, building upon them until the student has grasped the full formal apparatus that goes with them” . Analyzing curriculum maps allows teachers and administrators to reflect upon the spiral curriculum . Another strategy for analyzing the spiral curriculum is called vertical alignment. Sergiovanni (1990) wrote, “Schools have mult iple and often conflicting purposes that make exact a lignment o f structure and purpose difficult, if not impossible” .

Taught The taught curriculum is what teachers actually teach in the classroom. Tradit ionally, the written curriculum (state and local documents) has not matched the taught curriculum among teachers within a school. Jacobs (1997) wrote, “If there are gaps among teachers within buildings, there are virtual Grand Canyons among buildings in a distr ict .



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Elements/Components of the Curriculum The Nature of the elements and the manner in w hich they are organized may comprise

which we call a curriculum design.

Component 1: Curriculum Aims, Goals and Objectives

Aims: Elementary, Secondary, and Tertiary

Goals: School Vision and Mission

Objectives: Educational Objectives

Timeless & Timely As curriculum developers we are required to make ongoing decisions about curriculum. Heidi Hayes Jacobs said, “There’s a need for both t imeless curriculum content and timely content. What seems to be falling by the wayside is timely content. We have to make decisions about what we shed and what we keep—and some of what we’re holding on to is pred icated on outdated ideas”

21st Century According to the North Carolina Department of Public Instruction:

“All students will graduate from a rigorous, relevant academic program that equips them with the knowledge, skil ls, and disposit ions necessary to succeed in both post-secondary education and 21st Century careers and to be partic ipating, engaged c itizens.”



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Domains:

1. Cognitive – Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis, Evaluation

2. Affective – Receiving, Responding, Valuing, Organization, Characterization

3.Psychomotor – Perception, Set, Guided Response, Mechanism, Complex Overt

Response, Adaptation, Origination

Component 2: Curriculum Content or Subject Matter

Information to be learned in school, another term for know ledge ( a compendium of facts,

concepts, generalization, principles, theories.

1. Subject-centered view of curriculum: The Fund of human knowledge represents the

repository of accumulated discoveries and inventions of man dow n the centuries, due to

man’s exploration of his world.

2. Learner-centered view of curriculum: Relates know ledge to the individual’s personal and

social w orld and how he or she def ines reality.

Gerome Bruner: “Know ledge is a model w e construct to give meaning and structure to

regularities in experience”

Criteria used in selection of subject matter for th e curriculum :

1. Self-Suff iciency – “less teaching effort and educational resources, less learner’s effort but

more results and effective learning outcomes – most economical manner (Scheff ler, 1970).

2. Signif icance – contribute to basic ideas to achieve overall a im of curriculum, develop

learning skills.

3. Validity – meaningful to the learner based on maturity, prior experience, educational and

social value.

4. Utility – usefulness of the content either for the present or the future.

5. Learnability – w ithin the range of the experience of the learners.



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6. Feasibility – can be learned w ithin the t ile allow ed, resources available, expertise of the

teacher, nature of learner.

Principles to follow in organizing the learning con tents (Palm a, 1992):

1. BALANCE: Content curriculum should be fairly distributed in depth and breath of the

particular learning are or discipline. This w ill ensure that the level or area w ill not be

overcrowded or less crowded.

2. ARTICULATION: Each level of subject matter should be s moothly connected to the next,

glaring gaps or w asteful overlaps in the subject matter w ill be avoided.

3. SEQUENCE: This is the logical arrangement of the subject matter. It refers to the

deepening and broadening of content as it is taken up in the higher levels.

The Horizontal connections are needed in subject areas that are similar so that learning w ill

be elated to one another. This is INTEGRATION.

Learning requires a continuing application of the new know ledge, skills, attitudes or values

so that these w ill be used in daily living. The constant repetit ion, review and reinforcement of

learning is what is referred to as CONTINUITY.

Component 3 – Curriculum Experience

Instructional strategies and methods w ill link to curriculum experiences, the core and heart

of the curriculum. The instructional strategies and methods w ill put into action the goals and

use of the content in order to produce an outcome.

Teaching strategies convert the w ritten curriculum to instruction. Among these are time-

tested methods, inquiry approaches, constructivist and other emerging strategies that

complement new theories in teaching and learning. Educational activit ies like f ield trips,

conducting experiments, interacting w ith computer programs and other experiential learning

w ill also form par of the repertoire of teaching.



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Whatever methods the teacher utilizes to implement the curriculum, there w ill be some guide

for the selection and use, Here are some of them:

1. Teaching methods are means to achieve the end.

2. There is no single best teaching method.

3. Teaching methods should stimulate the learner’s desire to develop the cognitive,

affective, psychomotor, social and spiritual domain of the individual.

4. In the choice of teaching methods, learning styles of the students should be considered.

5. Every method should lead to the development of the learning outcome in three domains.

6. Flexibility should be a considerat ion in the use of teaching methods.

Component 4 – Curriculum Evaluation

To be effective, all curricula must have an element of evaluation. Curriculum evaluation refer

to the formal determination of the quality, effectiveness or value of the program, process,

and product of the curriculum. Several methods of evaluation came up. The most w idely

used is Stuff lebeam’s CIPP Model. The process in CIPP model is continuous and very

important to curriculum managers.

CIPP Model – Context (environment of curriculum), Input (ingredients of curriculum),

Process (ways and means of implementing), Product accomplishment of goals)- process is

continuous.

Regardless of the methods and materia ls evaluation w ill utilize, a suggested plan of action

for the process of curriculum evaluat ion is introduced. These are the steps:

1. Focus on one particular component of the curriculum. Will it be subject area, the grade

level, the course, or the degree program? Specify objectives of evaluation.

2. Collect or gather the information. Information is made up of data needed regarding the

object of evaluation.

3. Organize the information. This step w ill require coding, organizing, storing and retrieving

data for interpretation.

4.Analyze information. An appropriate w ay of analyzing w ill be utilized.



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5. Report the information. The report of evaluation should be reported to specif ic audiences.

It can be done formally in conferences w ith stakeholders, or informally through round table

discussion and conversations.

6. Recycle the information for continuous feedback, modif ications and adjustments to be

made.

(Activity: “Is Philippine education really deteriorating?” This is a big question raised by many

sectors of our society. Ref lect and research (gather enough data/proof in your particular

school/district/division) on this issue. Choose a particular level and a specif ic subject area as

a point o reference).

Curriculum development Curriculum Development – An Introduction

The word Curriculum derives from the Latin currere meaning ‘to run’. This implies that one

of the functions of a curriculum is to provide a template or design which enables learning to

take place. Curricula usually define the learning that is expected to take place during a

course or programme of study in terms of know ledge, skills and attitudes, they should

specify the main teaching, learning and assessment methods and provide an indication of

the learning resources required to support the effective delivery of the course. A curriculum

is more than a syllabus. A syllabus describes the content of a programme and can be seen

as one part of a curriculum. Most curricula are not developed from scratch and all operate

w ithin organizational and societal constraints.

The curriculum that is w ritten and published, for example as course documentat ion, is the

off icial or formal curriculum. The aim of educational development is to ensure that the off icial

curriculum is delivered as the functional curriculum and there is not a mis match as

development turns into implementation. The off icial curriculum can also be distinguished

from the hidden, unoff icial or counter curriculum. Paul Willis’ w ork on the sociology of

schooling for example describes how the informal pupil group comprising w orking class

‘lads’ has its ow n sub-culture and counter curriculum which involves ‘mucking about’, ‘doing

nothing’ and ‘having a staff ’ (Willis, 1977, ). The hidden curriculum describes those aspects



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of the educational environment and student learning (such as values and expectations that

students acquire as a result of going through an educational process) which are not formally

or explicitly stated but which relate to the culture and ethos of an organizat ion. This

highlights that the process of learning is as important as its product and as teachers we

need to be aw are of both the formal and informal factors which impact on learning.

The Curricular Cycle

Peyton and Peyton (1998) note that the curricular cycle “involves development through

needs assessment, design and implementation phases. After this, outcomes are review ed

and evaluated against the or iginal needs assessment. Needs change w ith societal

expectations. The emphasis on dif ferent aspects varies w ith the participants’ and teachers’

perceived needs. The dynamic curriculum requires change and resource management”

Fig From Peyton and Peyton, 1998



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In developing a new programme, or modifying an existing one, there are a number of stages

which must be completed w ithin the curricular cycle as listed below .

Stages of Curriculum Development :

• Determine and agree the educational or professional context in which the programme is

to be developed and delivered .

• Define the needs of the learners in line with the requirements of professional bodies.

• Determine the aims and broad learning outcomes of the programme .

• Identify ideas and constraints

• Agree the broad structure and framework of the programme, the main areas of teaching

and learning, the sequence of the main topics and the key assessments.

• Allocate the detailed development of each topic or course area in terms of defining

objectives and learning outcomes to individuals or teams.

• Course teams to develop coherent programmes which have defined learning outcomes,

timetables, and content, appropriate teaching, learning and assessment methods and

which utilize relevant and available learning resources.

• Implement and Refine the programme.

• Develop an appropriate and deliverable evaluation strategy.

• Review and revise the course in line with feedback - has it met the identified needs of

the learners and other stakeholders?

Models of Curriculum Development

Ralph Tyler’s Model/Rationale

Ralph Tyler considered four considerations in curriculum development:

1. Purposes of the school

2. Educational experiences related to the purposes

3. Organization of the experiences

4. Evaluation of the experiences

Hilda Taba’s Linear Model

Hilda Taba believed that teachers w ho teach or implement the curriculum should participate



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in developing it. Her advocacy was commonly called the “grassroots approach” where

teachers could have a major input. She presented seven major steps:

1. Diagnosis of learners needs and expectations of the larger society

2. Formulation of learning objectives

3. Selection of learning content

4. Organization of learning content

5. Selection of learning experiences

6. Organization of learning activit ies

7. Determination of w hat to evaluate and the means of doing it.

Objectives Model

The Objectives Model takes as its major premise the idea that all learning should be def ined

in terms of w hat students should be able to do after studying the programme, in terms of

learning outcomes or learning objectives.

See the section below on the elements of the curriculum for further details of learning

outcomes and objectives in practice.

Curriculum design according to this model follows four steps:

• Reach agreement on broad aims and specif ic objectives for the course

• Construct the course to achieve these objectives

• Define the curriculum in practice by testing capacity to achieve objectives

• Communicate the curriculum to teachers

Care must be taken not to focus on the objectives to a tr ivial level or narrow specif ication as

this limits the teacher and valuable learning experiences may be lost. Using an objectives

model enables the construction of assessments w hich can be designed against the learning

objectives. The objectives model is in step w ith current developments in the UK at national

level w hich includes the use of subject benchmarking and programme specifications .

The Objectives Model is a systematic approach to course planning. It forms part of

Outcomes Based Education (OBE) w hich states that “educators should think about the



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desirable outcomes of their programmes and state them in clear and precise terms. They

should then w ork backwards or ‘design dow n’ in the jargon of OBE, to determine the

appropriate learning experiences w hich w ill lead to the stated outcomes. By using an

outcome approach, educators are forced to give primacy to w hat learners w ill do and to

organize their curricula accordingly” (Prideaux, 2000).

Process Model

The Process Model assumes that content and learning activities have an intrinsic value and

they are not just a means of achieving learning objectives and that translating behavioral

objectives is trivialising. Stenhouse (1975) argued that there were four fundamental

processes of education:

• Training (skills acquisition)

• Instruction (information acquisition)

• Initiation (socialization and familiarization w ith social norms and values)

• Induction (thinking and problem solving)

He claimed that behavioural objectives were only important in the f irst tw o processes and

that in in itiation and induction it would not be possible to use objectives. From this it w as

suggested that behavioural objectives w ere inappropriate for PBL, professional development

or clinical problem solving.

Approaches to course design under the process model include the “intellectual approach,

which examines the subject matter in terms of assumptions held in the discipline w ith regard

to a particular body of information, know ledge and skills. It asks ‘should the course be taught



Page 23

at the micro- or the macro-level of conceptual analysis?’” (Fry, Ketteridge and Marshall,

1999). Creative or experiential approaches involve learning “through experience and

generally through the dynamics of a group process. Outcomes are def ined in the existential

moment of learning” (Fry, Ketteridge and Marshall, 1999).

PBL approaches can f it under the outcomes or process approach although ‘pure’ PBL

allows the learner to def ine their ow n learning goals and places emphasis on the process of

understanding the problem. This is normally seen as objective based through inference

rather than objective def ined. PBL courses can eventually become systematic. The process

model depends a lot on the quality of the teacher and it can be more dif f icult to set

standardized, valid and reliable assessments because performance is not being measured

against stated objectives but against ideas and course content.

The Best approach to curriculum design is to combine the best of both approaches

according to student need, teacher experience and organizational structure and resources.

For example, it is useful to design the overall shape of the course, the main aims and

learning objectives, broad content areas and time allocation centrally but then devolve out

the detailed planning and design to those teachers w ho w ill be delivering the course so that

they have ow nership of their programme. The way in which the GMC or the Nursing Boards

def ine broad curricular themes and outcomes for medical or nursing schools are examples

of a devolved approach. It is important to retain some central control of the course how ever

so that the results of evaluation and feedback can be addressed and that changes in one

part of the course can be made sensibly in the light of the impact of change on other course

elements. At nat ional level, agencies w ith statutory responsibility for medical and health



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professionals’ education and training are responsible for ensuring that courses delivered by

separate organizations are designed and delivered in line w ith their recommendations,

objectives or standards. At organizational level, there should be inbuilt quality monitoring

mechanisms w hich aim to ensure that teaching and learning, wherever it occurs, is of a high

quality.

Course Design and Planning – the broad context

The Educational and Professional Context must be discussed and clearly def ined. This

can ref lect a number of factors: current or prevailing educational or social ideology, culture,

polit ics, economy, students, teachers and parents, commerce and industry, professional

bodies, exam boards, funding bodies and history or influence of the past. In any discipline,

there may be current trends in general education w hich need to be addressed and specif ic

trends or issues in medical or healthcare education w hich relate to the healthcare system or

context. Theories of adult learning , student centred learning , active learning and self-

directed learning may all inf luence the overall programme philosophy as may other

opportunities or student needs such as the need for f lexible learning programmes (eg.

distance or open learning ). Programmes may be modular in structure or credit based ,

depending on the organization w ithin w hich the curriculum is being designed.

Curriculum Approaches Curriculum Practitioners and Implementers may use one or more approaches in planning,

implementing and evaluat ing the curriculum. Even textbook writers or instructional material

producers have dif ferent curricular approaches.

The follow ing are the f ive curriculum approaches:

1. Behavioral Approach. This is based on a blueprint, w here goals and objectives are

specif ied, contents and activities are also arranged to match w ith the learning objectives.

The learning outcomes are evaluated in terms of goals and objectives set at the beginning.

This approach started w ith the idea of Frederick Taylor w hich is aimed to achieve efficiency.

In education, behavioral approach begins w ith educational plans that start w ith the setting of

goals or objectives. These are the important ingredients in curriculum implementation as



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evaluating the learning outcomes as a change of behavior. The change of behavior

indicates the measure of the accomplishment..

2. Managerial Approach . In this approach, the principal is the curriculum leader and at the

same time instructional leader who is supposed to be the general manager. The general

manager sets the policies and priorities, establishes the direction of change and innovation,

and planning and organizing curriculum and instruction. School administrators are less

concerned about the content than about organization and implementat ion. They are less

concerned about subject matter, methods and materials than improving the curriculum.

Curriculum managers look at curriculum changes and innovations as they administer the

resources and restructure the schools.

Some of the roles of the Curriculum Supervisors are the follow ing:

a. help develop the school’s education goals

b. plan curriculum with students, parents, teachers and other stakeholders

c. design programs of study by grade levels

d. plan or schedule classes or school calendar

e. prepare curriculum guides or teacher guides by grade level or subject area

f . help in the evaluation and selection of textbooks

g. observe teachers

h. assist teachers in the implementation of the curriculum

i. encourage curriculum innovation and change

j. develop standards for curriculum and instructional evaluation

3. Systems Approach. This was inf luenced by systems theory, where the parts of the total

school district or school are examined in terms of how they relate to each other. The

organizational chart of the school represents a systems approach. It shows the line-staff

relationships of personnel and how decisions are made.

The follow ing are of equal importance: a) administration b) counseling c) curriculum d)

instruction e) evaluation.

4. Hum anistic Approach. This approach is rooted in the progressive philosophy and child-



Page 26

centered movement. It considers the formal or planned curriculum and the informal or

hidden curriculum. It considers the w hole child and believes that in curriculum the total

development of the individual is the prime consideration. The learner s at the center of the

curriculum.

DESIGN CURRICULUM

A. Model of Design Curriculum

There are some models of design curriculum; they are design curriculum of science

discipline, curriculum that orientated at society, curriculum that orientated at students, and

design curriculum at technology.

1. Design Curriculum of Science Discipline

According to Longstreet (1993), this design curriculum is design curriculum that centered at

knowledge (the know ledge centered design) that designed based on structure of science

discipline, because of that th is design model also called curriculum model academic subject

that it is pressure directed to developing of student intellectual. Whereas according to

Mc Neil(1990), these design curriculums have function to develop cognitive processor ability

developing of student think through training to use idea and doing process of scientif ic

researches.

Found three parts of curriculum organization that orientated at science discipline, are yaitu

subject centered curriculum, correlated curriculum, and integrated curriculum. Subject

centered curriculum is design that centered at subject matter. At correlated curriculum,

subject matter not prepared as separate, but th is subject matter have proximity so to

become broad f ield are structural approach, functional approach, and region approach,

whereas at integrated curriculum no more show n the names of subject matter or broad f ield.

2. Design Curriculum that Orientated at Society

The assumption that found on form this curriculum that is aim from student to serve of

society. There are 3 the perspective of design curriculum that orientated at living society.

The Status Quo Perspective-



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Curriculum is planning to give know ledge and skill for students as preparation to become

adult that needed in living society.

The Reformist Perspective

Curriculum developed to more increase of society quality. Reformist curriculum desires the

function of society as total in education process. And must role to change arrangement of

society social.

The Futulist Perspective

This curriculum model more emphasizes the social importance than individual importance.

There are 3 criteria that must maintain in implementat ion process of this curriculum:

a. Real

b. Action

c. Values

3. Curriculum Design that Orientated at Students

The assumption that found on this design is the education managed to help student, the

education cant safe from student. To design the curriculum that orientated at student, Alice

Crow (Crow & Crow, 1995), recommended:

1. Curriculum must suitable w ith child developing

2. Content of curriculum must contain skill and educat ion.

3. Child placed as teach subject that try to self learn.

4. Tried w hat the students learn suitable w ith desire, talent and level of their developing.

4. Design of Technology Curriculum

Model of design technology curriculum focus on program affectivity, method, and materia ls

that regarded can get the aim. Perspective technology have used at some context, such as

at training program in industry and military f ield. System design of instructional accent to

achieve of aim that easy to measure, activity, and test, and also developing of teach

mater ials.

The Aim of Technology Curriculum



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According to Mc Neil (1990), the aim of technology curriculum accented to get behavior that

can measure. Because of that the general a im divided to become specif ic aim, is each of

subject matters.

Characteristics of Lessons Material Organization i n Technology Curriculum

Focus at aim formulation

The matter arranged step by step

The matter started from simple to complex

CURRICULUM DEV ELOPM ENT APPROACHES & MODELS

A. Curriculum Development Approach:

The Point of Departure or point of view in general about the Process of Curriculum

Development. According Sukmadinata (2000:1) curriculum development could mean the

preparation of an entirely new curriculum (curriculum construction), can also enhance the

existing curriculum (curriculum improvement). Curriculum holding key posit ions in education,

because it relates to determining the direction, content, and educational processes that

ultimately determine the kinds of qualif ications of graduates of an educational institut ion.

That’s w hy every institution of education, both formal and non formal educat ion, must have a

curriculum that is suitable and harmonious, appropriate to the position, function and role and

purpose of these institutions. Thus, specif ically in the resume, w e describe more about the

principles, approaches, and curriculum development model curriculum. Development can be

done via two approaches:

1. The Administrative Model;

This Model is a model of curriculum development in the oldest and most w idely used.

Curriculum development ideas come from the administrators of education and using

administrative procedures. Furthermore, administrators formed Task Team consisting of

education experts, curriculum experts, discipline experts from universities, and senior

teachers, which irresponsible for formulating the actual curriculum that is more operational

concepts and outlines the basic policies established by the steering team, such as



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formulating goals more operations, select the sequence of materia ls, selecting and

evaluating learning strategies, and formulates guidelines for the implementat ion of

curriculum for teachers. Since the advent of the above, then this model is also called model

Top - Dow n. In doing so, the required monitoring, supervision and guidance. After walking

for a while need to be evaluated.

2. The Grass Root Models;

This Development model is the opposite of the f irst model. Curriculum development

init iatives and efforts, not from above but from below , namely the teachers or the school.

The f irst model of curriculum development, management systems used in education /

curriculum is centralized, while grass roots model w ill evolve in a decentralized education

system. Development or improvement can be related to a curriculum component, one or

several f ields of study or the entire f ield of study and all components of the curriculum.

When conditions have allow ed, in terms of the ability of teachers, facilities and materia ls

costs literature, curriculum development model of grass root seems to be better. This w as

based on the consideration that the teacher is the planner, executor, and also falsif ies the

teaching in class. He is best know the needs of his class, therefore he w as the most

competent curriculum for the class.

B.Curriculum Development Models

According to Good (1972) and Travers (1973) Models are abstractions or representations of

real w orld events kompleksatau system, in the form of narrative, mathematical, graphical,

and lmabang-other symbols. In Curriculum Development Models Used There are a few :

1. Model Tyler

According to Tyler are four things that are considered fundamental to develop the

curriculum, namely:

A.Determining goals

B.Determining the learning experience

C.Organizing learning experiences

D. Evaluation



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2. Taba Mode

There are f ive steps to the best model of curriculum development in Taba, Namely:

a. Produce experimental units

b.Test the experimental unit to obtain data in order f ind the validity and feasibility of its use

c.Revise and consolidate the units based on experimental data obtained in the tria l.

d.Develop overall curriculum framew ork

e.Curriculum implementat ion and dissemination have been tested.

3. Model Oliva

According to Oliva, a model curriculum should be simple, comprehensive and systematic.

Curriculum development model is composed of 12 components, namely:

a. Component 1: Philosophical formulation, target, mission and vision of the institut ion.

b.Component 2: Analysis of the needs of the community w here the school is located.

c.Components 3 and 4: General purpose and special purpose curriculum

d.Component 5: Organizing the design and implement curriculum

e.Component 6and 7: Describe the curriculum in the form of the formulation of general

objectives and specif ic learning

f .Component 8 :Define the learning strategy.

g.Component 9 :Preliminary studies on possible strategies or assessment techniques to be

used.

h.Component 10 : Implement the learning strategy

i.Components 11 and 12: Evaluation of learning and curriculum evaluat ion

4. Beaucham p Model

There are f ive steps in the process of curriculum development:

a.Establish a curriculum change

b.Assign people to be involved in the process of curriculum development

c.Establish procedures that w ill be taken, namely to formulate common goals and specif ic

objectives.

d.Curriculum implementat ion

e.Implement a curriculum that involves evaluation



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5. Wheeler Model

Curriculum development consists of f ive stages, namely:

a.Determine the general purpose and special purpose

b.Determining a learning experience that may be in the can by the students

c.Determining the content or learning materia ls in accordance w ith the learning experience.

d.Organize or integrate experiential learning w ith the content or learning materials.

e.To evaluate each phase of development and achievement of objectives.

6.Nicholls Model

Five steps development curriculum:

a.Situat ion analysis

b.Determining specif ic goals

c.Determining the content of lessons and menorganisasi

d.Determining and organizing methods

e.Evaluation

7.Dynamic Model Skilbeck

Curriculum Development Steps:

A.Analyzing the situation

B.Formulating objectives

C.Compiling program

D.Interpretat ion and implementat ion

e.Monitoring, feedback, assessment, and reconstruction

Learning Resources Required to Deliver the Curricul um

• Teachers, Technical and Administrative staff - there should be suff icient staff to deliver and

support the delivery and assessment of the course. Staff should be appropriately skilled (in

pedagogical as w ell as technical areas) and qualif ied and should be aw are not only of their

ow n areas of the course but also of the course as a whole in order that they can

contextualise the learners' learning experiences.



Page 32

• Equipment including IT and AV equipment, models and simulators, laboratory and clin ical

equipment, white boards, flip charts.

• Finances - the course w ill require adequate funding to sustain its activities .

• Books, Journals and Multimedia Resources - lists of core textbooks for each part of the

course and other resources including reference texts should be identif ied by teachers and

purchased for use by learners. These should be supported by other resources such as

journals (printed and online) and mult imedia packages. The library w ill be the main support

structure for these resources but additional resources may also be delivered through an

Intranet or via departmental 'libraries'.

• Teaching rooms, off ice space, social and study space - there should be adequate provision

to accommodate learners at all stages of the course as well as social and study space for

students to spend time outside the classroom. There should also be suff icient space for

teachers to prepare teaching and meet w ith students.

• Requirements for supervision and delivery of clinical teaching/placements - in courses for

health professionals, these areas of the course usually comprise a large part of the

curriculum. Clin ical teaching is of ten delivered by health professionals w orking in practice

rather than linked to the educational institution and it is important to ensure that such staff

are supported and trained to deliver the course. Other requirements w hich need to be

considered include travel and accommodation arrangements for learners and teachers.

Im plementing the Curriculum

There is no real clear dividing line between curriculum development and implementat ion.

Once the curriculum has been developed and tested, and revised as necessary, the

curriculum is ready for implementat ion. It is important that those involved w ith implementing

the course (usually teachers and examiners) as well as students, interpret the curriculum

correctly, because the written w ord is not alw ays interpreted in the same way by different

people. Ideally, the processes of development and implementation should be seamless and

involve many of the same teachers and other staff as well as student representatives. This

w ill help to ensure ow nership of the new course and more effective implementation.

Pre Testing and Piloting



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Before starting to fully implement the curriculum it is preferable to try to Pre-Test or Pilot

some or the w hole of the curriculum that has been developed. The main objective of pre

testing and piloting is to try out the draft curriculum in a small number of training situations

and in the context in w hich the curriculum w ill be used.

This helps to highlight to the curriculum developers w hether the curriculum is

understandable and relevant to the users and whether it works in practice. Based on these

f indings, the curriculum can be modif ied as appropriate to meet the needs of the potential

students. Sometimes there is the opportunity to Field Test the developed course to a larger

number of users under real ‘f ield’ conditions.

Pre testing and pilot ing can help to create the most appropriate course as often the paper

curriculum does not w ork as expected in practice because of unforeseen situations or

responses by students or teachers. For example, if introducing new teaching or learning

methods or new topics into a curricula, it is easy to underestimate the amount of preparation

and sometimes addit ional training w hich might be required of teachers. Tools and

mechanisms must be developed to ensure a systematic evaluation of the testing or piloting

process.

Monitoring and Evaluating the Curriculum

Monitoring can be def ined as a continuous or periodic check and overseeing by those

responsible for the course at every level. It should focus attention on processes and

performance w ith the objective of draw ing attention to part icular features that may require

corrective action. It includes putting activit ies in place to ensure that input deliveries, w ork

plans, expected output and other actions are proceeding according to plans. Monitoring

should enable curriculum planners to detect serious setbacks or bottlenecks of the

implementation process that may cause the programme not to achieve expected learning

outcomes.



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